Chapter Five

ENERGY ANALYSIS OF CLOSED

SYSTEMS
by
Eng. Ahmad Bani Yaseen

Thermal Fluid sciences

 5–1: MOVING BOUNDARY WORK
One form of mechanical work frequently encountered in practice is associated with the expansion or
compression of a gas in a piston–cylinder device. During this process, part of the boundary (the inner face
of the piston) moves back and forth. Therefore, the expansion and compression work is often called
moving boundary work, or simply boundary work.
we analyze the moving boundary work for a quasi-equilibrium process, a process
during which the system remains nearly in equilibrium at all times. A quasi-
equilibrium process, also called a quasi-static process, is closely approximated by
real engines, especially when the piston moves at low velocities. Under identical
conditions, the work output of the engines is found to be a maximum, and the
work input to the compressors to be a minimum when quasi-equilibrium
processes are used in place of nonquasi-equilibrium processes. Below, the work
associated with a moving boundary is evaluated for a quasi-equilibrium process. The work associated with a
moving boundary is called
boundary work.
Consider the gas enclosed in the piston–cylinder device shown in figure. The
initial pressure of the gas is P, the total volume is V, and the cross sectional area
of the piston is A. If the piston is allowed to move a distance ds in a quasi-
equilibrium manner, the differential work done during this process is

𝛿𝑊𝑏 = 𝐹𝑑𝑠 = 𝑃𝐴𝑑𝑠 = 𝑃𝑑𝑉

Note in Equation above that P is the absolute pressure, which is always positive. However, the volume
change dV is positive during an expansion process (volume increasing) and negative during a
compression process (volume decreasing). Thus, the boundary work is positive during an expansion
process and negative during a compression process
The total boundary work done during the entire process as the piston moves is obtained by adding
all the differential works from the initial state to the final state:
2

𝑊𝑏 = න 𝑃𝑑𝑉 (𝑘𝐽)
1

This integral can be evaluated only if we know the functional relationship

between P and V during the process. That is, P = f(V) should be available.
Note that P = f(V) is simply the equation of the process path on a P-V
diagram.
The quasi-equilibrium expansion process described is shown on a P-V
diagram in figure. On this diagram, the differential area dA is equal to
P.dV, which is the differential work. The total area A under the process
2 2
curve 1–2 is obtained by adding these differential areas:
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 𝐴 = න 𝑑𝐴 = න 𝑃𝑑𝑉
1 1
A gas can follow several different paths as it expands from state 1 to
state 2. In general, each path will have a different area underneath it,
and since this area represents the magnitude of the work, the work
done will be different for each process.

The cycle shown in figure produces a net work output because the
work done by the system during the expansion process (area under
path A) is greater than the work done on the system during the
compression part of the cycle (area under path B), and the difference
between these two is the net work done during the cycle (the
colored area).
EXAMPLE
A rigid tank contains air at 500 kPa and 150°C. As a result of heat transfer to the
surroundings, the temperature and pressure inside the tank drop to 65°C and
400 kPa, respectively. Determine the boundary work done during this process.

SOLUTION

Air in a rigid tank is cooled, and both the pressure and temperature drop. The
boundary work done is to be determined.

A sketch of the system and the P-V diagram of the process are shown

2 0
𝑊𝑏 = න 𝑃𝑑𝑉 = 0
1
 EXAMPLE

A frictionless piston–cylinder device contains 5 Kg of steam at P1=400 kPa

and T1=200oC. Heat is now transferred to the steam until the temperature
reaches T2=250oC. If the piston is not attached to a shaft and its mass is
constant. Determine the work done by the steam during this process.

SOLUTION
Steam in a piston–cylinder device is heated and the temperature rises at
constant pressure. The boundary work done is to be determined.
2 2
From Table (A-4) @ T1=200 C , P1<Psat=1554.9kPa
𝑊𝑏 = න 𝑃𝑑𝑉 = 𝑃𝑜 න 𝑑𝑉 = 𝑃𝑜 (𝑉2 − 𝑉1 )
1 1 so, we go to supper heated table A-6 @
P=0.4MPa and T=200oC so that v1=0.53434
𝑜𝑟 𝑊𝑏 = 𝑚𝑃𝑜 (𝑣2 − 𝑣1 ) m3/kg , and @ T=250oC so v2=0.5952m3/kg

