Chapter 1

The Highway and its Development

HIGHWAYS IN THE PHILIPPINES

• In the early 1900, transportation in this country depended largely on
trails, waterways, railroads, earth roads and partially graveled roads
• The American government initiated the development of roadways in the
Philippines
• After the WWII, Philippine government continued the rehabilitation and
construction of roads and bridges through the reparations and war
damages paid by the Japanese government
• Fifty years later, major highways and expressways were constructed
through the financial assistance and loans from foreign banks
• Recent land transportation records revealed that, more than 80,000
brand new vehicles were added every year at an average of 5.00 m
road occupancy by these vehicles
• DPWH must open 400 kilometers new roads every year
• This data doesn’t include yet the roadway for secondhand or surplus
assembled cars
• With this statistical report, solution to traffic is nowhere insight

Planning difficulties
Engineers are conscious of the needs for roadways to be safe, useful and
attractive. This needs include improvement of the roadside, erosion control
and noise abatement. Financial, Political and Technical are other problems
confronted by highway planners.
I. Financial
 Present economic condition is related to the government budgetary
expenditures for payment of foreign debt.
 Appropriations of funds for roads constructions and maintenance,
meet severe difficulties that sometimes, highway development plans
are shelves temporarily for lack of fund.
II. Political
 Politicians now controls DPWH projects as their source of political
funds.

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  Highways districts engineer’s qualification is simply subservience to the
politicians.
“Do what I say or get out of my district”.
 Listing of projects given to district engineer has the corresponding
name of favored contractors – the willing victims giving SOP in cash
advances.
III. Technical
 Comprehensive road development plans that are carefully studied by
technical experts are twisted or flexed down by political muscles, to suit
political interests.
 Roads and highways plans were either; deferred, amended or
realigned for political reasons.
 As a consequence, different laws with conflicting purposes and
procedures impede or obstruct implementations causing delay or no
action at all.

HIGHWAY PROGRAMMING
There are three inseparable sets of inputs involved in highway programming,
they are:
• Economic – deals with the questions of resources
• Financial – the question of who pays and who spends, how
much and where?
• Political and Administration – this involves decision making
In highway programming, projects are prioritized. Those that are most
economically viable were selected, if they fit into the financial capability and
political criteria. Project THAT FAILED on either of the criteria are abandoned
and modified for substitute.
Highway Programming Approaches
1. Financial resources are either short or long ranged implementation by
the agencies functions like construction, operation, and maintenance
2. Recognition of legislative and administrative desire and constraint.
3. Tentative priorities based on economic analysis, critical situations,
present and future expected level of traffic, and claims based on
political subdivisions.
4. Providing continuity of route system and coordination with other
transportation mode.

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 5. Selection of projects based on availability of labor and materials,
including climatic conditions.
6. Scheduling the project implementation in coordination with other
agencies, acquiring right fo way and making final plan and specification
7. Budgetary reserve to cover emergencies like floods and other natural
disasters.

COMMUNITY INVOLVEMENT
It is common practice to call hearing after all major decisions were made and
approved. Indeed, public hearing is no more than information forum for the
public.
Public hearing gives the public a chances to participate in the discussions and
involved them in:
1. Solicit the cooperation and support.
2. Create special staff to carry out this function.
3. Community leadership opportunity to participate continuously in the
planning stage.
4. Organize and develop skilled persons to conduct group meeting,
workshops, hearing and other related activities.

HIGHWAY ECONOMY
According to W. Gillespe, professor of Civil Engineering at Union College:
“A minimum of expenses is of course, highly desirable; but the road which is
truly the cheapest is not the one which has cost the least money, but the one
which makes the most profitable returns in portion to the amount expended
upon it”
The intent of expenditures for highways and public transportations are:
1. To augment the country’s level of economy.
2. To provide easy access to working place.
3. To facilitate public services; police, fire protection etc.
4. To facilitate medical care, schooling and delivery of basic services.
5. To give landowners benefits to transportation and increase property
assessment.
6. Benefit to motor vehicle users through lower cost of operations and
maintenance.

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 7. Benefit in time saving.
8. Less road accidents
9. To give maximum comfort and ease of travel.

LOCATION OF THE PROPOSED HIGHWAY

Location surveys in the rural areas are divided into 4 stages
1. Reconnaissance survey of the entire area between the terminal
points.
• Stereoscopic examination of small scaled aerial photographs of
the area supplemented.
• Determination control of photography and land use.
• Location of feasible routes based on photographs and maps
2. Reconnaissance survey of feasible routes.
• Stereoscopic examination of large-scale aerial photographs of
each route.
• Determination of the detailed control of photography and land
use.
• Preparation of route maps by Photogrammetric methods.
• Location and comparison of feasible routes on photographs and
maps.
• Selection of the best routes.

3. Preliminary survey of best route.

• Preparation of large scale topographic maps using the route
photograph.
• Design of the preliminary location.
4. Location survey
• Staking of right of way, the highway and the structures for
construction.

HIGHWAY PLANS AND SPECIFICATIONS

The complete detailed schemes for the road which are incorporated in the
geometric designs and planning are:

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 1. Traffic
2. Drainage
3. Erosion control
4. Roadside development
5. Structure
6. Soils
7. Pavement
Presentation of Road Plan
1. The upper sheet is allocated for the plan, top view showing the
horizontal alignment, right of way takings, drainage arrangement and
other features.
2. The lower half is allotted to the profile where the original elevation of
ground surface is plotted, the roadway centerline and vertical
alignment.
3. The vertical scale of profile is usually exaggeratedly enlarged from five
to ten times for precise detail.
4. The profile and other details of the drainage, channels or connecting
roads including ramps are also presented.
5. The estimated earthwork quantities for 50 m station or other intervals
are indicated along the bottom of each sheet along with the estimated
overhead. This will serve the engineer and contractor.

5
Group Members:
Elopre, Joseph
Arbela, Mike Danieve
Callope, Reina Tokai Rica
Falcotelo, Israel

6
 Chapter 2
Designing the Highway

CONSISTENCY
Drivers expect the highway agency to provide them with:
1. Clear information and guidance through a variety of road signs.
2. Avoiding abrupt changes in the traffic as well as the road standards.

I. DEFINITION OF TERMS
ROADS AND HIGHWAYS
Is defined as strips of land that have been cleared and further improved for
the movement of people and goods.

ROAD
Is a thoroughfare, route, or way on land between two places, which typically
has been paved or otherwise improved to allow travel by some conveyance,
including a horse, cart, or motor vehicle.

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HIGHWAY
Is any public road. In American English, the term is common and almost
always designates major roads. In British English, the term (which is not
particularly common) designates any road open to the public.

EXPRESSWAY
Controlled - access highway, the highest-grade type of highway with access
ramps, lane dividers, etc., for high-speed traffic
Limited-access road, a lower grade of highway or arterial road.

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FREEWAY
Is an expressway with full control of access.

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CONTROL OF ACCESS
Is a condition where the rights of owners or occupants of adjoining land or
other persons access to light, air or view in connection with a highway is fully
or partially controlled by public authority.
FULL CONTROL OF ACCESS
The authority to control access is exercised to give preference to through
traffic by providing access connections to selected public roads only.
PARTIAL CONTROL OF ACCESS
The authority to control access is exercised to give preference to through
traffic. Although in addition to access connections with selected public roads,
there may be some crossings at the grade and some private driveway
connections allowed.
PARKWAY
Is an arterial highway for non-commercial traffic, with full or partial control of
access usually located within a park or ribbon park-like development.

