NGSS HIGH SCHOOL

LESSON PLAN
How does a solar cell convert light into electricity?
This lesson is designed to help teachers educate
students about the chemistry of solar energy.

Juice from Juice

SOLAR ENERGY NSF Center for Innovation in Solar Fuels

California Institute of Technology

CONVERSION
Making a Dye-Sensitized Solar Cell
 Solar Energy Conversion: Making a Dye-Sensitized TiO2 Solar Cell

Table of Contents
Before You Start .............................................................................................................................. 2
Background Information ................................................................................................................. 5
What is a solar cell? .................................................................................................................... 5
How do we make a solar cell? .................................................................................................... 5
Absorption ............................................................................................................................... 6
Conversion............................................................................................................................... 7
What is an appropriate circuit? .................................................................................................. 8
The origin of the dye-sensitized solar cell ................................................................................ 10
The basic procedure.................................................................................................................. 10
What can you expect from the blackberry DSSCs?................................................................... 11
Inquiry Opportunity: Renewable Energy ...................................................................................... 11
Answers to Recap Questions ........................................................................................................ 12
Next Generation Science Standards ............................................................................................. 13
Procedure ...................................................................................................................................... 16
Materials and supplies .............................................................................................................. 16
Preparing the TiO2 electrode .................................................................................................... 16
Dyeing the TiO2 electrode and assembling the DSSC ............................................................... 19
Testing the DSSC ....................................................................................................................... 22
Cleaning up ............................................................................................................................... 24
Optional analysis ........................................................................................................................... 25
References .................................................................................................................................... 26

Image (cover): Each pane of these beautiful windows, found in the Swiss Federal
Institute of Technology Convention Center, is composed of a dye-sensitized solar
cell. The many colors allow for some artistic innovations when installing the cells.

Image Credit: EPFL / Alain Herzog

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High School Lesson Plan
 Solar Energy Conversion: Making a Dye-Sensitized TiO2 Solar Cell

Before You Start

1. What do I know about solar cells?

Evaluate your prior knowledge of solar cells and how they function. This short assessment is
meant to help you identify what you already know about solar cells and what you might want to
review.
Pre-lab Assessment
1. What are the types of energy into which efficient solar cells can convert light?
a. Chemical
b. Electrical
c. Heat
d. Both A and B
e. Both B and C
f. All of the above
2. Which of the following compounds allow plants to absorb light effectively?
a. Titanium dioxide
b. Chlorophyll
c. Plant pigments
d. Both B and C
e. Both A and C
f. None of the above
3. How does the size of a semiconductor’s band gap affect the wavelength of light it absorbs?
a. The larger the band gap, the shorter the wavelength of light needed to excite an
electron in the semiconductor.
b. The larger the band gap, the longer the wavelength of light needed to excite an electron
in the semiconductor.
c. The wavelength of light that a semiconductor absorbs is unaffected by the size of the
band gap.
4. Assuming that you are presented with the same amount of each, what form of a semiconductor
has the largest surface area?
a. Bulk silicon (i.e. a thin piece of silicon)
b. Silicon nanoparticles
c. They should have the same surface area.
5. Mark each statement below as true or false.
a. In a DSSC, an electrolyte must be present in the cell to return the semiconductor to its
ground (unexcited) state.
b. A DSSC is covered in metal to complete the circuit formed by the light absorber and
semiconductor.
c. While they are simple to fabricate, DSSCs are not used outside of the classroom due to
their low conversion efficiencies.
d. Attaching many DSSCs in parallel will result in the highest observable voltage when the
cells are exposed to light.
e. DSSCs are less expensive to make than silicon solar cells.

Once you have completed the assessment, please correct

your answers using the key on the next page!

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 Solar Energy Conversion: Making a Dye-Sensitized TiO2 Solar Cell

Assessment key:
1. D, solar cells convert light into chemical fuel or electricity. Inefficient cells can produce heat.

2. D, chlorophyll is the classic compound that leaves contain to absorb and convert light into
energy. Other natural absorbers supplement chlorophyll and are called accessory pigments.
These pigments include the dyes that make fruit multicolored, such as the anthocyanin dye
found in blackberries.

3. A, shorter wavelengths mean higher energy photons. Remember that E = hν = hc/λ. Thus,
when a semiconductor has a large band gap, it needs higher energy photons to excite an
electron from the valence band to the conduction band.

Not sure what a band gap is? Check out the background information below: What is a bandgap?

4. B, nanoparticles are, as the name implies, very, very small particles. When given the same
amount of bulk semiconductor and nanoparticle semiconductor, we would expect the
nanoparticles to have a much larger surface area as the total surface area of the particles is the
sum of the surface areas of each individual particle, whereas the total surface area of the bulk
semiconductor is simply the surface of the wafer.

5a. False, the electrolyte must be present to regenerate the absorber (or dye) used in the DSSC,
not the semiconductor.

5b. False, the DSSC is encased in conductive glass to ensure that the cell can still absorb sunlight.
Metal would simply reflect the light and heat up the cell.

5c. False, while not as prevalent as their silicon counterparts, DSSCs are available commercially
and used around the world.

5d. False, attaching the cells in series will yield the highest voltage. Attaching the cells in parallel
yields the highest current.

5e. True, silicon solar cells are very expensive as the silicon used must be extremely pure. DSSCs
typically do not have these cost limitations, although the organic components (i.e. the dye) will
decompose over time, requiring more maintenance than a silicon solar cell.

