MINERALIZATION AT BULYANHULU 5

Ore mineralization at Bulyanhulu is confined to quartz veins and peripheral narrow alteration
haloes adjacent to shear zones. An outline of the mineralogy of syn-volcanic sulphides and the
characteristics of the gold-bearing stages of the paragenesis are presented in this Chapter. The
Chapter provides constraints on the timing and associations of gold, and provides a precursor to
an analysis of the mineralogical and chemical changes in alteration zones adjacent to ore-
bearing veins, presented in Chapter 6. A documentation of the vein chronology, based on
structural and textural characteristics, on which a study of the fluid evolution is based (Chapter
7), is also presented.

5.1 Rationale

Three forms of sulphide mineralization can be distinguished at Bulyanhulu: (1) barren pyrite
related to exhalative activity and deposited contemporaneously with the volcano-sedimentary
host rocks; (2) a quartz and quartz-carbonate vein-hosted assemblage dominated by pyrite and
chalcopyrite, with associated gold (Reef 1 and 2); and (3) minor porphyry-hosted vein-
associated sulphidation. As discussed in Chapter 4, the principal ore zone is Reef 1, with Reef 2
providing high-grade but less continuous mineralized veins. Additionally, a number of weakly
mineralized veins occur, that lie sub-parallel to the main veins. The potential for porphyry-
related mineralization, which so far is an economically unimportant type, has yet to be resolved.

As described in Chapter 3.3.5, there is a VMS-style sulphide occurrence at Bulyanhulu spatially

coincident with the Reef 1 mineralized structure. An early genetic model of the Bulyanhulu ore
body (Thiboutot, 1991) was that mineralization was a result of a VMS event, as is characteristic
of many Archaean terranes, e.g. the Bousquet District, Canada. However, the strong structural
control of gold mineralization, outlined in the previous Chapter, provides evidence that gold is
shear-related, and that gold-bearing veins occur independently of VMS-style mineralization. It
is possible that gold may have been redistributed from an original VMS deposit during
deformation and concentrated in the resulting vein system, i.e. a remobilised VMS deposit.
Evidence to support this hypothesis would include the presence of gold, perhaps only at atomic

Mineralization at Bulyanhulu 122

scale, within the early sulphides. However, if these are barren it is difficult to envisage any
mechanism that could efficiently remobilise all VMS-related gold into veins, and consequently
an inference can be made that gold, and its paragenetically associated sulphides, was introduced
epigenetically in a later event.

In resolving the paragenesis of mineralization, further factors can be determined, including: (1)
constraining the exact timing of gold, which in turn can be related to larger-scale structural
interpretations (Chapter 4) and ore-shoots interpreted from reserve modelling; (2) drawing
inferences of gold-associations based on sulphide chemistry analyses; (3) identifying a
chronology of gangue phases associated with auriferous mineralization; (4) providing a context
from which a fluid inclusion and isotopic study can be made (Chapter 7), in order to make some
interpretations of the source and fluid pathway of the mineralizing system that allowed the
transportation and deposition of sulphides and gold; and, (5) providing the basis for data
collection that can be used for geothermometry (Section 5.6).

5.1.1 Methodology

Examination of mineralized assemblages was carried out using standard optical microscopy in
association with SEM analysis.

5.2 Syn-depositional mineralization and chemistry

5.2.1 Pyrite Zone

Pyrite 0
As summarised in Chapter 3.3.5, a syn-volcanic pyritic event has produced mineralization
similar to that found within VMS deposits. The chief constituent of the Pyrite Zone is clastic
pyrite, termed pyrite 0, which typically occurs as fine-grained aggregates (Figure 5.1a,b). Pyrite
0 is particularly well-developed in lapilli facies in the Kakola Felsic Unit. The cores of clasts
have a characteristically spongy appearance, and occasionally show outer bands representing
further accumulation of pyrite. Blebs of pyrrhotite are occasionally observed within pyrite 0.
Within the argillaceous sediments of Reef 1, the pyrite forms laminae concordant with
sedimentary bedding (Figure 5.1c).

Mineralization at Bulyanhulu 123

 a b c

Figure 5.1 Typical occurrence of pyrite 0: a, as variably deformed clasts

within argillaceous sediments; b, more rarely as clasts in silicified sediments
and quartz; c, as laminae parallel to bedding in sediments, where a diagenetic
origin is inferred.

Assaying of the Pyrite Zone by KMCL has detected no significant gold anomaly. As shown in
Figure 5.2, of 40 whole rock analyses of the Pyrite Zone undertaken by KMCL, gold does not
exceed 150 ppb (parts per billion) and averages 29 ppb. The two samples with significantly
higher grades (samples 3 and 27; 169 and 880 ppb, respectively) are associated with quartz
veins that extend into the structural hangingwall (and are not included in the quoted average
gold content). All samples with elevated gold assays have a copper association that is typical of
the vein-associated ore mineralization. During this study, no gold was observed by reflected
light petrography in association with pyrite 0. This is confirmed by a series of EMPA transects
across the clasts (Figure 5.3), where the chemical analyses of this sulphide show a lack of Au
(<3 at.%) and remarkable homogeneity.

Mineralization at Bulyanhulu 124

 400

300
Au and Cu (ppm)
(ppb)

200

100

0
1

11

13

15

17

19

21

23

25

27

29

31

33

35

37

39

41
Figure 5.2 Graphical representation of assay data from the Pyrite Zone.
Red, gold; yellow, copper. Assay scale capped to 400 ppb.