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ARTERIAL STREET
Is an arterial route that carries traffic to the nearest access point or through
traffic.

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BASIC CONSIDERATIONS IN PLANNING ARTERIAL ROADWAYS
1. Selection of the routes.
2. Studies of the traffic volume.
3. Origin and destination.
4. Accident experienced.
5. Width should not be less than 15 meters.
6. 6. Must carry at least one lane of traffic in each direction.
7. Should be at least one kilometre in length.
8. Should skirt neighborhood areas rather than penetrate them.
9. On grid design system streets, arterials are speed at about 600 to 900
metres apart.
10. Where accident hazard is not a factor, the minimum volume to justify
arterial road is 300 vehicles per average hour during the day, and 450
vehicles hourly during peak periods.

Sometimes, peak hour traffic volume on designated arterial road

exceeds the capacity of two-way streets, and to increase the arterial
capacity, the following solutions are enforced:
1. During peak hours, parking is prohibited on one or both sides of the
street.
2. Parking is prohibited several metres away from each side of the road
intersections or corners.
3. Right turn is allowed on red signals any time with care.
4. Left turns are eliminated on congestion intersections.
5. The direction of traffic is reversed in the centre lane to provide more
lanes in the direction of heavier traffic flow.

COLLECTOR STREET
Form smaller mesh grid pattern where passengers are pick up from service
streets and carried to the arterials. Large commercial enterprises or
amusement facilities like drive in theatres are mostly fronting arterial roads.
LOCAL ROAD
Is defined as street or road primarily for access to residence, business, or
other adjoining properties. It is also defined as a road constructed and
maintained by the local government.

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HIGHWAY CAPACITY
Is defined as the maximum number of vehicles that are reasonably expected
to pass a given point over a given period of time usually expressed as
vehicles per hour.
1. Under ideal conditions, one freeway lane can accommodate about
2000 passenger cars per hour.
2. Two-lane road can carry up to 1000 passenger cars per hour in each
direction.

AADT or ADT refers to traffic volume or flow on highway as measured by the

number of vehicles passing a partial station during a given interval of time. It
is called “Average Annual Daily Traffic” if the period is less than one year.
Volume may be stated on hourly “Observed Traffic Volume” or estimated
30th hour volume commonly used for design purposes. Some highway
agencies use traffic volume for 5 minutes interval to distinguish short peak
movements of vehicles.

II. TYPICAL ROAD STRUCTURE CROSS SECTION

COMPOSITION OF STRUCTURE
Road Structure Cross Section is composed of the following
components:
1. Surface/Wearing Course
2. Base Course
3. Sub Base
4. Sub Grade
SURFACE/WEARING COURSE

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The top layers of pavement which is in direct contact with the wheel of the
vehicle. Usually constructed of material in which bitumen is used as binder
materials.
Bituminous Pavement
 Consists of combination of mineral aggregate with bituminous binder
ranging from inexpensive surface treatment ¼ in or less thick to
asphaltic concrete.
 For good service throughout the full life bituminous pavement must
retain following qualities:
 Freedom from cracking or raveling.
 Resistance to weather including the effect of surface water heat and
cold.
 Resistance to internal moisture, particularly to water vapors.
 Tight impermeable surface or porous surface (if either is needed for
contained stability of underlying base or subgrade).
 Smooth riding and non skidding surface.

BASE COURSE
It is the layer immediately under the wearing surface.
Types of Base Course:
1. Granular Base Course
2. Macadam Base
3. In-water bound Macadam
4. Treated Bases
SUB BASE
 It is the layer material provided above subgrade generally natural
gravel.
 It is also called granular subbase.
Function of sub base in Road Cross Section
 It enables traffic stresses to be reduced to acceptable levels in sub-
grade in the Road Cross Section so that the excessive deformation is
prevented.
 It acts as a working plate form for the construction of upper pavement
layers.

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  Acts as a drainage layer, by protecting the sub grade from wetting up.
 It intercept upward movement of water by capillary action.
 It acts as a separating layer b/w subgrade and road base. By this it
prevent the two layers from mixing up.
SUB GRADE
Consists of the naturally occurring material on which the road is built, or the
imported fill material used to create an embankment on which road pavement
is constructed.

III. TYPE OF INTERCHANGE

In the field of road transport, an interchange is a road junction that typically
uses grade separation, and one or more ramps, to permit traffic on at least
one highway to pass through the junction without directly crossing any other
traffic stream. It differs from a standard intersection, at which roads cross at
grade. Interchanges are almost always used when at least one of the roads is
a limited-access divided highway (expressway or freeway), though they may
occasionally be used at junctions between two surface streets.

FOUR-WAY INTERCHANGES
FOUR-WAY INTERCHANGES
CLOVERLEAF INTERCHANGE
Is typically a two-level, four-way interchange whereby all left turns are handled
by loop ramps (right turns if traveling on the left).

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STACK INTERCHANGE
Is a four-way interchange whereby left turns are handled by semi-directional
flyover/under ramps.

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 CLOVERSTACK INTERCHANGE

TURBINE INTERCHANGE
Requires fewer levels (usually two or three) while retaining semi-directional
ramps throughout, and has its left-turning ramps sweep around the center of
the interchange in a spiral pattern in right-hand driving.

ROUNDABOUT INTERCHANGE
The ramps of the interchanging highways meet at a roundabout or rotary on a
separated level above, below, or in the middle of the two highways.

HYBRID INTERCHANGES

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Use a mixture of interchange types and are not uncommon. Their construction
can consist of multiple interchange designs such as loop ramps, flyovers and
roundabouts.

WINDMILL DIVERGING WINDMILL

DIVIDED VOLLEYBALL FULL DIAMOND

THREE-
WAY INTERCHANGES

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TRUMPET INTERCHANGE
Have been used where one highway terminates at another highway. These
involve at least one loop ramp connecting traffic either entering or leaving the
terminating expressway with the far lanes of the continuous highway.

DIRECTIONAL T INTERCHANGE
Uses flyover/under ramps in all directions at a three-way interchange. A semi-
directional T does the same, but some of the splits and merges are switched
to avoid ramps to and from the passing lane.

FULL Y-INTERCHANGE
Is typically used when a three-way
interchange is required for two or
three highways interchanging in
semi-

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parallel/perpendicular directions, but it can also be used in right-angle case as
well.

HALF-

CLOVER 3/4-VOLLEY

T-BONE

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TWO-WAY INTERCHANGES

HALF-TRUMPET PARTIAL Y

ONE- WAY INTERCHANGES

DUAL HIGHWAY SETUP
Is used when one highway (usually parallel) joins up with another highway,
creating two highways in one direction. These two highways can further join
together and form one highway.

BASKETWEAVE
INTERCHANGE
Is commonly found on highways
using a collector/express
system or long collector/distributor lanes.

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BETWEEN A MOTORWAY AND A NON-MOTORWAY ROAD
DIAMOND INTERCHANGE
Is an interchange involving four ramps where they enter and leave the
freeway at a small angle and meet the non-freeway at almost right angles.

DUMBBELL INTERCHANGE
Is similar to the diamond interchange, but uses a pair of roundabouts to join
the ramps with the non-highway

PARCIO INTERCHANGE
Also known as a partial cloverleaf, is an
interchange usually involving four to
six ramps, two of which are loop ramps,
which connect to the non-highway.