How did you do? Identify the material you need to review
from the questions you missed and continue on to #2.

2. How does a solar cell work?

Now that you’ve identified what you need to review, take some time to read through the
background information on the next few pages. This information along with the information
provided in the accompanying prelab handouts should serve to fill in any knowledge gaps you
may have identified in #1. Once you are done, continue on to #3.

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High School Lesson Plan
 Solar Energy Conversion: Making a Dye-Sensitized TiO2 Solar Cell

3. Identify 3-4 learning objectives that connect the background information to

the standards.
After reading through the four next generation science standards on page 13, what would you
like your students to learn from this lab? To help prompt your thoughts, we’ve provided
example objectives using language directly from the NGSS table.

Example Objectives:
Students should be able to:
 communicate how a dye-sensitized solar cell (DSSC) converts light waves into electricity
 design and build a dye-sensitized solar cell from basic components and blackberry juice dye
 refine their solar cell design through the comparison of various fruit dyes
 evaluate a dye-sensitized solar cell’s performance in comparison to a silicon solar cell

What objectives would you like your students to be able to complete?

4. Read through the lab procedure.

After you read through the procedure, check out our demonstration videos for a quick refresher
on how to make a DSSC. Any questions or concerns? Contact a Caltech scientist! We’d love to
visit your classroom and help students fabricate their DSSCs.

5. Assess what you have learned.

At the end of this lab, your students (and you too!) should be able to fulfill all the objectives
listed above in #3 along with any alternative or additional objectives you have identified from
the NGSS standards. We have suggested some questions to assess what your students have
learned. Feel free to use these questions or write your own.

Before you instruct your students, you may want to watch the DSSC videos to review the lab procedure:
http://thesolararmy.org/jfromj/resources/ and click on “DSSC Playlist” under “Instructional Videos.”

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High School Lesson Plan
 Solar Energy Conversion: Making a Dye-Sensitized TiO2 Solar Cell

Background Information
What is a solar cell?
A solar cell is a light-sensitive material that collects solar energy and converts it into fuel:
electrical or chemical. Nature’s solar cell is a leaf on a plant as it undergoes photosynthesis. In
photosynthesis, the chlorophyll dye in a leaf absorbs light from the sun, solar energy, and converts it
into sugar, source of chemical energy. Similarly, a manmade solar cell (Figure 1) takes solar energy
but converts it into electrical energy rather than chemical energy.

Figure 1. Solar cells can be found scattered around Caltech's campus.

Recap Question #1:

Where does the power come from when we are using a solar cell?

How do we make a solar cell?

What components make up a solar cell? Let’s look
more closely at the example of the leaf (Figure 2). We can
break down photosynthesis into two main processes: (1)
absorption of solar energy by the leaf dye, chlorophyll, and
any accessory pigments and (2) conversion of the absorbed
solar energy into chemical fuel. We want our solar cell to
mimic photosynthesis, where solar energy does all the work,
but our cell will produce electrical energy. Just like the leaf,
we need to ensure that our cell can complete both (1)
Figure 2. A leaf is nature’s solar cell, absorption and (2) conversion.
converting light into chemical fuel.

Recap Question #2:

A leaf and a solar cell both convert solar energy into another type of energy. What type does a
solar cell make, and what type does a leaf make?

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High School Lesson Plan
 Solar Energy Conversion: Making a Dye-Sensitized TiO2 Solar Cell

Absorption
First, we will need dye, such as chlorophyll, to absorb
light from the sun (Figure 3). What makes something a good
dye, or light absorber? Simply put, we want a molecule that
can strongly absorb light. Logic tells us that if light must be
absorbed by our solar cell in order to be converted into
electricity, absorbing more light is better for the efficiency of
our solar cell (i.e. more light in = more energy out).
In this lab, we will used the dye found in blackberry
juice as our light absorber. Blackberries contain a strongly
light-absorbing dye molecule called anthocyanin, which occurs
in many types of fruits and berries (Figure 4). It is the
compound that gives blackberries, raspberries, blueberries, Figure 3. The different dyes in this fabric
and pomegranates their color. absorb various wavelengths of light, giving
the cloth its beautiful hue.

Figure 4. When crushed, blackberries release anthocyanin, the dye that gives the blackberry its dark purple color.
Once the dye absorbs light, the electrons in it get excited to higher energy levels, but having
the cell absorb light is only part of the battle! What about converting what we absorb into electricity?
Recap Question #3:
The TiO2 semiconductor paste used in this lab is white and used in many commercial products:
white paint, toothpaste, powdered doughnuts, etc. Why do we need to use the dark-colored
dyes from blackberries to make our solar cell work?

What is a band gap?

A band gap is analogous to the energy gap
between the highest occupied molecular orbital
(HOMO) and the lowest unoccupied molecular orbital
(LUMO) of a chain of conjugated carbon atoms, such
as butadiene. In fact, as you add more and more
carbons to the chain, the orbital arrangement of an
organic molecule begins to approach the arrangement
we can observe in a semiconductor (Figure 5). There
are so many orbitals with similar energies on either
side of the band gap that they are treated as a single
band rather than individual orbitals. The HOMO Figure 5. The HOMO-LUMO gap is analogous to
becomes the valence band, and the LUMO becomes the gap between the conduction band and
the conduction band. valence band of a semiconductor.