28
1 Figure 5.3
Pyrite 0: Reflected light image
of pyrite 0, showing spongy
core and later overgrowth.
Locations of probe analyses are
shown (a); microprobe
determination of elemental
concentrations (b).
b 70 0.5

60
0.4
S Fe As Au
Trace elements (atomic %)

50
S and Fe (atomic %)

Ag Zn Co Cu
0.3
40

30
0.2

20
0.1
10

0 0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28

Mineralization at Bulyanhulu 125

Barite
Within pyrite 0 are rare, small (>20 µm), strontium-rich barite crystals (Figure 5.4); these are
common in VMS systems (e.g. VMS deposits in the Murchison District: Barrie & Hannnington,
1999). None are observed later in the paragenesis.

a b
Spongy texture
characteristic of
pyrite O

Chalcopyrite

Figure 5.4 Strontium-rich barite crystals associated with pyrite 0: a,

reflected light image showing preserved clast of pyrrhotite within pyrite 0,
wrapped by later chalcopyrite; b, EDS image of same area; strontian-barite
crystals exhibit bright white colour, as illustrated by arrows.

5.3 Description of ore bodies

Reef 1 is the principal orebody on the Bulyanhulu property, whilst additional mineralized veins
(Reef 2) complement the resource data (Table 1.1). As indicated in Chapter 4, mineralization is
structure-controlled with Reef 1 localised in the northwest-southeast striking Bulyanhulu Shear
Zone (Figure 3.1). The central, high-grade core of the orebody is called the Main Zone and
forms a steeply plunging oreshoot of quartz veins and lenses hosted within argillaceous
sediments. The southeastern part of the orebody, the East Zone, consists of sub-parallel quartz
veins and stringers that are localised in the hangingwall and footwall contacts of the host
sediments. Towards the northwest (the West Zone), as the sediments pinch, the vein occurs as a
single tabular body, more typical of Archaean vein systems. In this area, Reef 0 occurs as a
mineralized splay structure. It is hosted entirely within the rhyodacitic volcanic rocks. Reef 2,
a series of up to seven laterally discontinuous veins, is located approximately 500 m to the
northeast of Reef 1 in parallel structures. The veins display the same paragenesis as Reef 1, but
lack early syn-sedimentary pyrite.

Mineralization at Bulyanhulu 126

A number of sub-economic vein systems occur, and include the Shambani and Nose Zone veins,
along with a barren vein termed Blue Reef. The Shambani and Blue Veins occur in the footwall
units of Reef 1, whilst the Nose Zone may be a northwesterly extension of Reef 2. The
Shambani Reef occurs at the footwall contact of the large porphyry whose hangingwall is
inferred to contact the Reef 1 shear zone. Barren shear zones have also been identified, e.g. the
Sericitic Shear Zone, which lack quartz veining and associated sulphides.

Although some descriptions of the Bulyanhulu orebody were produced during feasibility studies
(Norcole, Dames & Moore, 1998) and by consultants principally for metallurgical purposes
(e.g. Downing, 1999), the following description summarises observations carried out by the
author during the present study. It is based on drill core samples of all veins systems and
underground sampling of Reef 1 (Appendix A), and represents the first full sulphide paragenetic
study, as well as providing a mineral-scale chemical study of sulphide and gold mineralization
at Bulyanhulu. The study of silicate, carbonate and sulphides associated with veining forms the
foundation for an isotope study (Chapter 7.2).

5.3.1 Reef 1 ore distribution

A series of contour plots (Figures 5.5 to 5.9; all courtesy Barrick) illustrate the gold x thickness
distribution, and gold, copper and silver grade distributions along strike (long-section) of the
Reef 1 structure. The contour plots show that within the main ore zone gold grade distribution
generally reflects an optimum sediment thickness (Figure 4.6), but is more widely dispersed
(Figures 5.5 to 5.7). This suggests that where the sediments pinch the gold grade is higher (e.g.
to the northwest), but where the sediments are thicker the gold grade apparently drops over the
total thickness of the sedimentary package. This implies that total gold content is approximately
constant along strike, but is diluted where the sediments are thick. The area of the Main Zone
equates to an area where the sediment thickness is 2-3 m; this provides support for a strong
rheological control on mineralization. A significant low-grade area occurs between the Main
and East Zone; this is the location of the porphyritic intrusive body and associated tongues. The
plunge of pronounced gold shoots is approximately 60º to the northwest, but less-well
developed and more localised vertical trends are also identified on the plots. While structural
observations confirm the presence of transport directions perpendicular to both these trends
(Chapter 4), the apparent plunge of the high grade shoots may also be an artefact of the variation
in sediment thickness and presence of the porphyritic intrusion in the Reef 1 shear zone.

Mineralization at Bulyanhulu 127

The copper grade distribution generally correlates with gold, but shows a more restricted pattern
(Figure 5.8). The notable 60ºNW plunge shown by the gold grade is not reflected by copper. If
a plunge exists, it may be sub-vertical or ~40˚NW. The three principal ore zones are picked out
by the silver grade distribution contour plot (Figure 5.9). Like the gold ore shoots, two trends
are observable: 60ºNW and sub-vertical. The pattern of silver distribution is similar to that of
gold.

Mineralization at Bulyanhulu 128

 NW SE (Grid squares = 200 m)

Mineralization at Bulyanhulu
Figure 5.5 Gold grade x thickness of the Reef 1-localised argillaceous sedimentary unit. Blues, low grade (<5 g/t); pinks, high grade (>5 g/t).

129
Mineralization at Bulyanhulu
Figure 5.6 Reef 1 gold grade distribution. Blues, low grade (<5 g/t); pinks, high grade (>5 g/t).

Figure 5.7 Gold distribution of Reef 1 hangingwall lense. Blues, low grade (<5 g/t); pinks, high grade (>5 g/t).

130
Mineralization at Bulyanhulu
Figure 5.8 Reef 1 copper grade distribution. Blues, low grade; pinks, high grade.

Figure 5.9 Reef 1 silver grade distribution. Blues, low grade (<5 g/t); pinks, high grade (>5 g/t).

131
5.4 Vein mineralogy

5.4.1 Vein chronology and microtextures

The broadest classification of the Bulyanhulu quartz-vein system is to divide the veins into
discrete sets based on texture, geometry, mineralogy and, where observed, crosscutting
relationships (as presented in Chapter 4). Like many gold-bearing quartz vein systems, the
formation of the Bulyanhulu orebody involved a complex sequence of events in which fluid
migration, quartz crystallisation, healing and deformation took place. Vein quartz consequently
shows a range of characteristic textures, from simple undulose extinction to intense dynamic re-
crystallisation, which were superimposed upon the primary quartz matrix.