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DIVERGING DIAMOND INTERCHANGE
Is similar to a traditional diamond interchange, except that it uses directional
lanes for the non-highway to cross over each other on either side of the
highway, altering the direction of travel on the over/underpass through the use
of traffic lights.

SINGLE-POINT URBAN
INTERCHANGE
Often abbreviated to SPUI, is a modification of the diamond interchange and
has its ramps meet at one point, usually on the overpass/underpass of the
non-highway.

Four ramp partial cloverleaf (B-2) Six ramp partial cloverleaf (A-4)

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 Folded diamond Three level diamond/volleyball

ROUNDABOUT

IV. FREEWAY ENTRANCE AND

EXIT

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HIGHWAY-RAIL GRADE CROSSING CROSS SECTION

Source: From A Policy on Geometric Design of Highway and Streets,

2004, by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation
Officials, Washington, DC. Used by permission.
Right of way and roadside (clear zone).
 The railroad and roadway rights of way at highway-rail grade crossings
were usually purchased at the time the transportation facilities were
built. Right-of-way restrictions frequently constrain the type and
location of improvements that can be constructed. Within these rights
of way the area adjacent to the crossing should be kept as level and
free from obstructions as possible, subject to the space required for
traffic control devices.
 Eck and Kang also identified and summarized a number of state and
railroad crossing profile standards in addition to the AREMA and
AASHTO criteria described above. Among them were:
 The Illinois Commerce Commission specifies that from the outer rail of
the outermost track, the road surface should be level for about 600
millimeters (24 inches). From there, for a distance of 7.6 meters (25

25
 feet), a maximum grade of 1 percent is specified. From there to the
railroad right-of-way line, a maximum grade of 5 percent is specified.
 The Division of Highways in West Virginia recommends 3 meters (10
feet) of run-off length for every 25 millimeters (1 inch) of track raise.

BICYCLE LANE

Bicycle use is now becoming popular due to energy crisis and traffic
problems. It requires separate road for the riders that is entirely separate from
the vehicular traffic. The design speed is to 20 to 30 kilometres per hour for
flat section. The width is 2.00 metres minimum for a two-way travel. The
grade of the lane is 5% maximum on short distances.

26
Group Members:
Cabral, Gemalyn N.
Caῆon, Beverly P.
Cinco, Justeen
Doblon, Karen Joy P.
Marquez, Jayrick P.

27
 Chapter 3
Soil, Soil Test and Survey
SOIL TESTING - assess the suitability of the soil for your construction project
with vital data for informed decision making and planning.
WHY USE SOIL TESTING FOR YOUR CONSTRUCTION PROJECTS?
 Determine the suitability of the soil and assess whether it can
accommodate your construction project
 Identify the different types of soil on your site and their location
 Test your soil for strength, density, compaction, contamination,
organics and sand content, and assess their impact on your
construction project
 Gain the data you need to compile technical and safety data reports to
support planning permissions and license applications
 Get precise results and observe the development of the soil throughout
your construction project for maximum quality and safety
TYPES OF SOIL TESTS FOR ROAD CONSTRUCTION
 IN-SITU MOISTURE CONTENT
o The moisture content of soil test is carried out in laboratory. It is
expressed as percentage of water in soil to its dry mass. The
moisture content in a soil signifies the various properties of soil
such as compaction, permeability, particle size etc.
 SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF SOIL
o Specific gravity of soil is the ratio of the weight of soil in air of a
given volume at a standard temperature to the weight in air of an
equal volume of distilled water at the same stated temperature.
This test is also carried out in laboratory.
 PARTICLE SIZE DISTRIBUTION (BY WET SIEVING & PIPETTE
METHOD)
o This test determines the particle size distribution of soil from the
coarse sand size down to fine clay size. The data from particle
size distribution test is used to determine suitability of soil for
road construction, air field etc. This test can also be used to
predict soil water movement although permeability tests are
more generally used.
 COMPACTION TEST – PROCTOR TEST
o This soil compaction test also called as Proctor test is used for
the determination of the mass of dry soil per cubic metre when
the soil is compacted over a range of moisture contents, giving
the maximum dry density at optimum moisture content.
 CALIFORNIA BEARING RATIO (CBR) TEST
o This tests provides the load penetration resistance of soil. The
CBR test is used for the evaluation of subgrade strength of
roads and pavements. The CBR value obtained by this test is
used with the empirical curves to determine the thickness of

28
 pavement and its component layers. This is the most widely
used method for the design of flexible pavement.
 STRENGTH TEST
o Soil tests to determine the strength of soil is classified into:
 Test for load carrying capacity, rate, and amount of
consolidation in soils that support the foundation. (this is
applicable to bridge foundation)
 Test to measure the supporting power of disturbed soils
as compacted under standard procedures.
 DENSITY TEST OF SOIL
o The density of soil or weight per cubic foot varies with the
peculiarities of the soil itself, the moisture content, and the
compacted device plus the method of their use. The weight of
soil per cubic foot be fixed, but should be determined in
particular instance

Test Soil
for Density

Laboratory
Field Test
Test

Dynamic or
Static Test Tamping
Impact Test
o
 STATIC TEST – to determine the maximum density of
laboratory samples, a sample of about 5000 grams of soil
containing a specified percentage of water is placed in a
cylinder mold 6 inches diameter and 8 inches high.
 DYNAMIC OR IMPACT TEST - Samples of soil each
containing a designated percentage of water are
compacted in layers into mold of specified size.
 TAMPING FOOT OR KNEADING COMPACT TEST -
The materials is fed into rotating mold and compacted by
several repetitive loads applied through tamping shoe
shaped like a sector of the circle.

29
 o FOUR FACTORS THAT AFFECT THE ACCURACY OF
MEASURING RELATIVE DENSITY
 Change the soil itself.
 The sampling methods
 The accuracy of laboratory testing for standard density
 The accuracy of testing field density
THE MAIN VARIABLES IN SOIL PROPER
 SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF THE SOIL PARTICLES that may vary from
2.0 to 3.3 that is normally between 2.5 and 2.8
 PARTICLE SIZE DISTRIBUTION OF THE SOIL. A mass composed of
entirely spheres of one sizes in the densest possible condition will
contain 75% solid and 25% voids. The smaller the sphere in the mass
the higher the percentage of the solid, hence, particle size distribution
may greatly affect density
 GRAIN SHAPE OF SOIL PARTICLES. Sharp angular particles resist
shifting from loose to a compacted state. Flaky particles in soil will
decrease its density because they are difficult to compact
TRIAXIAL DESIGN METHOD
 This method is adopted by some agencies for compression tests (see
AASHTO design T-234) the open system triaxial test, lateral pressure
is held constant by releasing from the container as increased load
causes the sample to expand laterally.
NUCLEAR DEVICE TEST
 Recently, nuclear devices for determining in-place densities and
moisture contents are used. The principle of the measurement by
nuclear instrument is relatively simple. Gauge reading are easily
converted to density and prevent moisture using calibration curves or
microprocessors. The portable devices are of either the transmission or
backscatter types.
SOIL SURVEYS
 A preliminary soil investigation is an integral part of highways
reconnaissance and preliminary location survey
 In fixing the position of the road, the following has to be considered:
o Soil conditions
o Directness of the route
o Topography
o Right of way
o Neighborhood disruption
o Environmental consideration
 The early phase of the soil survey is the collection of information such
as:
o Identification of soil types from geological and agricultural soil
maps, aerial photographs and other sources
o Investigation of ground water conditions
o Examination of existing roadways cuts and other excavation