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High School Lesson Plan
 Solar Energy Conversion: Making a Dye-Sensitized TiO2 Solar Cell

Conversion
Conversion of the absorbed light proves to be the trickier half of the DSSC equation. We need
a material that can take the light absorbed by the anthocyanin dye and convert it into a current, or
moving electrons. To do this conversion, our material must be at the correct energy level to accept
the high energy, excited electrons from the dye.
This is where semiconductors make their appearance
(Figure 6)! Semiconductors are characterized by the size of their
band gap (What is a band gap? sidebar) ideally between 0.5-3.0
eV for solar cell applications.
To put these values in perspective, remember that the
longest wavelength of light that could excite an electron across
the band gap of silicon, a 1.12 eV jump from the top of the valence
band to the bottom of the conduction band, is about 1110 nm, a
Figure 6. Small pieces of semi-
long, low energy wave in the infrared region of the
conductor wafers like those shown
electromagnetic radiation spectrum (Figure 7). However, what above can be found in almost of our
matters for our DSSC is the location of the conduction band edge, modern electronics as well as solar
the very bottom edge of the conduction band. cells.

Figure 7. Ultraviolet light, the type of light needed to excite an electron across the TiO2 bandgap is shorter and higher energy
than visible or infrared radiation.
For this lab, we will use the semiconductor titanium dioxide, TiO2 with a band gap of 3.2 eV as
its conduction band edge is at the appropriate level to move electrons through our circuit. After an
electron is excited in the dye molecule by light, it can then fall down into the conduction band of the
TiO2. If the conduction band was too high in energy, the electrons would have nowhere to go and
would get stuck in the dye.

Figure 8. While a paste made of TiO2 nanoparticles (left) may not look special, a scanning electron microscope can show us
the tiny spheres that compose the paste.
To increase the number of dye molecules that can absorb light in our DSSC, we will use we
will use nanoparticle TiO2 instead of bulk TiO2. These nanoparticles behave the same way the bulk
TiO2 does, but create a much larger surface area to which dye molecules can attach (Figure 8).

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High School Lesson Plan
 Solar Energy Conversion: Making a Dye-Sensitized TiO2 Solar Cell

Recap Question #4:

Why is it important to use nanometer-sized particles for the film? Use the phrase “surface area”
in your explanation.

What is an appropriate circuit?

When we connect the dye and semiconductor in an appropriate circuit, we can collect these
moving electrons, or electricity, to do work for us! Some components of our circuit we already know.
We have discussed our absorber, blackberry dye, and converter, titanium dioxide, but in order to
have a current flow, we need a complete circuit. In the same way that we can observe the reduction
and oxidation of different metals through the creation of an electrochemical cell, we can create a
similar, but more compact, circuit with our absorber and converter (see our chemistry demonstration
to learn more about electrochemistry and solar cells).
Let’s review what we know so far. After a dye molecule, the blackberry juice, absorbs a
photon, electrons are excited in the dye. It takes less than 1 picosecond (10−12 s) to move an excited
electron from the vacancy (or hole) that is left behind when excited, into a lower energy space on the
TiO2. When an electron is removed from the excited dye, a dye cation is left behind (Figure 9). To
generate current, the electrons in TiO2 must move through an external circuit and recombine with an
oxidized electrolyte species (Figure 10). In our cell, the electrolyte solution is an iodide/triiodide
solution (I-/I3-).

a) Light excites the dye, moving an b) An electron from the dye is transferred to TiO2
electron to a higher energy.

Figure 9. (a) Light excites an electron in the blackberry dye from the highest occupied molecular orbital (HOMO) to the
lowest unoccupied molecular orbital (LUMO). The dye in the excited state is denoted as DYE*. This excitation leaves behind
a positively-charged hole (h+). (b) Once excited, the electron can fall back down to the original lower energy state to yield
the original dye molecule (DYE) or it can be transferred into the adjacent low energy state on the TiO2. This transfer leaves
the dye with a positive charge, making it a dye cation (DYE+).

In order to combine these components all together, we need a way connect the dye to this
electrolyte solution that allows the collected electrons to travel through an external wire. In this way,
we can place a LOAD, such as a small motor or other device, on our circuit. When we generate
electricity for use by people around the world, we force the electricity to light lamps, turn on
machines, and power technology by directing it through wires made of various metals. So why don’t
we put all our components on metal plates and connect them?

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 Solar Energy Conversion: Making a Dye-Sensitized TiO2 Solar Cell

c) Electrons collected from the TiO2 travel d) Iodide is oxidized to release an

through a wire to reach the counter electrode, electron back to the dye molecule.
where they are used to reduce triiodide

Figure 10. (c) Electrons are collected from the TiO2 through a wire, which connects to the counter electrode. At the counter
electrode, the graphite coating facilitates the transfer of electrons into solution by reducing triiodide to iodide. (d) When the
several iodide molecules (I-) come into contact with a dye cation (DYE+), the iodide can be oxidized to reduce the dye
molecule back to its ground state.