Mineralized shear veins, striking sub-parallel to the host shear zone (Figure 5.10a-c), form the
dominant vein stage. The shear veins cut across the quartz-feldspar porphyries, and show the
same shear-related deformation as the porphyries. Orthogonal veinlets, inferred to have formed
at a late stage in the shear zone evolution, cut across the steeply dipping shear veins (Figure
5.11). Other veins, which carry little or no economic mineralization, postdate the primary
mineralized veins and are termed secondary veins. They are divided into quartz-carbonate veins
and calcite veins. Thin (<5 mm wide) veinlets have been intersected in diamond drill holes
within the rhyodacitic volcanics. These are often spatially associated with intrusive porphyritic
tongues (e.g. KMC-186, 345m).

Shear veins
The principal Reef 1 orebody is made up of a series of shear veins that vary in morphology
along strike (Chapter 4). Individual shear veins range in thickness from centimetres to a
number of metres in some large veins or lenses, but on average are less than 1 m. Continuity
along strike and down dip, where observed, is variable. The veins are composed of quartz, and
can be divided into two groups: (1) black quartz that forms the bulk of the veins and is
associated with sulphides (Figure 5.10a); and (2) preserved quartz “cores” (Figure 5.10b,c).
Ancillary veinlets that are interpreted to have formed synchronously (based on their geometry
and sulphide paragenesis) include vertical veins, flat veins, and parallel veins (Chapter 4). The
shear veins cut across pyrite 0.

Mineralization at Bulyanhulu 132

 a b

Figure 5.10
(a) Typical Bulyanhulu quartz shear
vein, hosting preserved, mottled
white coloured, quartz cores, shown
enlarged in (b) and (c).
Sample = Buly-482267(1)

Preserved quartz cores

Generally, these are milky white to pale grey and are preserved as rounded to oval-shaped cores
within the sheared veins (Figure 5.10b). No sulphides are associated with this stage of quartz.
Internally, they are intensely recrystallised although occasionally small patches show less
deformation, and they have a diffuse outer boundary. Thin sections show a subhedral to
anhedral polycrystalline quartz mosaic. Intense grain-size reduction has occurred, particularly
towards the outer margins, and crystals are characterised by grain boundary migration and sub-
grain rotation. This generation is considered to be the oldest example of quartz, and is termed
Stage I quartz.

Shear veins
The shear veins are the principal component of the Reef 1 vein system. These are
characteristically massive in appearance, intensely deformed, and black in colour (Figure
5.10a). The veins become whiter towards the northwest and in Reef 0, suggesting that the
characteristic darkness along much of the Reef 1 orebody may be as a result of interaction with
the argillaceous sediments. Reef 1 has distinctive, planar, regular walls, and lacks the laminated
character (with slivers of foliated wallrocks) typical of shear veins (Robert, 2000). The outer

Mineralization at Bulyanhulu 133

margins of the shear veins commonly comprise sulphides, probably deposited later than the
quartz as final fracture infill, carbonaceous material and, less often, elongate wall-rock
inclusions. In large veins or lenses, the sheared quartz is distinct in that it is more intensely
sheared, and contains a high concentration of sulphides.

The quartz exhibits a fine grained (<1 mm), compact crystalline texture, and is intensely
deformed and recrystallised. The quartz is variably sheared and in the most deformed samples
grain size reduction and recrystallisation can be clearly observed. Although in hand specimen
the quartz appears massive, in thin section it contains multiple shear bands, in which sub-
parallel bands of fine interlocking new grains surround and occasionally cut relics of coarser
elongated old grains. This quartz generation is also present in the Reef 2 system of veins and,
other than displaying a mottled grey-white colour, it displays similar micro-textures as the dark
grey quartz seen in Reef 1. This generation is considered to be the mainstage of quartz veining,
and is termed Stage IIa quartz.

Orthogonal veins
In hand specimen, orthogonal veins are milky white or pale grey in colour with a massive,
densely crystalline texture. They range in size from microscopic veinlets to larger veins 50 cm
in thickness and are restricted to overprinting the shear veins. On average, however, they are
typically no more than a centimetre wide and strike orthogonally to the shear veins. They are a
clear or milky white colour, and are associated with carbonate. This carbonate, however, is in
textural disequilibrium with the quartz. The orthogonal veins occur in three settings: within
shear veins in Reef 1 (Figure 5.11) and Reef 0; in quartz-feldspar porphyries (Figure 5.12 and
Figures 4.16, 4.17) within the Bulyanhulu shear zone; and in Reef 2 where they are particularly
well developed (Figure 5.13).

Thin section petrography reveals a coarse equigranular mosaic in which deformation

microtextures include undulose extinction, occasional sub-grain development and grain
boundary migration recrystallisation. Microtextures, such as displacement controlled quartz
growth, indicate that these veins are not purely extensional but, like the shear veins, have also
been subjected to a component of shear strain. Collectively, the micro-textures displayed by
both shear veins and orthogonal veins are characteristic of lode gold veins (see Chapter 4).
Occasionally, good growth zones are visible in this quartz generation, and are particularly well
developed in the Reef 2 samples (see Chapter 7; Figure 7.3a). As this generation is integral to
the ore formation, it has been termed Stage IIb quartz.

Mineralization at Bulyanhulu 134

 Shear vein

Orthogonal quartz-carbonate Orthogonal quartz (stage II)-

veins, hosting chalcopyrite II carbonate veins

Figure 5.11 Orthogonal veins in Reef 1, characterised by a milky white

colour and carbonate association.

Figure 5.12
Orthogonal veins within
quartz-feldspar
porphyries, hosting stage
II quartz veins. Width of
view = 1 m.
(442280 cross-cut).

Figure 5.13
Two examples of Reef 2
mineralization, dominated by
quartz with carbonate occurring
in crosscutting orthogonal
veining and associated with
chalcopyrite II.