30
 o Review the design and construction procedures
o Present condition of roads that traverse the area
o Soil exploration along the right of way using auger boring and
test pile
o Sampling should be at frequent enough intervals to fix the
boundaries of each soil types
o Test holes should extend to a significant depth below the sub
grade elevation with a recommended minimum depth of 1.50
meters.
o A complete and systematic record shall be made for each hole
o The location, the nature of the ground, origin of parent material,
landform and agricultural soil name should be recorded
o Each soil layer is described according to its thickness texture
structure, organic, relation content, and cementation
o The depth of seepage zones of the free water table and bedrock
are also recorded
o The soil profile along the roadway centerline showing location or
test holes range of soil profile characteristic for each district soil
type is plotted.
 Most highway agencies make a detailed study along with the first
survey such as:
o The vertical and horizontal location of the proposed construction
o Location and evaluation of suitable borrow and construction
materials
o Need for and type or sub grade or embankment foundation
treatment and drainage
o Need for special excavation and dewatering techniques
o Development of detailed subsurface investigation for specific
structure
o Investigation of slope stability in both outs and embankment

31
Group Members:
Noora, Kenneth
Tiamzon, Jude Bianes
Macutay, Rafael
Cerveza, Jayson
Gabuco, Patrick
Mendoza, Mark Sherwin

32
 Chapter 4
Road Materials

CONSTRUCTION AGGREGATES
 or simply "aggregate", is a broad category of coarse to medium grained
particulate material used in construction,
including sand, gravel, crushed stone, slag, recycled concrete and
geosynthetic aggregates.
 Aggregates are the most mined materials in the world.
 Aggregates are a component of composite materials such as
concrete and asphalt concrete; the aggregate serves as reinforcement
to add strength to the overall composite material.
 Aggregates (or mineral aggregates) are hard, inert materials such as
sand, gravel, crushed stone, slag, or rock dust. Properly selected and
graded aggregates are mixed with the cementing medium asphalt to
form pavements.

 Classifications of Aggregates
 Asphalt Concrete Paving Aggregates
are classified according to source or means of
preparation. A brief description of the classifications
follows.

 Pit or Bank-Run Aggregates

Both gravel and sand are typically pit or bank-run
natural aggregates. They usually are screened to
proper size and washed to remove dirt before being
used for Asphalt Concrete paving purposes.
 Processed Aggregates
When natural pit or bank-run aggregate has been
crushed and screened to make it suitable for Asphalt
Concrete pavements, it is considered a processed
aggregate. Crushing typically improves the particle
shape by making the rounded particles more angular.
Crushing also improves the size distribution and range.

 Crushed stone

33
 is also a processed aggregate. It is created when the fragments of bedrock
and large stones are crushed so that all particle faces are fractured. Variation
in size of particles is achieved by screening. Aggregates that have received
little or no screening are known as crusher run. These aggregates are
generally more economical than screened aggregates and can be used in
Asphalt Concrete pavements in many instances.
 Synthetic Aggregates
Aggregates produced by altering both physical and
chemical properties of a parent material are called
synthetic or artificial aggregates. Some are produced
and processed specifically for use as aggregates;
others are the byproduct of manufacturing and a final
burning process. Blast furnace slag is an example of a
synthetic aggregate.

PORTLAND CEMENT
 is the most common type of cement in general use around the world as
a basic ingredient of concrete, mortar, stucco, and non-specialty grout.
 It was developed from other types of hydraulic lime in England in the
mid 19th century, and usually originates from limestone.
 It is a fine powder, produced by heating limestone and clay minerals in
a kiln to form clinker, grinding the clinker, and adding 2 to 3 percent
of gypsum. Several types of Portland cement are available.
 The most common, called ordinary Portland cement (OPC), is grey, but
white Portland cement is also available.
 Its name is derived from its similarity to Portland stone which was
quarried on the Isle of Portland in Dorset, England.

 It was named by Joseph

Aspdin who obtained a
patent for it in 1824.
However, his son William
Aspdin is regarded as the
inventor of "modern" Portland
cement due to his
developments in the 1840s.
 Effects of Portland cement
 Portland cement is caustic, so it can cause chemical burns. The
powder can cause irritation or, with severe exposure, lung

34
 cancer, and can contain some hazardous components, such as
crystalline silica and hexavalent chromium. Environmental
concerns are the high energy consumption required to mine,
manufacture, and transport the cement, and the related air
pollution, including the release of greenhouse
gases (e.g., carbon dioxide), dioxin, NOx, SO2, and particulates.
 The production of Portland cement contributes to about 10% of
world carbon dioxide emission. To meet the rising global
population, the International Energy Agency estimated that the
cement production is set to increase between 12 to 23% by
2050. There are several ongoing researches targeting a suitable
replacement of Portland cement by Supplementary
Cementitious Materials
The low cost and widespread availability of the limestone, shales, and other
naturally-occurring materials used in Portland cement make it one of the
lowest-cost materials widely used over the last century.
Concrete produced from Portland cement is one of the world's most versatile
construction materials.

The Development of Portland Cement

Portland cement was developed from natural cements made in Britain
beginning in the middle of the 18th century. Its name is derived from its
similarity to Portland stone, a type of building stone quarried on the Isle of
Portland in Dorset, England.
o IN 1756
The development of modern Portland cement (sometimes called ordinary or
normal Portland cement) began, when John Smeaton experimented with
combinations of different limestones and additives,
including trass and pozzolanas, relating to the planned construction of a
lighthouse, now known as Smeaton's Tower.
o In the late 18th century

Roman cement was developed

o In 1796

patented by James Parker

o In the 1850s
Roman cement quickly became popular but was largely replaced by Portland
cement.  

35
 o In 1811,

James Frost produced a cement he called British cement.

o In 1826

James Frost is reported to have erected a manufactory for making of an

artificial cement.  
o In 1811

Edgar Dobbs of Southwark patented a cement of the kind invented 7 years

later by the French engineer Louis Vicat. Vicat's cement is an artificial
hydraulic lime, and is considered the 'principal forerunner of Portland cement.
o In 1823

The name Portland cement is recorded in a directory published being

associated with a William Lockwood, a Dave Stewart, and possibly others.
o In 1824

Cement patent, Joseph Aspdin called his invention "Portland cement"

because of the its resemblance to Portland stone.  However, Aspdin's cement
was nothing like modern Portland cement, but was a first step in the
development of modern Portland cement, and has been called a 'proto-
Portland cement.William Aspdin had left his father's company, to form his own
cement manufactury.
o In the 1840's

William Aspdin, apparently accidentally, produced calcium silicates which are

a middle step in the development of Portland cement.
o In 1848

William Aspdin further improved his cement.

o In 1853

he moved to Germany, where he was involved in cement making. William

Aspdin made what could be called 'meso-Portland cement' (a mix of Portland
cement and hydraulic lime). Isaac Charles Johnson further refined the
production of 'meso-Portland cement' (middle stage of development) and
claimed to be the real father of Portland cement.
o In 1859

John Grant of the Metropolitan Board of Works set out requirements for
cement to be used in the London sewer project. This became a specification
for Portland cement.
The next development in the manufacture of Portland cement was the
introduction of the rotary kiln, patented by German Friedrich Hoffmann, called

36
a Hoffmann kiln for brick making in 1858, and then Frederick Ransome in
1885 (U.K.) and 1886 (U.S.); which allowed a stronger, more homogeneous
mixture and a continuous manufacturing process.  The Hoffmann 'endless' kiln
which gave 'perfect control over combustion' was tested in 1860, and showed
the process produced a better grade of cement. This cement was made at the
Portland Cement fabric sStern at Stettin, which was the first to use a
Hoffmann kiln.  It is thought that the first modern Portland cement was made
there. The Association of German Cement Manufacturers issued a standard
on Portland cement in 1878.