Remember that we need to absorb light still! Metal isn’t transparent. As a substitute, we will
use a special glass that behaves like a metal. This glass is coated with fluorinated tin oxide (or FTO)
that greatly lowers the resistance of normal glass, allowing it to conduct electrons. To allow it to pass
a large enough number of electrons across the liquid/glass interface, we will coat the FTO glass with a
layer of graphite, a layered material made of carbon atoms. This carbon-coated glass acts as our
counter electrode, the electrode which provides a balancing flow of electrons into the solution as
they are removed from solution by the dye and TiO2. We will make a FTO glass sandwich with our
absorber, converter, and electrolyte as the filling to complete our circuit (Figure 11).

Figure 11. A working DSSC makes a complete circuit. Can you identify all of the elements necessary to complete the circuit?
Note that the white circles represent TiO2 nanoparticles while the black dots are dye molecules attached to the
nanoparticles. In addition to the previously mentioned components, this figure also shows the sunlight as it illuminates the
solar cell. To run a device off this solar cell, we would connect the device in the position in between the two halves of the
cell, marked LOAD in the above circuit. In this lab, we will connect a multimeter at this position to test our DSSCs.

Recap Question #5:

Graphite is made up of layers of carbon. What do you think will happen to the performance of
the DSSC if it was illuminated through this electrode rather than through the dyed side?

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High School Lesson Plan
 Solar Energy Conversion: Making a Dye-Sensitized TiO2 Solar Cell

The origin of the dye-sensitized solar cell

Brian O’Regan and Michael Grätzel at the École
Polytechnique Fédérale De Lausanne in Switzerland made the
first efficient DSSC (Figure 12). The approach used in DSSCs
has many advantages over other solar energy conversion
technologies because of its simple device construction and
inexpensive TiO2 particles and dyes that can be fine-tuned to
increase their light-absorbing properties. Although there is
still much room for improvement, state-of-the-art DSSCs
convert solar energy into electricity with efficiencies over
11%, rivaling some silicon-based technologies (commercial
silicon is typically around 20 – 30%). These devices use
specially prepared dyes that absorb a great deal more
sunlight than the anthocyanin dyes extracted from
Figure 12. Michael Grätzel holding a panel of blackberries.
dye-sensitized solar cells.
The basic procedure
In this lab, we will make a DSSC using
dyes extracted from a blackberry. The blackberry
will be crushed, thus releasing its dyes (Figure
13). Then, electrodes that contain a thin layer of
white TiO2 paste will be soaked in the crushed
blackberries so that the electrodes become
colored and absorb visible light. Figure 13. A crushed berry releases juice that we can use to
dye our TiO2 slide.
The electrodes are made using a paste of
TiO2 nanoparticles that are spread out in a thin
layer on transparent conductive glass electrodes
(Figure 14). The thickness of the TiO2 thin film
ends up being roughly the thickness of a human
hair. Remember that these particles provide a
huge surface area for the dye molecules to bind
and provide an electron pathway for the
generated electrical current to be collected.
Since the dyed electrode goes from white to dark
Figure 14. This slide is covered in tiny, white semiconductor purple when dyed, a significant portion of light is
nanoparticles. absorbed by the dye, even though only a single
layer of dye molecules is attached to the surface.
The final steps include drying the electrode and then assembling the device with an additional
counter electrode to form a “sandwich” solar cell (Figure 15). The device has a total of two
electrodes, the dyed TiO2 photoelectrode and a graphite counter electrode. The electrolyte solution
is introduced between the two electrodes and is composed of potassium iodide and iodide/triiodide.

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High School Lesson Plan
 Solar Energy Conversion: Making a Dye-Sensitized TiO2 Solar Cell

Figure 15. The completed DSSC is a TiO2, blackberry, electrolyte, and graphite sandwich
that converts sunlight into electricity.

What can you expect from the blackberry DSSCs?

The solar power conversion efficiency of these types of berry-sensitized TiO2 DSSCs can reach
~0.7% with demonstration cells attaining 200-600 μA/cm2 of photocurrent (current observed under
illumination) when using an overhead projector as a simulated sun illumination source. Students
typically observe photovoltages (voltage observed under illumination) well over 400 mV and good
photovoltaic cell stability (Figure 16). Attaching many cells electrically in series results in larger
voltages as the voltages of the individual cells are additive; attaching them in parallel results in larger
photocurrents.

Figure 16. A completed DSSC can be tested using a multimeter.

Inquiry Opportunity: Renewable Energy

Help your students consider the importance of living sustainably. In what ways, other than
installing solar panels, can we help make the world’s energy use more sustainable? What is
renewable energy and why is it important? Consider connecting a lesson to this lab, using the
following NGSSs:
- HS.Human Sustainability
- HS.Weather and Climate

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High School Lesson Plan
 Solar Energy Conversion: Making a Dye-Sensitized TiO2 Solar Cell

Answers to Recap Questions

1. Where does the power come from when we are using a solar cell? (What
causes the electrons in the dye to move?)
The electrons in the dye are excited by photons, or light waves. This energy from the sun
generates the current and voltage we can measure in a solar cell.

2. A leaf and a solar cell both convert solar energy into another type of
energy. What type does a solar cell make, and what type does a leaf make?
A leaf collects carbon dioxide and sunlight and converts them into glucose and water.
These two products are chemical fuels. The energy from the sunlight is stored in the
chemical bonds of the glucose and water. In contrast, a solar cell takes sunlight and
converts it into moving electrons, or electricity.