𝑊𝑏 = 5 × 400 × 103 × 0.5952 − 0.53434 = 121.72 𝑘𝐽

EXAMPLE

A piston–cylinder device initially contains 0.4 m3 of air at 100 kPa and

80°C. The air is now compressed to 0.1 m3 in such a way that the
temperature inside the cylinder remains constant(Isothermal). Determine
the work done during this process.
SOLUTION
Air in a piston–cylinder device is compressed isothermally. At specified
conditions, air can be considered to be an ideal gas since it is at a high
temperature and low pressure relative to its critical-point values.
𝐶
For an ideal gas at constant temperature T0, 𝑃𝑉 = 𝑚𝑅𝑇𝑜 = 𝐶 → 𝑃 =
𝑉
2 2 2
𝐶 𝑑𝑉 𝑉2 𝑉2
𝑊𝑏 = න 𝑃𝑑𝑉 = න 𝑑𝑉 = 𝐶 න = 𝐶 ln = 𝑃1 𝑉1 ln
𝑉 𝑉 𝑉1 𝑉1
1 1 1
0.1
𝑊𝑏 = 100 × 0.4 × ln = − 55.5 kJ
0.4
Work done on the system
 Polytropic Process
During actual expansion and compression processes of gases, pressure and volume are often related
by PV n = C, where n and C are constants.
A process of this kind is called a polytropic process as shown figure

The pressure for a polytropic process can be expressed as

𝑃 = 𝐶𝑉 −𝑛
2

Substituting this relation into 𝑊𝑏 = න 𝑃𝑑𝑉 we obtain

1
2 2
𝑉2−𝑛+1− 𝑉1−𝑛+1 𝑃2 𝑉2 − 𝑃1 𝑉1
𝑊𝑏 = න 𝑃𝑑𝑉 = න 𝐶𝑉 −𝑛 𝑑𝑉 = 𝐶 =
−𝑛 + 1 1−𝑛
1 1
Since 𝐶 = 𝑃1 𝑉1𝑛 = 𝑃2 𝑉2𝑛
For an ideal gas (PV = mRT), this equation can also be written as
𝑚𝑅 𝑇2 − 𝑇1
𝑊𝑏 = 𝑛≠1 (𝑘𝐽)
1−𝑛
  For the special case of n =1 (isothermal process) the boundary work becomes

2 2
𝐶 𝑉2 𝑉2
𝑊𝑏 = න 𝑃𝑑𝑉 = න 𝑑𝑉 = 𝐶 ln = 𝑃𝑉 ln
𝑉 𝑉1 𝑉1
1 1

For an ideal gas this result is equivalent to the isothermal process discussed in the previous example.

EXAMPLE

A piston–cylinder device contains 0.05 m3 of a gas initially at 200 kPa. At this state, a
linear spring that has a spring constant of 150 kN/m is touching the piston but exerting
no force on it. Now heat is transferred to the gas, causing the piston to rise and to
compress the spring until the volume inside the cylinder doubles. If the cross-sectional
area of the piston is 0.25 m2, determine (a) the final pressure inside the cylinder, (b) the
total work done by the gas, and (c) the fraction of this work done against the spring to
compress it.
SOLUTION
The P-V diagram of the process are shown

(a) The enclosed volume at the final state is

𝑉2 = 2𝑉1 = 2 × 0.05 = 0.1 𝑚3

Then the displacement of the piston (and of the spring) becomes
𝑉2 − 𝑉1 0.1 − 0.05
𝑥= = = 0.2 𝑚
𝐴 0.25
The force applied by the linear spring at the final state is
𝐹 = 𝑘𝑥 = 150 × 0.2 = 30 𝑘𝑁
The additional pressure applied by the spring on the gas at this state is
𝐹 30
𝑃= = = 120 𝑘𝑃𝑎
𝐴 0.25
Without the spring, the pressure of the gas would remain constant at 200 kPa while the piston is rising.
But under the effect of the spring, the pressure rises linearly from 200 kPa to 𝑃𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 = 120 + 200 = 320 𝑘𝑃𝑎
(b) An easy way of finding the work done is to plot the process on a P-V diagram and find the area
under the process curve.
320 + 200
𝑊 = 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 0.1 − 0.05 = 13 𝑘𝐽
2

(c) The work represented by the rectangular area (region I) is done against the piston and the
atmosphere, and the work represented by the triangular area (region II) is done against the spring.
Thus,
1
𝑊spring = 320 − 200 × 0.05 = 3 𝑘𝐽
2
or
1 2 2
1
𝑊spring = 𝑘 𝑥2 − 𝑥1 = × 150 × 0.2 = 3 𝑘𝐽
2 2
 5–2: ENERGY BALANCE FOR CLOSED SYSTEMS