Portland cement had been imported into the United States from Germany and
England, and in the 1870s and 1880s, it was being produced by Eagle
Portland cement near Kalamazoo, Michigan, and in 1875, the first Portland
cement was produced in the Coplay Cement Company Kilns under the
direction of David O. Saylor in Coplay, Pennsylvania. By the early 20th
century, American-made Portland cement had displaced most of the imported
Portland cement.

Bituminous Materials and Binders

o DEFINITION

 Bituminous Materials is generally used to denote substances

in which bitumen is present or from which it can be derived.
 Bitumen is a black or dark colored solid or viscous cementitious
substances consists chiefly high molecular weight hydrocarbons
derived from distillation of petroleum or natural asphalt, has
adhesive properties, and is soluble in carbon disulphide.
 Generic name applied to various mixtures of
hydrocarbons
 When mixed with aggregates in their hot fluid state, and
then allowed to cool, they solidify and bind the aggregates
together, forming a pavement surface.
 Most common materials within the family of bitumen’s are
tars, pitches, and asphalts
 The use of bituminous materials were initially limited to
road construction. Now the applications have spread over
the area of roof construction, for industrial purposes,
carpet tiles, paints and as a special coating for
waterproofing.
o HISTORY

37
  Bitumen is described as one of mankind’s oldest
engineering material.
 This fact is supported by some evidence. Back at the time,
nearly 3000 years BC, the Sumerians in Mesopotamia
used bitumen to fasten ivory or pearl into the eye sockets of
their statues.
 Used by the early Babylonians as a building material
because of its properties as a cement and water proofing
agent. Other Evidence found that, about 600 BC King
Nebuchadnezzar of Babylon rebuilt the city wall, which he
intends to restrain the water of the Euphrates with burnt
bricks and bitumen because the old wall which is made of
dried clay bricks had failed to keep the waters at the bay.
 Bitumen was widely used in this area was its
availability in various forms. It was also available
as a solid material in the form of bituminous
limestone. Because of its availability, bitumen has
taken parts in many great legends of Biblical and
pre-Biblical times. It is said that, bitumen has
been used in the building of the Tower of Babel
and for the waterproofing of Noah’s Ark and
Moses’ wicker basket
 The Romans used bitumen for medicinal purposes
whereas they use bitumen for preventing and curing a
number of ailments including boils, toothache and
ringworm. Meanwhile, Roman ladies used bitumen for
cosmetic purposes whereas they used bitumen as a means
of beautifying their eyebrows
 Christopher Columbus and Sir Walter Raleigh found that
the lakes of asphalt in Trinidad are useful for re-caulking/
sealing their ships from leakages for the return voyage.
 By the middle of the nineteenth century, the usage of
bitumen for the road construction is to solve the problem of
the dust raised by the horse-drawn traffic in towns. They
started to realize the important of streets and road which
would lead to the unimagined standard of smoothness
and durability for the elements needed for their creation in
the future.

o Requirements of Bitumen

38
  The bitumen should not be highly temperature
susceptible: during the hottest weather the mix should
not become too soft or unstable, and during cold
weather the mix should not become too brittle causing
cracks.
 The viscosity of the bitumen at the time of mixing and
compaction should be adequate. This can be
achieved by use of cutbacks or emulsions of suitable
grades or by heating the bitumen and aggregates
prior to mixing.
 There should be adequate affinity and adhesion
between the bitumen and aggregates used in the mix.

o TEST OF PROPERTIES

 There are a number of tests to assess the

properties of bituminous materials.
 Penetration test
 It measures the hardness or softness of bitumen
by measuring the depth in tenths of a millimeter to
which a standard loaded needle will penetrate
vertically during a period of time at a given
temperature.
 Tested using Penetrometer.
 The grades with penetrations greater than 40 are
mostly used in road construction and
occasionally in industrial applications. The grades
with penetrations less than 40 are used
exclusively in industrial applications. In hot
climate lower grades such as 60/70 is used.
 Ductility test
 Conducted to determine the amount bitumen will
stretch at temperature below its softening
point.
 Presence of ductility means the formation of the
film and coating would be proper.
 Ductility values ranges from 0 to over 150
depending on the type of bitumen.
 Softening point test

39
  This property make us to know
whether given bitumen can be
used at the particular place i.e.
softening point value should be
higher than pavement
temperature otherwise bitumen
present in the layer get soften
and come out.
 Softening point is the
temperature at which a steel ball
falls a known distance through
the bitumen when the test
assembly is heated at a known
rate.
 Typical values would be 240 °F
for coating grade asphalts, 140
°F to 220 °F for roofing asphalt
and down to 115 °F for
bituminous water proofing
material.
 Specific gravity test
 Specific gravity of a binder does not influences its
behavior. But all the same, its value is needed in mix
design. The property is determined at 27º C.
 Viscosity test
 Used to determine the flow characteristics of
asphalts in the range of temperatures used
during application.
 The flow properties of bitumens vary
considerably with temperature and stress
conditions.This characteristic greatly
influences the strength of resulting paving
mixes.
 Flash Point Test
 Indicates the temperature to which asphalt
cement can be safely heated without danger
of flash.
 A brass cup is partially filled with cement and
heated at a prescribed rate. A small flame is
place over the surface of the sample
 Float test
40
  Normally the consistency of bituminous
material can be measured either by penetration
test or viscosity test, but for certain range of
consistencies, these tests are not applicable
and Float test is used.
 Water content test
 It is desirable that the bitumen contains
minimum water content to prevent foaming of
the bitumen when it is heated above the boiling
point of water.
 The allowable maximum water content should
not be more than 0.2% by weight.
 Loss on heating test
 When the bitumen is heated it loses the
volatility and gets hardened.
 Bitumen used in pavement mixes should not
indicate more than 1% loss in weight, but for
bitumen having penetration values 150-200 up
to 2% loss in weight is allowed.
Example of summary of test of properties

41
 CLASSIFICATION OF BITUMINOUS MATERIALS

o Asphalts

 Definition
 Asphalts are the most common and most
widely used bituminous materials
 It refers to a black cementitious material
which varies widely in consistency from solid to
semisolid at normal temperatures
 Available as natural deposits or are produced
from petroleum processing.
 Asphalts in pavements acts as a binder for the
aggregates, in this capacity as a cement, the
asphalts are usually semisolid
 Origin
 The first recorded use of asphalt as a road
building material was in Babylon around
615 BCE, in the reign of King
Nabopolassar.
 The word asphalt comes from the Greek
“asphaltos,” meaning “secure.”.
 The Romans used it to seal their baths,
reservoirs and aqueducts.
 Belgian chemist Edmund J. DeSmedt laid the
first true asphalt pavement in the U.S. in
Newark, N.J. DeSmedt also paved
Pennsylvania Avenue in Washington, D.C. –
using 54,000 square yards of sheet asphalt

42
 from Trinidad Lake. The Cummer Company
opened the first central hot mix production
facilities in the U.S. The first asphalt patent was
filed by Nathan B. Abbott of Brooklyn, N.Y. in
1871.
 Today Asphalt pavement is the most recycled
product in America – more than newspaper,
aluminum cans or glass.
 Classifications of Asphalt
 Natural deposits
 Native asphalts
 Obtained from asphalt lakes in
Trinidad and other Caribbean
areas, these were used in some
of the earliest pavements in
North America.