Mineralization at Bulyanhulu 135

Secondary veins

Quartz-carbonate veins
Quartz-calcite veins post-date all ore-stage vein types (Figure 5.14). They display a poikilitic
texture where coarse to medium-grained euhedral prismatic quartz crystals (stage III quartz),
showing minor undulose extinction, are enclosed by coarse calcite crystals.

Secondary quartz-only veins occur within and outside the main shear zone, but they are far less
abundant than the primary mineralized quartz veins described above. The lack of significant
deformation textures indicates that these veins post-date the main episode of deformation.
Within these, dynamic re-crystallisation microtextures are less well developed. Lesser degrees
of intra-crystalline strain are indicated by undulose extinction and sub-grain development within
relict older grains. Grain boundaries are irregular and display new grain development due to
grain boundary migration and minor sub-grain rotation re-crystallisation.

Figure 5.14
Barren quartz-carbonate
secondary veins, cutting
across principal shear
fabric.

Calcite Veins
In comparison with the quartz-carbonate veins, calcite veins are far less abundant and their
distribution is less well constrained, although they are clearly late in the hydrothermal evolution
as they post-date all mineralized veins.

Mineralization at Bulyanhulu 136

5.4.2 Gangue minerals associated with veins

Carbonate, in the form of calcite, is the dominant gangue mineral associated with vein quartz.
However, it is restricted in occurrence to orthogonal quartz vein and associated alteration
haloes, as well as post-ore veins. White mica is ubiquitous in the phyllosilicate septa and
wallrock inclusions trapped between quartz veins. It is intergrown with chlorite, sometimes as
alternating layers, in association with calcite and quartz. Chlorite is also present in the quartz
veins themselves, occurring as elongate crystals generally less than 100 µm in length, and often
intergrown with carbonate. Chlorite also forms in pressure shadows to pyrite grains. Euhedral
to anhedral grains of rutile were also observed in association with quartz and pyrite, and as
inclusions in pyrite. Graphite occurs in the quartz veins, but whether it is a primary constituent
or remobilised from the host sediments is not clear. It varies in shape from small, round grains
to fibres disseminated in the matrix. Although it occurs adjacent to pyrite 0 and pyrite II, it was
not observed in association with gold.

5.5 Ore mineralogy

5.5.1 Paragenesis

The most common sulphide in Reef 1 is pyrite, forming approximately 90% of the sulphide
mineralization. Three generations of pyrite are distinguishable: pyrite 0 (syn-volcanic; “Py 0”);
pyrite I (inferred to be re-crystallised pyrite 0; “Py I”); and pyrite II (“Py II”). However, only
the latter is associated with ore-stage mineralization, and is hosted within or at the margins of
shear veins. Pyrrhotite (“Po”) occurs in the same textural position as pyrite II, and increases in
abundance with depth in the orebody. In contrast, the proportion of pyrite II decreases with
depth. Chalcopyrite is the main accessory sulphide, occurring as a trace phase, as small grains
in pyrite II (chalcopyrite I; “Cpy I”), and, as a significant component, paragenetically later than
pyrite II. This later stage (chalcopyrite II; “Cpy II”) is closely associated with high gold grades
and visible gold (“Au”), and primarily occurs within orthogonal veins. Accessory sulphides, in
order of decreasing abundance, include: sphalerite (“Sph”) and bismuthotellurides (“Bi-Te”)
hosted in chalcopyrite II, and arsenopyrite (“Asp”), galena (“Gal”), hessite and gersdorffite.
Examples of the mineral assemblages are presented in Figures 5.15 and 5.16, illustrating hand
specimen and microscopic-scale examples, respectively. A summary paragenesis of Reef 1
mineralization is presented graphically in Figure 5.17, and the evidence is discussed in the
following section. The sulphide paragenesis for Reefs 2 and 0 is the same as for Reef 1 except
that they lack pyrite 0 and pyrite I. Consequently, Reef 2 in particular contains greater
proportions of chalcopyrite.

Mineralization at Bulyanhulu 137

 a Py II Cpy Qtz Type IIa

Py O
Qtz Type I

Py I

b Qtz type II Py I Py 0

Cpy

Qtz type Ib Py II

c Py I Py 0

Cpy

d Po Cpy

Py O

Py O

Po

Cpy

Figure 5.15 Lapped core images illustrating the sulphide paragenesis.

a, pyrite 0 and recrystallised pyrite I, with quartz vein hosting pyrite II and chalcopyrite (Buly-
26); b, massive pyrite II and chalcopyrite associated with orthogonal cracks (Buly-27); c, pyrite
0 and I, with orthogonal chalcopyrite (Buly-28); d, pyrrhotite and chalcopyrite (Buly-208); e,
pyrite 0, pyrrhotite and chalcopyrite in quartz (Buly-210). Unless stated, all scale bars=1 cm.
Mineralization at Bulyanhulu 138
 a b
Cpy Cpy II
Py II

Py II
Py I
Py 0

Cpy I
Py II

c d
Cpy II

Au

Cpy I Cpy II
Py II
Py II

Cpy II
Cpy I Py II

e f Au
Py II

Py 0

Sph

Cpy II
Sph
Cpy II

g h
Cov

Au
Py II
Au
Cpy II
Cpy II

Au
Cpy II

Figure 5.16 Reflected light images illustrating the sulphide ore paragenesis.
a, pyrite 0 recrystallised and overgrown by pyrite I, surrounded by chalcopyrite II; b, euhedral
pyrite II surrounded by chalcopyrite II; c, small grains of chalcopyrite I within pyrite II,
surrounded by later chalcopyrite II; d, isolated gold grain within pyrite II; e, pyrite II infilled
with chalcopyrite II, itself hosting sphalerite; f, gold grain within chalcopyrite II and sphalerite
exsolution; g, gold and chalcopyrite II (altering to covellite; “cov”) within crack in pyrite II; h,
visible gold grain associated with chalcopyrite II, and hosted in quartz. Scale bar=0.1 mm.