Energy balance for any system undergoing any kind of process was expressed as

or, in the rate form, as

For a closed system undergoing a cycle, the initial and final states are identical,
and thus ΔEsystem = E2 - E1=0. Then, the energy balance for a cycle simplifies to
Ein - Eout = 0 or Ein = Eout. Noting that a closed system does not involve any mass
flow across its boundaries, the energy balance for a cycle can be expressed in
terms of heat and work interactions as
 EXAMPLE
A piston–cylinder device contains 25 g of saturated water vapor that is
maintained at a constant pressure of 300 kPa. A resistance heater within the
cylinder is turned on and passes a current of 0.2 A for 5 min from a 120-V
source. At the same time, a heat loss of 3.7 kJ occurs. (a) Show that for a
closed system the boundary work Wb and the change in internal energy ΔU in
the first-law relation can be combined into one term, ΔH, for a constant
pressure process. (b) Determine the final temperature of the steam.
SOLUTION
(a) This part of the solution involves a general analysis for a closed system undergoing a quasi-equilibrium
constant-pressure process, and thus we consider a general closed system. We take the direction of heat
transfer Q to be to the system and the work W to be done by the system. Then, the energy balance can be
expressed as
 0 0 0
𝑄𝑖𝑛 − 𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡 + 𝑊𝑖𝑛 − 𝑊𝑜𝑢𝑡 = Δ𝑈 + Δ𝑃𝐸 + Δ𝐾𝐸 −𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡 + 𝑊𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 − 𝑊𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 = Δ𝑈

For a constant-pressure process, the boundary work is given as Wb = P0(V2 - V1).

Substituting this into the preceding relation gives

−𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡 + 𝑊𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 − 𝑃𝑜 𝑉2 − 𝑉1 = Δ𝑈 −𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡 + 𝑊𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 = 𝑃𝑜 𝑉2 − 𝑉1 + 𝑈2 − 𝑈1

𝑃𝑜 = 𝑃1 = 𝑃2 −𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡 + 𝑊𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 = 𝑃2 𝑉2 + 𝑈2 − 𝑃1 𝑉1 + 𝑈1

−𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡 + 𝑊𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 = 𝐻2 − 𝐻1

(b) To find the final temperature of the system, we need at least two property at final state. From
energy balance we find the final enthalpy of the system

−𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡 + 𝑊𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 = 𝐻2 − 𝐻1 , 𝑊𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 = 𝑉𝐼Δ𝑡 → 𝑊𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 = 120 × 0.2 × 5 × 60 = 7.2 𝑘𝐽

The enthalpy at initial state @ P=300 kPa , sat vapor.
From table A-5 @ P=300 kPa hg = 2724.9 kJ/kg.

−𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡 + 𝑊𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 = 𝐻2 − 𝐻1 → −𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡 + 𝑊𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 = 𝑚 ℎ2 − ℎ1

−3.7 + 7.2 = 0.025 ℎ2 − 2724.9 → ℎ2 = 2864.9 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔

From Table A-5 @ P=300 kPa hg < h2 then the state is super heated, From table A-6 @
P=0.3 MPa & h=2864.9 kJ the temperature is T≈ 200 oC
 5–3: SPECIFIC HEATS

we need about 4.5 kJ of energy to raise the temperature of 1 kg of

iron from 20 to 30°C, whereas it takes about 9 times this energy
(41.8 kJ to be exact) to raise the temperature of 1 kg of liquid water
by the same amount.

The specific heat is defined as the energy required to raise the temperature of a unit mass of a
substance by one degree. In general, this energy depends on how the process is executed. In
thermodynamics, we are interested in two kinds of specific heats: specific heat at constant volume
cv and specific heat at constant pressure cp.
Physically, the specific heat at constant volume cv can be viewed as the energy required to raise the
temperature of the unit mass of a substance by one degree as the volume is maintained constant. The
energy required to do the same as the pressure is maintained constant is the specific heat at constant
pressure cp.

