PANDIT DEENDAYAL PETROLEUM

UNIVERSITY

CNG Engine and Pipeline

Assignment

SUBMITTED BY:
NAME: GAIRIK CHAKRABORTY
ROLL NO.: 17BPE032 (SEC: A)
COLLEGE: PANDIT DEENDAYAL PETROLEUM
UNIVERSITY
Q. Describe with diagram - working principle of CNG Engine.

Ans. CNG Engine uses a fuel tank which is attached to the car, usually placed in
the trunk. It keeps the gas compressed to around 3600 psi. This tank is usually very
large, as it has to keep the gas used compressed. The gas stored in an integrated
storage system in which composite cylinders are contained within a fiber glass shell
and impact-absorbing foam to protect them. CNG is filled in the tanks and is pulled
through a series of highly pressurized lines until it reaches the regulator. The
pressure of the gas is decreased until it matches the amount needed by the fuel
injection system. When gas reaches an acceptable pressure, a valve opens to allow
the gas to move into the fuel injection system and from there into the engine.

Fig. Working principle of CNG Engine

Operation:
CNG is stored under high pressure in cylinder tanks. The gas first passes through a
regulator valve where the pressure is reduced, and then injected into the intake
manifold through a spray bar in a quantity electronically controlled to match the
engine load.
In the manifold, gas is mixed with air to form mixture. The air-fuel mixture is drawn
into engine cylinder, ignited by spark plug and burnt. The exhaust gas driven out of
engine cylinder through a 3-way catalytic converter in the muffler where it is
purified before being discharged into air. The mixture ignited in the engine provides
energy for the car to move forward.

Q. Prepare a note on - Pipe joint coating procedure, Holiday Testing,

Backfilling of pipeline trench and Hydrostatic Testing.

Ans. Field Joint Coating for Pipelines:

• The area where two pipe spools or pipe joints are welded together is known
as field joint.
• This is of prime significance because pipe is welded here and its surface is
uncoated. Subsequently, the field joint is exposed to the environment and
susceptible to corrosion.
• Field joints are often considered the weakest point within a pipeline
primarily due to compatibility issues between factory applied or mainline
coating and the selected material used to protect the field joint.

Some of the important properties that field joint coating systems must provide are:
• Long term corrosion protection and thermal insulation performance.
• Excellent adhesion to the substrate.
• Exceptional compatibility with the factory or mainline coating system.
• The ability to be applied under extreme environmental conditions.
• Ease of application—to ensure rapid application and reduced field joint cycle
times.
Coating a Field Joint:
• In recent years there have been significant changes to the way field joint
coating systems have been engineered.
• Traditionally the field joint coating was often overlooked and protection for
this crucial zone was based upon compatibility with the mainline coating,
regardless of whether or not the field joint coating requirements were
different. Several factors differ between the mainline factory coating and the
field joint coating.

Fig. Field Joint Coating

• For example, the mainline coating is often applied in ideal factory
conditions using specialized equipment, and time spent on surface
preparation and application is not critical.
• Since field joint coatings are applied in the field, they are subject to extreme
environmental factors with differences in ambient conditions.
• Historically, the application of field joint coating systems has been rushed to
adhere to critical cycle and production times, which has subsequently led to
quality issues and premature failures.
• Simply put, the field joint coating system must be integrated into the pipeline
construction conditions.
• To develop a successful field joint coating system, the engineer needs to
consider additional factors such as specifying the correct product to ensure
 compatibility of the material to the mainline coating, and the overall coating
system’s performance with respect to pipeline operating conditions.
• The corrosion rate depends on various parameters, including but not limited
to pipeline operating temperatures, soil or water conductivity, external
accelerators, acids and alkalis, microbiologically influenced corrosion,
chemical attack, stray current corrosion, and pipeline stresses that lead to
stress corrosion cracking.
• Based on the nature of the parent coating or factory-applied coating, the
field joint coating system may consist of single or multiple layers of selected
protective coating materials.
• These are applied for numerous purposes that include corrosion control,
mechanical protection, thermal insulation, and adhesion.