Mineralization at Bulyanhulu 139

Vein stage/ Syn- Pre/Syn- Ore stage Ore stage Post-ore Super-
Mineralization volcanic ore 1 2 gene

Vein paragenesis
Shear vein quartz
Stage I
Stage IIa
Stage IIb
Quartz-carbonate
Calcite

Gangue
Rutile
Graphite
Titanite
Chlorite
Carbonate

Sulphides/Opaques
Pyrite 0
Pyrite I ?
Pyrite II
Arsenopyite
Pyrrhotite
Pentlandite
Monazite
Chalcopyrite I
Chalcopyrite II
Sphalerite
Bismuthinite
Bismuthotellurides
Galena
Gold (+ electrum)
Hessite, Argentite
Tellurides
Gersdorffite/Niccolite

Supergene
Covellite
Bornite
Digenite

Figure 5.17 Summary vein, silicate and sulphide paragenesis for the
Bulyanhulu Reef 1 orebody.

Mineralization at Bulyanhulu 140

5.5.2 Ore-related sulphides

Pyrite I
Recystallisation of pyrite 0 has resulted in the development of granular and massive pyrite,
termed pyrite I. Pyrite I occurs as small euhedral crystals rimming and in pressure shadows of
sheared pyrite 0 spheroids, and as coarse-grained, commonly idioblastic, megacrysts. It lacks
inclusions of other sulphides, and may form up to 20% of the sulphide content of Reef 1
mineralization. This pyrite exhibits highly variable degrees of deformation from completely
undeformed to strongly cataclastic, often occurring as rotated crystals that have been crushed
along crystal planes. Rotated aggregates are accompanied by asymmetric pressure shadows in
which the sulphide is partly or completely replaced by silicates, leaving either ragged pyrite
crystals or silicate-filled vugs, pseudomorphous after the pyrite cubes.

Given that this sulphide consistently occurs on the outer margins of pyrite 0, it is interpreted to
have formed either during metamorphism or during the onset of hydrothermal mineralization.
Additionally, it is chemically similar to pyrite 0 (Figures 5.18 and 5.19), providing evidence that
it is a product of remobilisation and re-preciptation of the earlier pyritic event. No gold was
detected in this sulphide stage.

Pyrite I

Pyrite 0

Figure 5.18 Re-crystallised masses of pyrite 0 forming pyrite I. Note the

absence of quartz veining associated with the sulphide.

Mineralization at Bulyanhulu 141

 a

Figure 5.19
1 Pyrite I: a, reflected light
image of pyrite 0, with spongy
20
21 texture, and re-crystallised
pyrite I. Locations of probe
25
analyses are shown (spot
analyses are at approximately
equal intervals along lines
between the labelled points); b,
microprobe data showing
elemental concentrations
across pyrite 0 and I.
b 70 0.5

60
0.4

Trace elements (atomic %)

S Fe As Au
50
S and Fe (atomic %)

Ag Zn Co Cu
0.3
40

30
0.2

20
0.1
10

0 0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25

Pyrite II
Pyrite II is associated with shear veins (stage IIa quartz) and occurs within the main zone of
deformation in Reef 1. It forms the dominant sulphide (accounting for approximately 70% of
the sulphide content), and does not extend into the Pyrite Zone except when associated with
quartz veining. The pyrite occurs as a mosaic of euhedral (cubic or pyritohedral) and subhedral
grains ranging from 5 µm to 1.3 cm, although most vary between 2 and 5 mm (Figures 5.15b,
5.16d and 5.20). Sometimes pyrite II crystals nucleate on pyrite 0/I, Fe-oxide or silicate grains.
Inclusions of irregularly shaped grains of chalcopyrite (chalcopyrite I) occur towards the outer
margins of the pyrite crystals. Pyrrhotite occurs within this sulphide event, typically as tiny (<
30 µm) inclusions. Rare, small (< 20 µm), monazite crystals also occur within pyrite II. No
macroscopic gold has been observed, but gold assay grades on intervals with this sulphide
generation indicate its presence, so gold is inferred to be present locked within the crystal

Mineralization at Bulyanhulu 142

lattice. Indeed, during microscopic and SEM examination, rare isolated grains of gold were
observed within pyrite (Figures 5.16d and 5.20a,c,d).

Although the pyrite grains are normally homogeneous, poorly developed growth zoning is
present at the outer margins of some crystals (Figure 5.20). This is interpreted to be an
overgrowth relationship. (As it can only be observed by WDS elemental mapping, rather than
by conventional reflected light microscopy, and is not present on the margin of all pyrite II
grains, it has not been documented as a separate phase/stage). The chemistry of this overgrowth
stage is enriched in a diverse suite of elements, and marks a change from the precipitation of
relatively pure, inclusion-free pyrite to an accretionary, more exotic, pyrite enriched in As, Co
and trace Bi. As demonstrated in Figures 5.20g,h, As and Co show almost identical patterns,
whilst pyrrhotite is picked out by its Ni enrichment (Figure 5.20i).

Inclusions of grains of chlorite and sericite are associated with this sulphide stage. Pyrite II
often shows signs of cataclastic deformation, with chalcopyrite II and gold often occurring in
cracks (Figures 5.16g).

Pyrrhotite
Pyrrhotite is present as the dominant sulphide at depth (> 1 km) in the Reef 1 orebody (Figure
5.15d). It occurs in the same textural position as pyrite II, and consequently the sulphides have
an inverse relationship. In the transition from pyrite II to pyrrhotite becoming the principal
sulphide (between approximately 750 to 1,000 m depth), pyrrhotite occurs at the outer margin
of pyrite II and may partially replace pyrite II, as well as pyrite 0 and pyrite I. The distribution
of pyrrhotite may suggest a strong vertical temperature control on its formation over pyrite with
depth.