 The specific heat at constant pressure cp is always greater

than cv because at constant pressure the system is allowed
to expand and the energy for this expansion work must also
be supplied to the system.
To express the specific heats in terms of other thermodynamic properties. First, consider a fixed
mass in a stationary closed system undergoing a constant-volume process (and thus no expansion or
compression work is involved). The conservation of energy principle ein–eout =Δesystem for this process
can be expressed in the differential form as
𝛿𝑒𝑖𝑛 − 𝛿𝑒𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑑𝑢
The left-hand side of this equation represents the net amount of energy transferred to the system.
From the definition of cv , this energy must be equal to cv dT, where dT is the differential change in
temperature. Thus,
𝑐𝑣 𝑑𝑇 = 𝑑𝑢
𝑑𝑢
Specific heat at constant volume cv 𝑐𝑣 =
𝑑𝑇 𝑣
Similarly, an expression for the specific heat at constant pressure cp can be obtained by considering a
constant-pressure expansion or compression process. It yields
𝑑ℎ
Specific heat at constant pressure cp 𝑐𝑝 =
𝑑𝑇 𝑝

A common unit for specific heats is kJ/kg·°C or kJ/kg·K. Notice that these two units are identical since
ΔT(°C) = ΔT(K), and 1°C change in temperature is equivalent to a change of 1 K.
5–4: INTERNAL ENERGY, ENTHALPY, AND SPECIFIC HEATS OF IDEAL GASES

An ideal gas as a gas whose temperature, pressure, and specific volume are related by Pv = RT

It has been demonstrated mathematically and experimentally

(Joule, 1843) that for an ideal gas the internal energy is a
function of the temperature only. That is, u = u(T)

Using the definition of enthalpy and the equation of state of an

ideal gas, we have
ℎ = 𝑢 + 𝑃𝑣
ℎ = 𝑢 + 𝑅𝑇
𝑃𝑣 = 𝑅𝑇
Schematic of the experimental
Since R is constant and u=u(T), it follows that the enthalpy of an apparatus used by Joule.
ideal gas is also a function of temperature only: h = h(T)

For ideal gases, u, h, cv, and cp vary with temperature only.

 The change in internal energy or enthalpy for an ideal gas during a process from state 1 to state 2 is
determined by integrating these equations:
2 2

Δ𝑢 = 𝑢2 − 𝑢1 = න 𝑐𝑣 𝑇 𝑑𝑇 𝑘𝐽 and Δℎ = ℎ2 − ℎ1 = න 𝑐𝑝 𝑇 𝑑𝑇 𝑘𝐽
1 1
To carry out these integrations, we need to have relations for cv and cp as functions of temperature.
At low pressures, all real gases approach ideal-gas behavior, and therefore
their specific heats depend on temperature only. The specific heats of real
gases at low pressures are called ideal-gas specific heats, or zero-pressure
specific heats, and are often denoted cp0 and cv0. Accurate analytical
expressions for ideal-gas specific heats, based on direct measurements or
calculations from statistical behavior of molecules, are available and are
given as third-degree polynomials in the appendix (Table A–2c) for several
gases. A plot of cp0(T) data for some common gases is given in Figure.
The variation of specific heats with temperature is smooth and may be approximated as linear over
small temperature intervals (a few hundred degrees or less). Therefore, the specific heat functions
Equations can be replaced by the constant average specific heat values. Then, the integrations in
these equations can be performed, yielding

𝑢2 − 𝑢1 = 𝑐𝑣,𝑎𝑣𝑔 𝑇2 − 𝑇1 (𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔) and ℎ2 − ℎ1 = 𝑐𝑝,𝑎𝑣𝑔 𝑇2 − 𝑇1 (𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔)

The specific heat values for some common gases are

listed as a function of temperature in Table A–2b.
The average specific heats cp,avg and cv,avg are
evaluated from this table at the average
temperature (T1 + T2)/2,

Three ways of calculating Δu.

Specific Heat Relations of Ideal Gases

A special relationship between cp and cv for ideal gases can be obtained by differentiating the relation
h = u + RT, which yields
𝑑ℎ = 𝑑𝑢 + 𝑅𝑑𝑇
Replacing dh by cpdT and du by cvdT and dividing the resulting expression by dT, we obtain

𝑐𝑝 = 𝑐𝑣 + 𝑅 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔.K

This is an important relationship for ideal gases since it enables us to determine cv from a knowledge
of cp and the gas constant R.

When the specific heats are given on a molar basis, R in the above equation should be replaced by the
universal gas constant Ru 𝑐𝑝ҧ = 𝑐𝑣ҧ + 𝑅𝑢 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙.K
𝑐𝑝
At this point, we introduce another ideal-gas property called the specific heat ratio k, defined as 𝑘=
𝑐𝑣
The specific ratio also varies with temperature, but this variation is very mild.
EXAMPLE
Air at 300 K and 200 kPa is heated at constant pressure to 600 K. Determine the change in internal energy
of air per unit mass, using (a) data from the air table (Table A–21), (b) the functional form of the specific
heat (Table A–2c), and (c) the average specific heat value (Table A–2b).