 Rock asphalts
 Rock deposits containing
bituminous materials which
have been used for road
surfaces in localities where
they occur

 Petroleum asphalts
o These are colloidally dispersed
hydrocarbons in crude petroleum and
are obtained by refining petroleum
crudes. Gradually, these refined
asphalts became plentiful and good
quality. This forced the natural asphalt
into position of relative unimportance.
o Higher-grade crude oil (i.e., crude oil
with less residual matter) may contain as
little as 10% asphalt , whereas lower-
grade crude oil (i.e., crude oil with more
residual matter) may contain as much as
90% asphalt

43
A flow chart showing production of different types of petroleum asphalts
are shown in the adjoining figure.

 Asphalt
Cement
 obtained by distillation process from
crude petroleum using different
refining process.
 Cut back asphalt
 Liquid asphalts or cutback
asphalts are asphalt cements
mixed with a solvent to reduce
their viscosity to make them
easier to use at ordinary
temperatures
 Upon evaporation of the solvent,
they cure or harden and cement
the aggregate particles together
 Types and grades, as given
below, are based on the type of
solvent, which governs viscosity
and the rates of evaporation and
curing
 Rapid-Curing (RC)
 Produced by
adding a light

44
 diluent of high
volatility (generally
gasoline or naphtha)
to asphalt cement
 Medium-Curing
(MC)
 Produced by adding
a medium diluent of
intermediate
volatility (generally
kerosene) to asphalt
cement.
 Slow-Curing (SC)
 Produced by adding
oils of low volatility
(generally diesel or
other gas oils) to
asphalt cement
 Emulsified asphalt
 a mixture of asphalt cement, water and
emulsified agent. This emulsified asphalt is
usually used for prime coat (binder and
road-base) and tack coat (binder and
wearing).

o Tars

 Primarily manufactured from the destructive

distillation of bituminous coal and has a very distinct
ordor
 hardly used in paving
o Some undesirable physical characteristic such
as very high temperature susceptibility
o Significant health hazards such as severe eye
and skin irritation when exposed to its fume.
o Pitches

 Partial evaporation or fractional distillation of tar produces

the solid or semi-solid residue of pitch

45
 o SOME USES OF BITUMENS

 Hydraulics & erosion control Catchment areas, basins

 Dam grouting
 Dam linings, protection
 Dyke protection
 Ditch linings
 Drainage gutters, structures
 Asphalt shingles
 Built up roofing
 Fiberboard

Road construction

Water Proofing

Roof Shingles

Macadam
 A type of road construction pioneered by Scottish engineer John
Loudon McAdam around 1820.

46
 o McAdam was convinced that massive stone slabs would not be
needed to carry the weight of passing carriages, as long as the
road was kept dry. McAdam came up with the idea of raising
roadbeds to ensure adequate drainage
 The method simplified what had been considered state of the art at
that point.
 Single-sized aggregate layers of small stones, with a coating of binder
as a cementing agent, are mixed in an open-structured roadway.

Constructing the Macadam Asphalt Road

1. Spread the coarsest aggregate to the roadway. Compact with either
smooth wheeled roller or vibratory devices.
2. Smoothness of the surface is checked after compaction. Low spots are
corrected by removing, replacing and recompacting the stones until
smooth surface is attained.
3. Apply asphalt by spreading the right amount of bitumen at specified
temperature. The lower the stone layer will not be coated if the asphalt
binder is too thick On the other hand, too fluid mixture will cause
running the binder down underlying layers.
4. In placing the keystone base course, sufficient amount of smaller stone
is mixed and spread on top to fill the interlocking voids, followed by
compaction the spraying with asphalt binder.
5. Sealing of the surface is applied to seal the pavement against
moisture. These involve spreading of selected binder, spraying and
rolling of the cover aggregates.
6. During construction , the weather must be dry and warm. If not, it is
better to used emulsified asphalt as binder.
7. Before the application of asphalt binder, coarse aggregate is first
chocked with smaller stone to seal the remaining top voids, followed by
spraying emulsified asphalt binder.

BITUMINUOUS CONCRETE PAVEMENT

• Term asphalt concrete refers to a dense graded road surface made of
hot mineral aggregates, mixed with hot asphalt and laid at high
temperature with about 275 degree f to 300 degree f.
• Is a combination of mineral aggregates and bituminous binders. The
mixtures of rock material particles with asphalt has created so many
names such as:

47
 • Plant mix
• Asphalt sheet
• Road mix
• Armor coat
• Oil mat
• Asphalt macadam
• Asphaltic concrete
• Mastic
• National paving
• Bituminous pavements are made with by-products of petroleum, such
as asphalt. Weather and seasonal changes can cause roadways and
the earth below them to rise or fall slightly. As these natural shifts
occur, bituminous pavements allow the road surface to bend or flex
slightly without breaking.
• Bituminous material softens when heated and can be prepared and
applied in a wide range of concentrations. Thin layers of bituminous
material are sometimes applied with a pressure sprayer to the base
course or the top course. The bituminous material seeps into the
crushed rock and penetrates the tiny spaces between the compacted
rocks, binding the aggregate together. To provide traction for moving
traffic, a thin layer of aggregate may then be spread over the
bituminous material and compacted.
ASPHALT CONCRETE PAVEMENT
Asphalt Concrete is a composite material commonly used in construction of
roads, highways, airports, parking lots, and many other types of
pavement.    It is commonly called simply asphalt or blacktop. The terms
“asphalt concrete”, “bituminous asphalt concrete” and the abbreviation “AC”
are typically used only in engineering and construction documents and
technical literature where the definition of “concrete” is any composite material
composed of mineral aggregate glued together with a binder, whether that
binder is Portland cement, asphalt or even epoxy. To the layperson Asphalt
Concrete pavements is most often called just “asphalt“.
Asphalt concrete pavement are made of?
Asphalt concrete pavement mixes are typically composed of 5%
asphalt cement and 95% aggregates (stone, sand, and gravel). Due to its
highly viscous nature, asphalt cement must be heated so it can be mixed with
the aggregates at the asphalt mixing facility.
Asphalt Mix Types