Mineralization at Bulyanhulu 143

 a
Quartz

Chalcopyrite II
Bismutho-
telluride

Pyrite II

Bismutho-
telluride

Pyrrhotite

Pyrite II
Pyrite O

Gold

Hessite

Pyrite II Quartz
overgrowth

Pyrite II
overgrowth
Chalcopyrite II
Pyrite II
100 µm

Figure 5.20
b
a, (Above) Sketch of area of WDS maps
showing mineral phases identified by
reflected light microscopy, including a
hydrothermal pyrite II crystal with a core of
spongy pyrite 0, pyrrhotite, visible gold, and
chalcopyrite II. The sulphides are hosted in
stage IIa quartz.

b, WDS map showing copper distribution

highlighting the presence of chalcopyrite.

Mineralization at Bulyanhulu 144

 c d

e f

Figure 5.20 (continued) c, gold distribution; d, normalised gold distribution

confirming the occurrence of discrete gold grains within pyrite II; e, silver; and,
f, selenium spatially associated with gold.

Mineralization at Bulyanhulu 145

 g h

i j

Figure 5.20 (continued) g, elevated arsenic is confined to a poorly defined

core coincident with the outer margin of Pyrite 0 where it is spatially associated
with gold, and to well-defined growth zones on the outer margin of pyrite II; h,
cobalt confined to distinct rims out the overgrowth of pyrite II, mirroring the
arsenic-rich bands; i, nickel enriched at the edge of the pyrite II overgrowth, and
slightly enriched in the bismutho-telluride grain; and j, bismuth restricted to
bismutho-telluride grain attached to chalcopyrite II, and as µm-scale grains
enriched in isolated locations on the outer boundary of pyrite II, within
chalcopyrite and in association with the gold grain.

Mineralization at Bulyanhulu 146

Arsenopyrite
Trace arsenopyrite occurs as idiomorphic crystals (<0.3 mm) and as granular aggregates of
crystals within the basaltic wallrock assemblage. These are randomly disseminated in the
groundmass with pyrite (inferred to be pyrite II), and mutually interpenetrating crystal
boundaries indicate their contemporaneous development. Euhedral arsenopyrite crystals, in
association with pyrite II, occasionally occur within quartz veins; however, they do not form a
significant component of the ore mineralogy. Microprobe analysis shows there is a discrete
arsenopyrite-gold association (e.g. Figure 5.21).

a b
Py II
Po
Py II

28

29 27
25
26
24
Asp

Point S Fe As Au Ag Cu Sulphide

#24 34.75 33.08 31.95 n.d. n.d. 0.01 Asp

#25 35.88 33.20 30.63 n.d. n.d. 0.02 Asp
#26 36.02 33.11 30.56 0.02 0.02 0.05 Asp
#27 67.17 31.75 0.12 0.01 n.d. 0.31 Py
#28 67.31 32.07 0.06 n.d. n.d. 0.08 Py
#29 67.48 31.89 0.10 n.d. n.d. 0.02 Py

Figure 5.21 High contrast backscattered SEM image of small arsenopyrite

grain in association with pyrite II in stage IIa quartz (a). Points on enlarged
image (b) show location of microprobe analyses listed in associated table
(atomic %,), of arsenopyrite and adjacent pyrite. n.d.=not detected. Sample:
Buly-162.

The arsenopyrite is interpreted as being cogenetic with pyrite II, and it is therefore potentially
useful as a geothermometer. As first indicated by Clark (1960), the composition of arsenopyrite
varies in response to the initial temperature at which it formed, thus allowing it to be used as a
geothermometer (Kretschmar & Scott, 1976; Sharp et al., 1985). This technique is discussed
further and applied to the data from Bulyanhulu in Section 5.6.

Mineralization at Bulyanhulu 147

Chalcopyrite I
Small isolated grains of chalcopyrite I occur within pyrite II, where they are generally located
towards the outer margins (Figures 5.16b,c,d). No gold or silver associated with this copper
sulphide stage was detected during SEM analyses.

Chalcopyrite II
Chalcopyrite forms the principal sulphide in the last stage of the sulphide paragenesis (Figures
5.11, 5.13, 5.16 and 5.20). It is generally distributed in irregular cracks orthogonal to the vein
margins, and is associated with stage IIb quartz. Grains vary in size from 0.1 to 30 mm. In
more isolated locations the chalcopyrite has an idiomorphic to hypidiomorphic shape. Visible
gold, sphalerite and microscopic bismuthotelluride grains are associated with this paragenetic
stage (Figures 5.16f,g,h and 5.20b,j). Supergene minerals such as bornite and covellite occur as
a result of alteration and these may be, in turn, altered to chalcocite/digenite.

Sphalerite
Sphalerite is present within chalcopyrite, where it occurs as abundant small grains probably due
to exsolution (Figures 5.16e,f). The mineral also occurs as discrete veins in the same textural
position of chalcopyrite II.

Bismuth and bismuthotellurides

Native bismuth, predominantly overgrown and replaced by bismuthinite, is locally interstitial to
chalcopyrite. Small (>20 µm) grains of bismuthotellurides occur within chalcopyrite II, along
with occasional pure bismuthinite (Figures 5.22a,b).

Galena
Galena was only observed in the area of the Reef 1 – Reef 0 splay. It forms late in the sulphide
paragenesis, forming atoll-like textures surrounding and partly replacing chalcopyrite II and
pyrite II (Figures 5.23a,b).

Mineralization at Bulyanhulu 148

 a

Figure 5.22
a, High contrast backscattered SEM
image of bismuthotelluride grain
within chalcopyrite II; b, spectrum
confirming nature of grain.

a b

Galena
Chalco-
Pyrite II pyrite II
Pyrite II

Quartz
Galena

Figure 5.23 Galena surrounding pyrite II (a); galena post-dating pyrite II

and chalcopyrite II (b).

Mineralization at Bulyanhulu 149

Accessory sulphides
Gersdorffite, an iron-rich Ni-As-S phase, was observed in close association with pyrite II.
Grains of this phase are seldom larger than 50 µm, are light cream in colour in reflected light
and slightly anisotropic. Hessite, the silver telluride, has been found as isolated inclusions
within pyrite II overgrowths, and as a trace constituent with chalcopyrite II, together with more
complex gold-bearing tellurium phases. Argentite also occurs as a trace phase associated with
galena.