While there are a variety of materials used as a pipeline field joint coating, the
following are the most predominantly used and specified systems for pipeline
protection:

• Cold applied polymeric tape

• Polyethylene (PE)
• Polypropylene (PP) heat shrinks sleeves used in conjunction with or without
a primer
• Fusion-bonded epoxy (FBE)
• Liquid epoxy
• PP coatings applied on FBE
• PE coatings applied on FBE
• Polychloroprene coatings
• Polyurethane (PUR)
• Three-layer polyethylene coatings (3LPE)
• Three-layer polypropylene coatings (3LPP)
• Three-layer polyolefin coatings (3LPO)
Standards for Joint Field Coating:
• All coatings have distinct advantages and disadvantages, with many property
and characteristic variables that should be taken into consideration.
• There have been many developments in recent years regarding standards for
field joint coating systems.
• In 2016, the second edition of ISO 218091 was published. This standard
specifies the requirements for a field joint coating on seamless or welded
steel pipes for buried and submerged sections of pipeline transportation
systems used in the petroleum, petrochemical, and natural gas industries as
defined in ISO 13623.
• ISO 21809 has clear definitions, scopes, requirements, and
recommendations for engineers to follow.
• For example, it elaborates on surface preparation techniques; material
selection; material testing; material field testing; acceptance and rejection
criteria requirements for joint preparation and repairs; and testing methods
such as thickness checks, holiday detection, peel strength, adhesion testing,
hot water immersion testing, degree of cure, cathodic disbandment, impact
resistance, indentation resistance, oxidation induction times, and flexibility.
• It is essential that the pipeline is fully protected from corrosion so petroleum
products are contained, and this standard is a major leap in achieving this.

Steps in Joint Field Coating:

o Surface Preparation: The first step to performing a successful field joint
coating is surface preparation – usually performed through grit blasting. This
is an important process because a poorly-prepared surface would result in
the failure of the specified coating following application.

o Induction Heating: The next step is pipeline induction heat, generally using
a coil. Induction heating is the process of heating an electrically conducting
object (usually a metal) by electromagnetic induction, through heat
generated in the object (by eddy currents) rather than by an external heat
source. Different coatings are applied at different temperatures ranging
from 60°C up to 240°C.
 o Coating: The final stage is the application of the specified coating. Typical
coating types are Fusion Bonded Epoxy (FBE), Multi Component Liquid
(MCL), 3-Layer, Injection Moulded Polyurethane (IMPU) and Polyurethane
Foam Injection (PUF).

Holiday Testing:
• A holiday test is an inspection method used to detect discontinuities in
painted/coated surfaces using specialized tools and equipment. These tools,
called holiday detectors, are portable devices that are swept across the
coated surface.
• Holidays tests work on the concept of electrical conductivity. Metal
substrates are excellent conductors of electricity, and therefore allow
current to flow through them.
• On the other hand, many coatings are poor conductors of electricity and
resist the flow of electricity. Using this principle, holiday tests use
instruments to locate flaws in anticorrosive paints and coatings.
• During holiday testing, a ground wire and probing electrode are attached to
the same power source. The ground wire is clamped to the specimen being
tested while the probe is swept across the surface of the metal substrate. If
the probe comes into contact with a coating discontinuity, the exposed metal
completes the electrical circuit between the electrode and the grounding
wire, resulting in a flow of electricity. This electricity shows up on an
indicator, alerting the equipment operator of the defect.
• While holiday tests are effective, they do possess limitations. Because these
tests depend on the coating being non-conductive, they are not effective on
conductive metallic coatings, such as zinc-rich primers.
• A holiday test is also known as a continuity test.

Backfilling of a Pipe Trench:

• Backfilling is the process of putting the soil back into a trench or foundation
once excavation, and the related work has been completed.
• The backfill process requires skills and heavy equipment as well as
knowledge of the specifications, contract requirements, and soil conditions.
 Every area of soil has unique characteristics, requiring different construction
techniques to ensure optimum performance.
• Also, backfill crews must take care to prevent impact loading of any pipeline,
shaft, structure, cabling, or other buried elements when placing and
compacting backfill. There are a few common methods of backfilling and
compacting backfill.
• Filling and compacting trenches for utility lines involves special
consideration. After soil is backfilled into a trench, the loose material
is compacted using some mechanical means, such as a compactor, an
excavator, or a "jumping jack"-type compactor.

Fig. Backfilling of a Pipe Trench

• As a general guide, soils should be compacted to at least the minimum

percentages of maximum dry density as determined by ASTM D698 Method
A (Standard Proctor).
• Soil is typically backfilled in layers or lifts. The soil lift will depend upon the
nature of the backfill and the compaction equipment that is used. Water may
be added during the compaction process, to assist with compaction.
The general process follows three steps that are repeated until the backfill are is at
grade level:
• Backfill in layers of 4 to 6 inches, using non-organic fill material that is free of
debris
• Compact with a 1,000-pound compactor, or as appropriate
• Water thoroughly

Fig. Trench Compaction

Factors affecting Compaction:

• Nature and type of soil, i.e. sand or clay, grading, plasticity
• Water content at the time of compaction
• Site conditions, e.g. weather, type of site, layer thickness
• Compactive effort: Type of plant (weight, vibration, number of passes)