3. The TiO2 semiconductor paste used in this lab is white and used in many
commercial products: white paint, toothpaste, powdered doughnuts, etc.
Why do we need to use the dark-colored dyes from blackberries to make
our solar cell work?
When something appears white, it is reflecting all wavelengths of the visible spectrum
that are hitting it. White is the reflection of all light. If we want our solar cell to work, we
need to absorb sunlight rather than reflect it. Thus, we dye our solar cell dark colors,
such as blue, purple, or red, to ensure that the cell is absorbing as much light as
possible.

4. Why is it important to use nanometer-sized particles for the film? Use the
words “surface area” in your explanation.
Nanometer-sized particles are very small. One strand of human hair is about 100,000
nm wide! These tiny particles are important, because they increase the surface area of
our solar cell. When we spread a thin layer of nanoparticles on our conductive glass,
FTO glass, and then dye it with the blackberries, we have increased the surface area
over which sunlight can be absorbed dramatically. Instead of a simple flat surface, we
have a very bumpy, rough surface that allows more dye molecules to attach to the TiO2
and then absorb sunlight for conversion into electricity.

5. Graphite is made up of layers of carbon. What do you think will happen to

the performance of the DSSC if it was illuminated through this electrode
rather than through the dyed side?
The graphite is a dark gray so it would absorb sunlight. However, since the carbon
cannot efficiently absorb sunlight and then subsequently excite electrons to move
through a circuit, the DSSC would simply heat up and dry out.

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 Solar Energy Conversion: Making a Dye-Sensitized TiO2 Solar Cell

Next Generation Science Standards:

HS-PS3-3. Design, build, and refine a device that works within given constraints to convert one form of energy into
another form of energy.* [Clarification Statement: Emphasis is on both qualitative and quantitative
evaluations of devices. Examples of devices could include Rube Goldberg devices, wind turbines, solar
cells, solar ovens, and generators. Examples of constraints could include use of renewable energy forms
and efficiency.] [Assessment Boundary: Assessment for quantitative evaluations is limited to total output for
a given input. Assessment is limited to devices constructed with materials provided to students.]
Science and Engineering
Disciplinary Core Ideas Crosscutting Concepts
Practices
Constructing Explanations and PS3.A: Definitions of Energy Energy and Matter
Designing Solutions At the macroscopic scale, energy manifests Changes of energy and matter in a system
Constructing explanations and designing itself in multiple ways, such as in motion, can be described in terms of energy and
solutions in 9–12 builds on K–8 sound, light, and thermal energy. (HS-PS3-2) matter flows into, out of, and within that
experiences and progresses to (HS-PS3-3) system. (HS-PS3-3)
explanations and designs that are PS3.D: Energy in Chemical Processes ------------------------------
supported by multiple and independent Although energy cannot be destroyed, it can Connections to Engineering, Technology, and
student-generated sources of evidence be converted to less useful forms—for Applications of Science
consistent with scientific ideas, example, to thermal energy in the surrounding
principles, and theories. environment. (HS-PS3-3),(HS-PS3-4) Influence of Science, Engineering and
Design, evaluate, and/or refine a ETS1.A: Defining and Delimiting an Technology on Society and the Natural World
solution to a complex real-world Engineering Problem Modern civilization depends on major
problem, based on scientific Criteria and constraints also include satisfying technological systems. Engineers
knowledge, student-generated any requirements set by society, such as continuously modify these technological
sources of evidence, prioritized taking issues of risk mitigation into account, systems by applying scientific knowledge
criteria, and tradeoff considerations. and they should be quantified to the extent and engineering design practices to
(HS-PS3-3) possible and stated in such a way that one can increase benefits while decreasing costs
tell if a given design meets them. (secondary and risks. (HS-PS3-3)
to HS-PS3-3)

HS-PS4-5. Communicate technical information about how some technological devices use the principles of wave
behavior and wave interactions with matter to transmit and capture information and energy.* [Clarification
Statement: Examples could include solar cells capturing light and converting it to electricity; medical
imaging; and communications technology.] [Assessment Boundary: Assessments are limited to qualitative
information. Assessments do not include band theory.]
Science and Engineering
Disciplinary Core Ideas Crosscutting Concepts
Practices
Obtaining, Evaluating, and PS3.D: Energy in Chemical Processes Cause and Effect
Communicating Information  Solar cells are human-made devices that  Systems can be designed to cause a
Obtaining, evaluating, and likewise capture the sun’s energy and desired effect. (HS-PS4-5)
communicating information in 9–12 produce electrical energy. (secondary to HS- ------------------------------
builds on K–8 and progresses to PS4-5) Connections to Engineering, Technology, and
evaluating the validity and reliability of PS4.B: Electromagnetic Radiation Applications of Science
the claims, methods, and designs.  Photoelectric materials emit electrons when
 Communicate technical information they absorb light of a high-enough frequency. Interdependence of Science, Engineering,
or ideas (e.g. about phenomena (HS-PS4-5) and Technology
and/or the process of development PS4.C: Information Technologies and  Science and engineering complement
and the design and performance of Instrumentation each other in the cycle known as research
a proposed process or system) in  Multiple technologies based on the and development (R&D). (HS-PS4-5)
multiple formats (including orally, understanding of waves and their interactions
graphically, textually, and with matter are part of everyday experiences
mathematically). (HS-PS4-5) in the modern world (e.g., medical imaging,
communications, scanners) and in scientific
research. They are essential tools for
producing, transmitting, and capturing signals
and for storing and interpreting the
information contained in them. (HS-PS4-5)