Supergene minerals
Supergene alteration is a minor feature of Bulyanhulu and is observed down to 80 m below the
surface. It takes the form of oxidation of sulphide minerals in the orebody. Most commonly,
chalcopyrite is transformed into bornite, chalcocite or covellite, together with small quantities of
malachite and cuprite and occasionally pseudomorphs of yellowish-brown to reddish-brown
limonite after pyrite and pyrrhotite. These supergene processes have had no noticeable affect on
the distribution of gold in the veins, and have not resulted in the formation of zones of
secondary enrichment.

5.5.3 Gold

Gold was deposited in variable concentrations in two stages during the mineralization event and
forms associations with pyrite II, pyrrhotite and chalcopyrite. It occurs in the native form as
fine anhedral grains usually less than 0.25mm in diameter. Gold typically occurs in three
textural positions: (1) as microscopic grains in the cores of pyrite II (Figures 5.16d and 5.20d);
(2) as visible gold late in the sulphide paragenesis occurring as small rounded grains as
inclusions within and at the boundaries of chalcopyrite II, and in association with the copper
sulphide within cracks of pyrite II (Figure 5.16f,g) where it occurs together with included grains
of bismuthotellurides; and (3) as individual gold grains (with a silver association) enclosed
within primary crystals of quartz II, indicative of co-precipitation (Figure 5.16h).

Individual grains of gold are variably enriched in silver, where concentrations in the range 30-
40 at.% are recorded (Figures 5.24, 5.25 and 5.26). Based on such compositions, these should
be strictly classified as electrum. However, no consistent trend in gold fineness according to the
textural association of gold could be identified during the study.

Mineralization at Bulyanhulu 150

 a b 11 9

12 6
14

1 2
7
4

Point S Fe As Au Ag Cu Mineral

#1 9.14 4.70 0.08 36.39 35.20 12.50 Gold

#2 23.34 5.16 0.02 25.34 27.03 17.49 Gold
#4 67.66 31.65 0.08 n.d. n.d. 0.07 Py
#6 67.64 31.88 0.06 n.d. n.d. 0.08 Py
#7 51.96 23.79 0.05 n.d. 0.03 23.89 Cpy
#9 51.23 24.22 0.06 n.d. 0.03 24.14 Cpy
#11 67.50 31.77 0.05 0.01 0.01 0.15 Py
#12 67.63 31.67 0.02 0.01 n.d. 0.32 Py
#14 51.01 24.36 0.04 0.01 0.01 24.11 Cpy

Figure 5.24 High contrast backscattered SEM image of gold grain (a).
Points on enlarged image (b) relate to EMPA analyses, listed in associated table (atomic %), of
gold grain and adjacent sulphides. Sample Buly-69[02].

a b

6
7 5
2
4 6

9 3 7
10
2
1 8

Point S Fe As Au Ag Cu Mineral

#1 0.26 0.03 0.05 66.11 31.32 n.d. Gold

#2 0.27 0.19 0.08 65.41 32.06 n.d. Gold
#3 0.42 0.02 0.18 61.55 35.48 0.11 Gold
#4 n.d. 0.04 0.71 63.29 34.22 0.13 Gold
#5 0.36 n.d. 0.02 63.93 33.45 0.28 Gold
#6 0.27 0.11 0.12 65.22 32.12 0.05 Gold
#7 0.34 0.03 0.06 64.43 32.86 0.10 Gold
#9 51.62 24.01 0.04 n.d. n.d. 23.96 Cpy
#10 51.60 23.974 0.05 n.d. n.d. 23.99 Cpy

Figure 5.25 Reflect light (a) and (rotated) high contrast backscattered SEM
image of gold grain (b) hosted in stage IIb quartz.
Points on SEM image (b) relate to microprobe analyses, listed in associated table (atomic %), of
gold grain and adjacent chalcopyrite. n.d.=not detected. Sample Buly-278a.
Mineralization at Bulyanhulu 151
 a b

29

31
36 25

34
37

40

Point S Fe As Au Ag Cu Mineral

#25 67.63 31.90 0.06 n.d. 0.02 n.d. Py

#29 52.11 23.80 0.04 0.01 0.00 23.710 Cpy
#31 50.69 0.94 n.d. 0.03 0.26 0.4 Gal
#34 0.84 3.40 0.01 47.92 45.88 n.d. Gold
#36 51.55 24.11 0.04 n.d. 0.02 24.00 Cpy
#37 67.49 32.04 0.04 0.07 n.d. 0.02 Py
#40 52.05 23.86 n.d. n.d. 0.01 23.73 Cpy

Figure 5.26 Reflected light (a) and enlarged high contrast backscattered
SEM (b) images of a gold grain, along with chalcopyrite, located within a crack
in pyrite II. All are hosted in quartz, sample 109a. Points on SEM image (b)
relate to microprobe analyses, listed in associated table (atomic %), of gold
grain and adjacent sulphides. n.d.=not detected.

The chemical compositions of a selection of gold grains show that the majority of gold within
pyrite II is in the lattice and is only detected by electron microprobe, where it occurs frequently
although only in trace amounts up to 0.03 at.%.

5.5.4 Correlations of ore elements

The chalcopyrite-gold (± bismuth and telluride) association accounts for the highest gold grades
in the deposit, and this relationship is consistent in Reef 1, 0 and 2. Scatter plots (Figures
5.27a-c) illustrate the associations of Au, Ag and Cu in Reef 1, Reef 0 and Reef 2, respectively.
They clearly demonstrate that the ore suite metals display similar inter-element patterns in each
of the mineralized Reefs and, together with the fact that they have the same sulphide and gold

Mineralization at Bulyanhulu 152

paragenesis, provides evidence that the Reefs are likely to have formed as a result of the same
mineralizing process. However, a simple positive correlation between gold and copper is not
confirmed statistically, probably because there are two main stages of gold deposition, the first
of which is not associated with significant copper-bearing minerals.