48
An asphalt concrete mixture must be designed, produced and placed in order
to obtain the following desirable mix properties: 1) Stability, 2) Durability, 3)
Impermeability, 4) Workability, 5) Flexibility, 6) Fatigue Resistance, and 7)
Skid Resistance.  Asphalt/Asphalt Concrete mixes are designed for specific
functions, characteristics, attributes, performance, location and function in the
pavement structure.  For example, asphalt surface mixes have an entirely
different function in the pavement structure than base asphalt mixes and are
therefore designed differently.
Surface Asphalt mixes – The “roof” over the
pavement’s  structural layers and are designed to be long
lasting, sacrificial  (designed to wear out first, protecting
the underlying layers).   At some point (typically 12-15
years or more after placement) they are removed by cold-
planing (commonly called milling) and replaced with a new
surface.  Different performance characteristics in terms of
surface      durability, tire wear, braking efficiency and
roadway noise, can also be achieved depending on
application, desired function and performance.
Base Mixes – The structural strength element of the
asphalt pavement system and are designed for maximum
strength, distributing the  wheel loads over the subbase
and subgrade. Because they are protected by the asphalt
“roof” (surface) the appropriate asphalt base mixes
performance  can be achieved economically.
Different kinds of Asphalt Concrete
To be able to provide the best performance to different sectors, a large variety
of asphalt mixes can be offered. Due to the different requirements e.g. a road
needs to fulfill (high traffic, tough weather conditions etc) the respective mix
used needs to have an sufficient stiffness and resistance to deformation in
order to cope with the applied pressure from vehicle wheels on the one hand,
yet on the other hand, the need to have an adequate flexural strength to resist
cracking caused by the varying pressures exerted on them. Moreover, good
workability during application is essential in order to ensure that they can be
fully compacted to achieve optimum durability.
 Hot Mix Asphalt (HMA)
 Hot mixes are produced at a temperature between
150 and 190 °C.
 Depending on the usage, a different asphalt mixture can
be used.
- Porous Asphalt
- Stone Mastic Asphalt (SMA)

49
 - Asphalt Concrete
- Asphalt Concrete for very thin layers
- Double layered Porous Asphalt

 Warm  Mix Asphalt (WMA)

 A typical WMA is produced at a temperature around 20 –
40 °C lower than an  equivalent Hot Mix Asphalt. Less
energy is involved and, during the paving operations, the
temperature in the mix is lower, resulting in improved
working conditions for the crew and an earlier opening of
the road.
  Cold Mix
 Cold mixes are produced without heating the aggregate.
This is only possible, due to the use of a specific bitumen
emulsion which breaks either during compaction or during
mixing. After breaking, the emulsion coats the aggregate
and over time, increases its strengths. Cold mixes are
particularly recommendable for lightly trafficked roads.

GENERAL CONCEPT OF PAVEMENT DETERIORATION

Bituminous pavement deterioration generally takes place due to combined
action of traffic, weather changes, drainage, environmental factors etc.
Flexible pavements generally deteriorates at a very rapid rate when compared
to rigid pavements due to the above factors, however, flexible pavements
continue to deteriorate at a slow rate even without the traffic movement on the
surface due to the climate and environmental factors.
TYPES OF BITUMINOUS PAVEMENT DETERIORATION
The common types of distresses in bituminous pavement are classified
in to the following four major groups; i.e  surface deformation  Cracking 
Disintegration, and  Surface defects.

SURFACE DEFORMATION
The surface deformation occurs usually due to failure or weakness in one of
the layers of the pavement due to traffic movement after construction.The
common types of surface deformation includes the following;
a) Corrugations:
Corrugation is a form of bituminous pavement distress which usually occurs
due to formation of regular and shallow undulations in the form of ripples or

50
small corrugations of depth up to 25mm on the bituminous surface or across
the road on some stretches. The probable causes of corrugation include the
following;
 Lack of stability in the bituminous mix
 Excess binder content in the bituminous mix
 Excess proportion of fines in the mix
 Use of binder of low viscosity with respect to the temperature of the region
 Faulty laying of surface course
The possible remedial measures for corrugation include scarifying the
bituminous surfacing with corrugation and removing the surfacing along with
top portion of the existing base course and recompacting the material: After
applying prime coat and tack coat another bituminous surface course may be
laid using a mechanical paver

Rutting;
This is the longitudinal deformation or depression of the pavement surface
along the wheel path of heavy vehicles formed due to repeated applications of
heavy load along the same wheel path resulting in cumulative non-
recoverable or pavement deformation of the pavement layers including
subgrade and one or more of the pavement layers.
The various causes of rutting may be summed up as;
 Inadequate stability of the subgrade or sub-base or base course or surface
course or few of these pavement layers.
 Inadequate compaction of the subgrade or any of the pavement layers
 Channelized movement of heavy wheel loads causing significant vertical
stress on the subgrade
 Improper design and specification of bitumen mix
 Inadequate thickness of the pavement or weak pavement structure And the
possible remedial measures for this type of distress include;

51
 Cleaning the affected surface
 Application of tack coat and covering the ruts
 Filling the ruts using either a dense graded bituminouss mix or open graded
pre-mix followed by seal coat
 Compaction by rolling
 Providing a thin bituminous resurfacing course to achieve good riding
quality.
The remedial measures may include either total reconstruction of the
pavement starting from laying new subgrade or partial reconstruction of the
affected portion along the pavement, starting from the subgrade depending
upon the severity of the failure.

(c) Shoving;
Shoving is a form of plastic movement resulting in a localized bulging of the
pavement surface. Shoving can take a number of different forms such as
upheaval, “wash boarding” or ripples across the pavement surface, or even a
crescent –shaped bulging.
The causes of shoving include the following;
 Lack of stability in the bituminous mix
 Too much binder content in the hot mix
 Use of rounded and smooth textured aggregate particles in the mix
 Excess proportion of fines in the mix
The remedial measure for shoving is the removal of the materials to firm base
and relaying a stable mix.

52
(d) Shallow depressions:
Shallow depression are small localized bowlshaped area that may include
cracking. Depressions usually causes the roughness on the bituminous
pavement surface and are hazardous to automobiles, and they also allow
collection of water on the pavement surface. The probable causes of
depressions are the presence of inadequate compacted pocket or rather a
localized consolidation or movement of the supporting layers beneath the
surface course due to instability.
Remedial measures include filling with pre-mix materials, excavating and
rebuilding the localized depressions, and reconstruction is required for
extensive depressions.
(e) Settlement and Upheaval:
Settlement and upheaval occurs due to large deformation of the pavement
surface caused by expansion of the supporting layers beneath the surface
course or the subgrade
The causes due to this kind of distress include; poor compaction of fills, poor
drainage, inadequate pavement or frost heave.
The remedies to this include carrying out one of the following; Where the fill is
weak, the defective fill should be excavated and re-done. And where
inadequate pavement is the cause, the pavement should be strengthened.

CRACKING
The presence of surface cracks significantly reduces the life of bituminous
pavements. This is because the surface cracks are one of the main
contributors to the development of other different types of cracks in
bituminous layers. They accelerate the development of cracking which would
ultimately lead to early failure of the pavement.
The common types of cracks include the following;
(a) Fatigue Cracking:
Fatigue cracks are a series of longitudinal and interconnected cracks caused
by the repeated application of wheel loads. This type of cracking generally
starts as short longitudinal cracks in the wheel path and progress to an
alligator cracking pattern (Interconnected cracks) as shown below.It happens
due to repeated bending action of the hot mix asphalt HMA (surface layer)
when the load is applied, this generates tensile stress that eventually creates
cracks at the bottom of the asphalt layer. Cracks gradually propagates to the
top of the asphalt layer and later progress and interconnect.