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 Solar Energy Conversion: Making a Dye-Sensitized TiO2 Solar Cell

Additional NGSS options for this lesson plan:

HS-ESS3- Evaluate competing design solutions for developing, managing, and utilizing energy and mineral
2. resources based on cost-benefit ratios.* [Clarification Statement: Emphasis is on the conservation,
recycling, and reuse of resources (such as minerals and metals) where possible, and on minimizing impacts
where it is not. Examples include developing best practices for agricultural soil use, mining (for coal, tar
sands, and oil shales), and pumping (for petroleum and natural gas). Science knowledge indicates what
can happen in natural systems—not what should happen.]
Science and Engineering
Disciplinary Core Ideas Crosscutting Concepts
Practices
Engaging in Argument from Evidence ESS3.A: Natural Resources Connections to Engineering, Technology, and
Engaging in argument from evidence in 9–  All forms of energy production and other Applications of Science
12 builds on K–8 experiences and resource extraction have associated
progresses to using appropriate and economic, social, environmental, and Influence of Science, Engineering, and
sufficient evidence and scientific reasoning geopolitical costs and risks as well as Technology on Society and the Natural World
to defend and critique claims and benefits. New technologies and social  Engineers continuously modify these
explanations about natural and designed regulations can change the balance of technological systems by applying scientific
world(s). Arguments may also come from these factors. knowledge and engineering design practices
current scientific or historical episodes in ETS1.B: Developing Possible Solutions to increase benefits while decreasing costs
science.  When evaluating solutions, it is important and risks.
 Evaluate competing design solutions to take into account a range of  Analysis of costs and benefits is a critical
to a real-world problem based on constraints, including cost, safety, aspect of decisions about technology.
scientific ideas and principles, reliability, and aesthetics, and to consider ----------------------------------------------------
empirical evidence, and logical social, cultural, and environmental Connections to Nature of Science
arguments regarding relevant factors impacts. (secondary)
(e.g. economic, societal, Science Addresses Questions About the
environmental, ethical considerations). Natural and Material World
 Science and technology may raise ethical
issues for which science, by itself, does not
provide answers and solutions.
 Science knowledge indicates what can
happen in natural systems—not what should
happen. The latter involves ethics, values,
and human decisions about the use of
knowledge.
 Many decisions are not made using science
alone, but rely on social and cultural contexts
to resolve issues.

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High School Lesson Plan
 Solar Energy Conversion: Making a Dye-Sensitized TiO2 Solar Cell

HS-PS4-5. Communicate technical information about how some technological devices use the principles of wave
behavior and wave interactions with matter to transmit and capture information and energy.* [Clarification
Statement: Examples could include solar cells capturing light and converting it to electricity; medical
imaging; and communications technology.] [Assessment Boundary: Assessments are limited to qualitative
information. Assessments do not include band theory.]
Science and Engineering
Disciplinary Core Ideas Crosscutting Concepts
Practices
Constructing Explanations and ESS3.C: Human Impacts on Earth Systems Stability and Change
Designing Solutions  Scientists and engineers can make  Feedback (negative or positive) can stabilize
Constructing explanations and designing major contributions by developing or destabilize a system.
solutions in 9–12 builds on K–8 technologies that produce less pollution ------------------------------------------------------
experiences and progresses to and waste and that preclude ecosystem Connections to Engineering, Technology,
explanations and designs that are degradation. and Applications of Science
supported by multiple and independent ETS1.B: Developing Possible Solutions
student-generated sources of evidence  When evaluating solutions, it is Influence of Science, Engineering, and
consistent with scientific knowledge, important to take into account a range of Technology on Society and the Natural World
principles, and theories. constraints, including cost, safety,  Engineers continuously modify these
 Design or refine a solution to a reliability, and aesthetics, and to technological systems by applying scientific
complex real-world problem, based consider social, cultural, and knowledge and engineering design practices
on scientific knowledge, student- environmental impacts. (secondary) to increase benefits while decreasing costs
generated sources of evidence, and risks.
prioritized criteria, and tradeoff
considerations.

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High School Lesson Plan
 Solar Energy Conversion: Making a Dye-Sensitized TiO2 Solar Cell

Procedure
Materials and supplies
Per pair or group making a cell:
 1x1” FTO glass (2)  Golf pencil
 Small ziploc bag  1” Binder clip (2)
 1 Blackberry (fresh or frozen)  Water
 Plastic pipette (2)  Cup/beaker (optional)
 Tweezers  TiO2 paste
 Paper towel  Iodide/triiodide electrolyte
 Multimeter  Scotch tape
 Alligator clips (2)  Hotplate (one or two for whole class)

Preparing the TiO2 electrode

1. Take one piece of the FTO glass and use the

multimeter to find the conductive side. Set the
multimeter to the resistance setting denoted by
the symbol ohm (Ω). If using the model included
in the kit, the multimeter dial should just be
pointing straight down pointing to 200 ohm.

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High School Lesson Plan
 Solar Energy Conversion: Making a Dye-Sensitized TiO2 Solar Cell

Press the points of the two metal probes onto

the surface of the glass, careful that the metal
points don’t touch. The conductive side will
have a reading around 30 ohms. If you don’t
get a reading (i.e. still see the overflow value
of “1”), flip the glass over and try the other
side.