5.6 Sulphide geothermometry

As first indicated by Clark (1960), the composition of arsenopyrite varies in response to the
temperature and the sulphur fugacity under which it formed. Calibration of these compositional
variations in the Fe-As-S system (Kretschmar & Scott, 1976; Sharp et al., 1985), has enabled
arsenopyrite to be used as a geothermometer. Although the effect of elevated pressures will
tend to shift sulphidation buffer curves to slightly higher sulphur fugacities, the effect on
temperature estimates is negligible (Sharp et al., 1985), thus pressure uncertainties can be
ignored. The arsenopyrite geothermometer has therefore been usefully employed to estimate
the temperature of mineralization in arsenic-bearing mineral deposits in a wide range of
geological environments.

Whilst there is no direct gold association with arsenopyrite at Bulyanhulu, the sulphide occurs
in textural equilibrium with auriferous pyrite II. Assuming equilibrium with pyrite II
(illustrated in Figure 5.21), the mean atomic As content of arsenopyrite (31.0 at.%) can be
plotted on the arsenopyrite geothermometer diagram of Kretschmar & Scott (1976). This gives
a temperature of crystallisation of approximately 370°C (Figure 5.28), which can be inferred to
be representative of the temperature of precipitation of gold associated with pyrite II.

Mineralization at Bulyanhulu 153

 150 a

100

Au vs Ag
Au vs Cu
Ag vs Cu

50 n=13,907

0
0 50 100 150

150 b

100

Au vs Ag
Au vs Cu
Ag vs Cu

50 n=1,035

0
0 50 100 150

150 c

100

Au vs Ag
Au vs Cu
Ag vs Cu

50 n=3,442

Figure 5.27
Scatter plots showing Reef 1
(a), Reef 0 (b) and Reef 2
0
(c) assay data (g/t), KMCL
0 50 100 150
data; n=number assays.

Mineralization at Bulyanhulu 154

 Figure 5.28 The arsenopyrite geothermometer under conditions buffered by
pyrite (Kretschmar & Scott, 1976; Sharp et al., 1985). The effects of increase
in pressure from 1bar (solid lines) to 5kbar (dashed lines) are also shown.
As = arsenic; asp = arsenopyrite; lo = loellingite; po = pyrrhotite; py = pyrite; L
= liquid. Numbers 30 to 37 refer to at. % arsenic in arsenopyrite. • is the mean
arsenic content (31.0 at.%) of Bulyanhulu arsenopyrites plotted in the
arsenopyrite-pyrite field. The full range of data is from 30.7 to 32.0 at.% As
(Figure 5.21b).

Mineralization at Bulyanhulu 155

5.7 Summary of mineralization at Bulyanhulu

The earliest sulphide stage present at Bulyanhulu is a VMS-style spongy and nodular pyrite
(pyrite 0) that is barren of gold. Re-crystallisation of pyrite 0 during metamorphism and/or later
deformation has resulted in the precipitation of pyrite I.

The earliest veins to have formed in the Reef 1 area are characterised by stage I quartz. This
was then sheared and recrystallised during precipitation of stage IIa quartz. Pyrite II, with
microscopic gold, was precipitated along the margins of these quartz veins. During continued
hydrothermal activity, stage IIb quartz was introduced and precipitated, generally in an
orthogonal arrangement to main-stage quartz, along with chalcopyrite. Sphalerite, galena,
bismuthotellurides and gersdorffite are accessory, together with minor opaques. In upper levels
of the Reef 1 orebody, pyrite II and pyrrhotite dominate the sulphide assemblage but with depth
pyrrhotite and chalcopyrite are the principal phases. A similar quartz and sulphide paragenesis
has been observed in Reef 2, and the limited occurrence of pyrite II may be explained by the
lack of a pre-existing pyritic event (pyrite 0).

Pyrite II formed largely as a result of direct precipitation from hydrothermal fluid, but
sulphidation of pre-existing Fe-rich phases may also have occurred. The lack of a complex
internal structure to the hydrothermal pyrite indicates stable conditions during formation.
However, the occurrence of the highly zoned outer margins of pyrite II in veins clearly
documents changing physiochemical conditions during crystallisation. Of note is the general
absence of arsenopyrite from the arsenic-rich rims of pyrite II. This seems to suggest that
during formation of the arsenic rich bands in pyrite, arsenopyrite was precluded from forming.
Where arsenopyrite and pyrite II are present in textural equilibrium, they provide an
independent geothermometer suggestive of temperatures of precipitation in the region of 370ºC.
The more exotic elemental suite occurs at the final stages of pyrite II, prior to the occurrence of
the gold-rich, chalcopyrite sulphide generation, itself enriched in bismuthotellurides.

Gold occurs in a native form and as electrum in at least two paragenetic stages and in three
textural positions: in trace amounts within pyrite II, and later as grains in chalcopyrite and as
free grains in stage IIb quartz. Gold clearly co-precipitates with the sulphide phases pointing to
introduction of gold, silver and copper, together with trace arsenic, bismuth, tellurium and
nickel from the hydrothermal fluid. Most significantly, gold grains are observed in some cases
to be totally enclosed within quartz. Since these quartz grains appear to contain primary fluid
inclusions, direct evidence for the conditions of gold precipitation may be obtained from a fluid
inclusion study. Whilst there is a strong Au-Ag association within individual gold grains,
Mineralization at Bulyanhulu 156
mineralization at Bulyanhulu is atypical of Archaean lode gold deposits because of the
abundance of Cu-bearing sulphides. The enrichment of Bi and Te in ore assemblages is
common in porphyry and VMS systems, but their presence does not preclude formation as a
lode deposit. A more detailed understanding of the nature of the mineralizing processes at
Bulyanhulu can be gained by a microthermometric and isotopic study of the host veins and
sulphides (Chapter 7).

Mineralization at Bulyanhulu 157