Methods of Compaction:
• Smooth-wheeled roller
• Grid roller
• Sheepsfoot roller
 • Pneumatic-tyred roller
• Vibrating plate
• Power rammer

Hydrostatic Testing:
• Hydrostatic test shall be performed on the entire length of the pipeline.
Hydrostatic test shall be performed in accordance with approved Hydrostatic
Test Diagrams for each test section.
• The maximum length of each test section shall not exceed 25 kms.
• Hydrostatic test shall commence only after mechanical and civil works
completion, i.e., all welds have been accepted and the pipeline has been laid
and backfilled according to the specifications.
• Hydrostatic test shall include those sections which have been previously
tested, viz. Rail/ road crossing, major water crossings including test on banks
and in place after installation, and scraper traps at the terminals.

Test Duration and Specifications:

• The duration of hydrostatic test shall be a minimum of 24 hours after
stabilization and the test pressure shall be as indicated in the approved
hydrostatic test diagram.

• Unless specified otherwise in the CONTRACT, the maximum base pressure

shall not be higher than the one resulting in a hoop stress corresponding to
90% of SMYS of pipe material based on the minimum wall thickness in the
test section and minimum test pressure shall not be lower than the one
resulting in a hoop stress corresponding to 85% of SMYS of pipe material
based on the minimum wall thickness in the test section.

Equipments Required:
• Pigs for filling, cleaning and gauging including
• Positive displacement pumps
• Portable tanks
• Bourdon Pressure Gauges
• Dead weight testers
 • Pressure recording chart kits
• Temperature recorders
• Thermocouples for measuring pipe wall temperature
• Laboratory thermometers to be used in thermowells
• Injection facilities
• Communication equipment
• Temporary scraper tapes

Procedure:
• Equipment and parts which need not or must not be subjected to the test
pressures, must be disconnected or separated from the pipeline to be tested.

• If the difference of minimum and maximum atmosphere temperature should

cause thermal instability on the pipe section directly exposed to atmospheric
condition, the scraper traps and above ground pipeline shall be properly
protected.

Fig. Hydrostatic Testing

• The test medium shall be soft non-aggressive water furnished by the

contractor. The water to be used shall be filtered, shall not be contaminated,
 and free from sand or silt. Contractor shall submit laboratory test reports of
water used for testing.
• The possible use of sea water shall be subject to its degree of cleanliness, the
possibility of obtaining a pre-determined salinity neutralization and the use
of corrosion inhibitors, this at the sole discretion of company.
• Contractor shall provide company approved corrosion inhibitors, oxygen
scavengers and bactericides to be added to the test water. The contractor
shall furnish and install all temporary piping which may be necessary to
connect from source of water to its pumps and manifolds/ tankage.
• Before filling operation, the contractor shall clean the pipeline by air driven
pigs provided with spring loaded bushes and chisels to remove all mill scale
rust/sand from the inside of pipe section.
• After cleaning the pipeline by using air and acceptance by company, gauging
shall be carried out by using gauging pig.
• After receipt of gauging pig at the other end, the gauge plate shall be
inspected.
• After acceptance of gauging operation, air header shall be cut and removed.
Pretested test headers loaded with three numbers of four cup batching pig
shall be welded to test section. Un-inhibited water equal to 10% of the
volume of test section shall be introduced in front of the first pig. The first
pig shall be launched by introducing about 1.5 km un-inhibited water. Then
the second pig shall be launched by pumping the inhibited water till the
second pig is received at the other end. The thermal stabilisation and
pressurisation can now be started.
• After the section has been pressurized and the air volume test has given
acceptable results the test pressure shall be held for a minimum of 24 hours
after stabilization. After temperature and pressure has stabilized, the
injection pump shall be disconnected and all connections at the test heads
shall be checked for leakage. The pressure recorders shall then be started
with the charts in a real time orientation for continuous recording
throughout the test.
• After the positive results of testing and collection of all data the test shall
be terminated upon written approval given by the company.
 References

• https://www.constructionequipment.com/vibratory-plate-compactors

• https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/holiday-testing-voltage-phmsa-
compliance-adam-kelly/

• Serimax. 2018: Manual for Field Joint Coating Procedure.

https://www.serimaxfjc.com/field-joint-coating/

• Compressed Gas Association. 1999. Handbook for Compressed Gas. 4 th

Edition. Springer, US. https://www.springer.com/gp/book/9780412782305

• Rodriguez, J. 2019. Backfilling Trenches and other Excavations.

https://www.thebalancesmb.com/how-to-backfill-foundations-and-
trenches-844871

• https://www.materialsperformance.com/articles/coating-
linings/2018/08/field-joint-coatings