2. Once you have found the conductive side of the glass (the side with a resistance reading), set that
side face up on the table. Take a piece of scotch tape and cover approximately 1/8” of the surface
of the glass as shown here. The remaining open surface area will be covered with the TiO2 paste.
The taped off strip will be blank glass which is necessary for assembly in the end.

3. Using the plastic pipette, drip a

couple drops of the TiO2
solution in the center of the
exposed glass. Don’t add too
much!

Use the smooth side of the pipette (i.e. no engraved numbers or seam) and immediately squeegee
the solution down and up once or twice with the side of the pipette. Aim for a thin, even coating of
the paste.

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High School Lesson Plan
 Solar Energy Conversion: Making a Dye-Sensitized TiO2 Solar Cell

If the TiO2 does not coat the entire exposed surface,

quickly add another drop of TiO2 paste and re-
squeegee the whole plate. It should be a slightly
transparent white color. Allow the paste to dry,
undisturbed, for a minute or two. Once dry, remove
the tape from the glass.

4. Transfer the glass to a hotplate and leave the TiO2 film face up. The exact temperature of the
hotplate is not important. Simply the hotter the plate, the faster it will be done.

The surfactant and solvent in the paste will

evaporate while on the hotplate, leaving behind
just the TiO2 nanoparticles. The glass will appear
to turn brown or burned, and then white again.

5. When the glass is done (i.e. the slide turned brown and then back to white), turn off the hotplate
and let the glass cool down slowly. If the glass is moved too quickly from hot to cold it will crack.
Even touching it with the tweezers can sometimes be enough of a temperature shock to cause
cracking. A small crack usually won’t cause problems with the effectiveness of the cell, but best to
avoid. The plastic tweezers can also melt so wait for the plate to cool mostly.

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High School Lesson Plan
 Solar Energy Conversion: Making a Dye-Sensitized TiO2 Solar Cell

Dyeing the TiO2 electrode and assembling the DSSC

6. Prepare the dye by

thoroughly (but gently)
crushing 1 blackberry inside
a closed plastic bag by
squeezing the outside of the
bag.

Careful not to poke any holes!

Open the bag and add
approximately 1 tsp of water to
make it a little “juicier”.

7. Take the TiO2 coated piece of glass and place it into the blackberry juice in the bag for 1-5
minutes. Be sure that the glass is completely covered. The white TiO2 paste should turn
completely purple so there is no white left. The darker the better!

8. While you wait, take your

other piece of FTO glass and
find the conductive side as
in step 1. Set the
conductive side face up and
use the pencil to coat the
entire surface with graphite
(pencil lead).

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High School Lesson Plan
 Solar Energy Conversion: Making a Dye-Sensitized TiO2 Solar Cell

It can be hard to see but as long as you colored

there should be graphite on the surface. Set it
aside but keep the conductive side face up.

9. Using the tweezers grab the

dyed TiO2 piece of glass out
of the blackberry juice (try
to avoid scratching the film
with the tweezers as it will
chip off).

Holding the glass over the opening of a cup or beaker, rinse off
the excess blackberry pieces and juice with a squirt bottle of
water. Catch the drippings in the cup or beaker. (You can also
rinse over the bag being held open by your partner to minimize
supplies needed).

10. Set the rinsed glass onto a paper towel and very gently dab it with the towel to dry it off. DO NOT
WIPE the glass as the TiO2 coating will come off.

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High School Lesson Plan
 Solar Energy Conversion: Making a Dye-Sensitized TiO2 Solar Cell

11. Take the two pieces of glass

and assemble them into a
sandwich with the two
conductive and coated sides
facing in. Think of a PB&J
sandwich: the coated sides
face in.

Then, slide the graphite glass out so that its edge aligns with the beginning of the purple TiO2
coating on the other piece. Then using binder clips, clip together the two sides of the glass that
are not offset.

12. Lastly, add the iodide/triiodide (I-/I3-) electrolyte solution using a pipette to the seam of the glass.
A very small amount should be sufficient.

The purple area of the glass should turn darker as it is filled with
the electrolyte. If there are any spots that don’t get coated, try
removing a binder clip and then clipping it back on to move the
liquid around. If that doesn’t fix it, add a little more electrolyte to
the seam.

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High School Lesson Plan
 Solar Energy Conversion: Making a Dye-Sensitized TiO2 Solar Cell

Testing the DSSC

13. The DSSC is ready to generate electricity. All it needs is some sunlight and a way to measure its
output! Think of the DSSC as a battery. It has the capacity to generate electricity but you can’t see
it until it is used to power a device or tested with a multimeter, which is what you will do.
14. To test your solar cell, clip one end of an alligator clip to one of the overhanging pieces of glass.
Clip the other end of the alligator clip to one of the metal multimeter probes. Use the second
alligator clip and clip it to the other piece of overhanging glass and the other multimeter probe.

15. Switch the multimeter setting to DCV (Direct

Current Voltage) to measure the voltage of the
DSSC. The 2000m setting is usually sufficient to
measure the output in millivolts. An average
reading in full sunlight is around 350 mV.

If the reading is negative, this

just means the meter is
measuring electricity flowing in
the opposite direction. Simply
switch which electrode the
alligator clips are attached to
and the reading will become
positive.

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High School Lesson Plan
 Solar Energy Conversion: Making a Dye-Sensitized TiO2 Solar Cell

* Flipping the DSSC over so the dye is closer to the

sun can sometime increase voltage dramatically.