SOLUTION

The internal energy change of air is to be determined in three different ways.

(a) One way of determining the change in internal energy of air is to read the u values at T1 and T2 from
Table A–21 and take the difference:

u1 = u @ 300 K = 214.07 kJ/kg u2 = u @ 600 K = 434.78 kJ/kg

Δu = u2 - u1 = (434.78 - 214.07) kJ/kg = 220.71 kJ/kg

b) The cp(T ) of air is given in Table A–2c in the form of a third-degree polynomial expressed as
𝐶𝑝ҧ 𝑇 = 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑇 + 𝑐𝑇 2 + 𝑑𝑇 3
where a = 28.11, b = 0.1967 × 10-2, c = 0.4802 × 10-5, and d = 21.966 × 10-9.

𝑐𝑣ҧ 𝑇 = 𝑐𝑝ҧ − 𝑅𝑢 = 𝑎 − 𝑅𝑢 + 𝑏𝑇 + 𝑐𝑇 2 − 𝑑𝑇 3

2 𝑇2

𝑢 = න 𝑐𝑣ҧ 𝑇 𝑑𝑇 = න 𝑎 − 𝑅𝑢 + 𝑏𝑇 + 𝑐𝑇 2 − 𝑑𝑇 3 𝑑𝑇
Δത
1 𝑇1

Performing the integration and substituting the values, we obtain

Δത
𝑢 = 6447 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙

The change in the internal energy on a unit-mass basis is determined by dividing this value by the molar
mass of air (Table A–1):

Δത
𝑢 6447
Δ𝑢 = = = 222.5 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔 which differs from the tabulated value by 0.8 percent.
𝑀 28.97
(c) The average value of the constant-volume specific heat cv,avg is determined from Table A–2b at the
average temperature of (T1 + T2)/2 = 450 K to be

cv,avg = cv @ 450 K = 0.733 kJ/kg·K

Thus Δu = cv,avg(T2 + T1) = (0.733)[(600 - 300)] = 220 kJ/kg

EXAMPLE

A piston–cylinder device initially contains 0.5 m3 of nitrogen gas at 400

kPa and 27°C. An electric heater within the device is turned on and is
allowed to pass a current of 2 A for 5 min from a 120-V source. Nitrogen
expands at constant pressure, and a heat loss of 2800 J occurs during
the process. Determine the final temperature of nitrogen.

SOLUTION

The electrical work done on the nitrogen is

𝑊𝑒 = 𝑉𝐼 Δ𝑡 = 120 × 2 × 5 × 60 = 72 𝑘𝐽

The mass of nitrogen is determined from the ideal-gas relation:

𝑃1 𝑉1 400 × 0.5
𝑚= = = 2.245 𝑘𝑔
𝑅𝑇1 0.297 × (27 + 273)
Under the stated assumptions and observations, the energy balance on the system can be expressed as

We,in - Qout - Wb,out = ΔU We,in - Qout = ΔH = m(h2 - h1) = mcp(T2 - T1)

since ΔU - Wb = ΔH for a closed system undergoing a quasi-equilibrium expansion or compression
process at constant pressure. From Table A–2a, cp = 1.039 kJ/kg·K for nitrogen at room temperature.
The only unknown quantity in the previous equation is T2, and it is found to be

72 - 2.8 = (2.245)×(1.039)(T2 - 27)

T2 = 56.7°C
 5–5: INTERNAL ENERGY, ENTHALPY, AND SPECIFIC HEATS OF SOLIDS AND LIQUIDS

A substance whose specific volume (or density) is constant is called an incompressible substance. The
specific volumes of solids and liquids essentially remain constant during a process.

It can be mathematically shown that the constant-volume and constant

pressure specific heats are identical for incompressible substances.

Specific heat values for several common liquids and solids are
given in Table A–3.
Internal Energy Changes
Like those of ideal gases, the specific heats of incompressible substances depend on temperature only.

𝑑𝑢 = 𝑐𝑣 𝑑𝑇 = 𝑐 𝑇 𝑑𝑇

The change in internal energy between states 1 and 2 is then obtained by integration:
2

Δ𝑢 = 𝑢2 − 𝑢1 = න 𝑐 𝑇 𝑑𝑇 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔
1

The variation of specific heat c with temperature should be known before this integration can be
carried out. For small temperature intervals, a c value at the average temperature can be used and
treated as a constant, yielding
Enthalpy Changes

Using the definition of enthalpy h = u + Pv and noting that v = constant, the differential form of the
enthalpy change of incompressible substances can be determined by differentiation to be

Integrating,