16. Then switch the multimeter setting to DCA

(Direct Current Amperage) to measure the
current. The setting of 2000μ is usually
sufficient to measure the current output. A
typical reading in full sunlight is about 700
μA.

Finally, the voltage and current readings can be multiplied together to obtain the overall power of
the cell. Power is defined as follows: P = current*voltage = I*V. Be sure to convert the voltage
from mV to V and μA to A before multiplying. See the lesson on scientific notation for help with
this process. Remember to record the weather conditions (sunny, cloudy, etc.) and light source!

Data Table (include units for voltage and current)

DSSC
dye:

Voltage

Current

Light Source (room light, projector light, sun):

Weather conditions (sunny, cloudy, rainy):

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High School Lesson Plan
 Solar Energy Conversion: Making a Dye-Sensitized TiO2 Solar Cell

Cleaning up
17. Bags of blackberry juice can go in the trash and any rinsing of juice in a cup can go down the sink.
Paper towels go in the trash. You can choose to toss plastic pipettes or rinse and reuse them for
future classes.

18. Save the FTO glass and simply wipe clean with water and a
towel. Graphite is easily removed by a rubber eraser.

19. All other parts are reusable and should be packed away for
future use.

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High School Lesson Plan
 Solar Energy Conversion: Making a Dye-Sensitized TiO2 Solar Cell

Optional analysis
How do we evaluate whether or not students can successfully fulfill the objectives we
set out at the beginning of the lesson? Here are some sample assessment activities
based on our example objectives.

Example Objectives:
Students should be able to:
1. Communicate how a dye-sensitized solar cell (DSSC) converts light waves into electricity

In groups of 2-4, draw a diagram of a dye-sensitized solar cell, label the components, and explain
on how the cell converts light into electricity. Remember to consider the absorber and converter
in your explanation. Make sure your solar cell forms a complete circuit.

2. Design and build a dye-sensitized solar cell from basic components and blackberry juice dye

Before or after introducing the information from the background section, provide your students
with a list of the basic components necessary to make a DSSC. Have them try to place them in
the correct order and present their design to the class. Discuss the designs as a class or in small
groups. Then, give them the lab procedure and let them build a DSSC.

3. Refine their solar cell design through the comparison of various fruit dyes

The day before you have the class perform the lab, ask them to vote on one other fruit besides a
blackberry to test as a DSSC. Have them list what makes a good absorber in a solar cell. While
students fabricate their own blackberry DSSCs, make one DSSC with the class’s fruit of choice.
Have students compare the data of both DSSC. Return to the initial list of characteristics of good
absorbers. Let the class decide if the new DSSC is better or worse than the blackberry DSSC.

4. Evaluate a dye-sensitized solar cell’s performance in comparison to a silicon solar cell

Have your student complete the same analysis they performed on their DSSCs on a commercial
silicon solar cell by taping off a similar area as the DSSC and measuring voltage and current with
a multimeter. Ask your students to complete a table as shown on the next page and compare
these values to that of their blackberry DSSC and other fruit DSSC. Calculate the power (P = I*V)
and conversion efficiency (below) of the silicon solar cell. Which solar cell performs best? Why?

Calculating solar cell efficiency:

Efficiency is defined as the ratio of power in to power out. That is, the efficiency of a solar cell is
determined as the amount of power input to the defined area that is then converted into output power.

Efficiency = Pmax/PIN = I*V/PIN

PIN is generally assumed to be 100 mW/cm2. For a 1 cm x 1 cm solar cell (area of 1 cm2), the input power
is 100 mW. Pmax is the product of the measured voltage and current of your solar cell.

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High School Lesson Plan
 Solar Energy Conversion: Making a Dye-Sensitized TiO2 Solar Cell

Example expanded data table:

Data Table (include units for voltage and current)
DSSC DSSC Silicon Solar Cell
dye: dye:

Voltage

Current

References
Cherapy, N.J., Smestad, G.P., Grätzel, M. & Zhang, J.Z. (1997). "Ultrafast Electron Injection: Implication
for a Photoelectrochemical Cell Utilizing an Anthocyanin Dye-Sensitized TiO2 Nanocrystalline Electrode,"
Journal of Physical Chemistry B, Vol. 101, No. 45, Pgs. 9342 – 9351, Nov. 6, 1997.

Smestad, G.P. (2009). "Optics of Solar Cells," 93rd Annual Meeting, Frontiers in Optics (FiO) 2009/Laser
Science (LS), 25th Conference, Optics for Renewable Energy, Optical Soc. of America, San Jose, CA,
October 11 – 15, 2009.

Smestad, G.P. (1998). "Education and solar conversion: Demonstrating electron transfer", Solar Energy
Materials and Solar Cells, Vol. 55, Pgs. 157 – 178, 1998.

Smestad, G.P. & Grätzel, M. (1998). "Demonstrating Electron Transfer and Nanotechnology: A Natural
Dye-Sensitized Nanocrystalline Energy Converter," Journal of Chemical Education, Vol. 75, Pgs. 752 –
756, June 1998.

Sol Ideas Technology Development (2009). Components of the Solar Cell Procedure. Retrieved from
http://www.solideas.com/solrcell/kitcomp.html.

For technical assistance please contact a scientist at Caltech at JuiceFromJuice@caltech.edu 26

High School Lesson Plan