53
The possible causes include inadequate structural support which can be
caused by a number of things. A few of the more common ones are listed
here;
 Decrease in pavement load support characteristics.
 Loss of base, sub-base or sub-grade support ( e.g poor drainage orspring
thaw resulting in less stiff base).
 Stripping on the bottom of the HMA (surface layer) (the stripped portion
contributes little to the pavement strength, so effective HMA thickness
decreases).
 Increase in loading (more than design load)
 Poor construction (e.g Inadequate compaction)
The remedial measures for a fatigue cracks generally includes;
 Removal of the cracked pavement area then digging out and replacing the
area of poor subgrade and improving the drainage of that area if necessary.
 Patch over the repaired sub-grade.
 Alternatively, place the HMA overlay over the entire pavement surface. This
overlay must be strong enough structurally to carry the anticipated loading
because the underlying fatigue cracked pavements most likely contribute little
or no strength.

(b) Transverse Cracking:

These are cracks perpendicular to the pavement centerline or lay down
direction, they usually begin as hairline and widen with age. If not properly
sealed and maintained, multiple cracks develop parallel to the initial crack.
Possible causes to this type of cracking include;
 Shrinkage of the HMA surface due to low temperature or asphalt binder
hardening.
 Reflective crack caused by cracks beneath the surface layer
The remedial strategies depend upon the severity and extent of cracking.

54
Low severity cracks (1/2 inch wide and numerous cracks);
Seal the cracks to prevent:
 Entry of moisture in to the sub-grade through the cracks.
 Further raveling of the cracked edges.
HMA can however provide years of satisfactory service after developing small
cracks if they are kept sealed
High Severity Cracks (>1/2 inch wide and numerous cracks); Remove and
replace the cracked pavement layer with an overlay.

(c) Longitudinal Cracking:

These are cracks parallel to the pavement centerline or lay down direction,
which may eventually lead to moisture infiltration, roughness, and may
indicate the possible onset of alligator cracking and structural failure.

The possible causes include poor drainage, shoulder settlement, weak joints
between adjoining spread of pavement layers or differential frost heave.

The possible treatment depends on whether the pavement is structurally

sound or unsound. Where the pavement is structurally sound, the cracks
should be filled with low viscosity binder or slurry seal or fog seal depending
on the width of the cracks. Unsound cracked pavements would need
strengthening or rehabilitation treatment.

(d) Edge Cracking:

Edge cracks typically starts as crescent shapes at
the edge of the pavement. They will expand from
the edge until they begin to resemble alligator
cracking. They may occur in a curbed section when
subsurface water causes weakness in the
pavement

55
This type of cracking result from lack of support of shoulders due to weak
materials or excess moisture. Frost heave and inadequate pavement width
also contributes towards formation of this type of distress.

The remedial measures include filling the cracks at low severity. As the
severity increases, patches and replacement of distress areas may be
needed. In all the cases, the excessive moisture should be eliminated and the
shoulders rebuild with good materials.

(e) Reflective Cracking: Reflective cracking has been traditionally thought

to initiate at the bottom of the lower pavement layers and then
propagate to the surface (Abd El Halim ,1987)
Reflective cracks generally develop in bituminous resurfacing or an overlay
constructed over an existing cracked bituminous surface without resorting to
appropriate measures.
The most common causative agents of this type of cracking are due to joints
and cracks in the pavement layer underneath.
The possible treatment depends on whether the pavement is structurally
sound or unsound. Where the pavement is structurally sound, the cracks
should be filled with low viscosity binder or slurry seal or fog seal, depending
the width of the cracks. Unsound cracked pavements will need strengthening
or rehabilitation treatment.

IX. DISINTEGRATION The progressive breaking up of the pavement into

small, loose pieces is called disintegration

56
The two most common types of disintegration are:
(a) Potholes Potholes are small, bowl-shaped depressions in the
pavement surface that penetrate all the way through the hot mix
asphalt (HMA) layer down to the base course. They generally have
a sharp edges and vertical sides near the top of the hole.
Causes:Generally, potholes are the end result of fatigue cracking. As fatigue
cracking becomes severe, the interconnected cracks creates small chunks of
pavement which can be dislodged as vehicles pass over them. The remaining
hole after the pavement chunk is dislodged is called a pothole.
Repair by excavating and rebuilding. Area repairs or reconstruction may be
required for extensive potholes.

(b) Patches: An area of pavement that has been replaced with new
materials to repair the existing pavement. A patch is considered a
defect no matter how well they perform because it never completely
meshes with the existing pavement nor is it structurally bound to it.
The causes include the previous localized pavement deterioration that has
been removed and patched, and also the utility cuts along the pavement.
Repairs: Patches are themselves a repair action, but the only way they can
be removed from the pavement surface is by either a structural or non-
structural overlay

X. SURFACE DEFECTS
Surface defects are related to problems in the surface layer.
The most common types of surface distress are:
(a) Raveling Raveling is the loss of material from the pavement
surface as a result of insufficient adhesion between the asphalt,
cement and the aggregate. Raveling typically tends to occur on
an older pavement that have already oxidized. Raveling can be
accelerated by traffic and other environmental conditions. A
raveled pavement can be repaired with a wearing course or an
overlay

57
 (b) Bleeding: Bleeding occurs when the bituminous mix contains too
much asphalt cement relative to the aggregates. In this case,
the asphalt cement tends to bleed through the surface, hence,
reducing the skid resistance of a pavement thereby making the
pavement very slippery when wet, creating hazard to the road
users.

This problem is generally caused by the presence of excessive binder content

in the mix and also using the binder with too low viscosity (too flowable) or an
improperly applied seal coat. Bleeding occurs more often in hot weather when
the bituminous binder is less viscous (more flowable) and the traffic forces the
asphalt to the surface.

The repairs include either the application of a chip seal using absorbent
aggregates or to mill off the top the top layer of the asphalt and apply a new
course of hot mix asphalt (HMA) that contains a lower asphalt cement
content.
(c) Polishing:
Polishing is a failure mode of the pavement surface consisting of rough
exposed aggregates which is caused by excess repeated traffic on an aging
pavement system. It can result in a dangerous low friction surface with a
decreased skid-resistance.
Repair the surface by applying a skid-resistant slurry seal or a non-structural
overlay

58
Group Members:
Carabbacan, Brian Jan L.
Custodio, Xia Mhay

Fernandez, Natasha Camille S.

Flores, Jimille V.
Villaflor, Ulysees

59
 Chapter 5
Drainage and Slope Protection

Drainage
The construction of roads affects the natural surface and
subsurface drainage pattern of watersheds or hill-slopes. The provision of
adequate drainage is important to prevent the accumulation of
excess water or moisture on or within road constructions that can adversely
affect their material properties, compromise overall stability and affect
driver safety.

The design of highway drainage will depend on several factors,

including:
• The intensity of rainfall expected.
• The size of catchment area.
• The permeability of the surfaces.

Two types of roads:

• Urban roads
• Rural roads

Urban Roads
Surface water is generally collected in channels at the road-side and
discharged through gullies (drainage gratings at the edges of the road) into
storm water sewers. Gullies are typically positioned at intervals of 25-30 m,
depending on the road width and nature of the cross-fall. Gully covers can be
either top opening or side opening.
To reduce the number of required drainage points, pavings and verges should
be graded towards the channel. Culverts may also be used. A culvert is a
closed conduit or tunnel used to convey water from one area to another,
normally from one side of a road to the other side.

Rural Roads
Minor roads usually use simple openings or channels which feed into roadside
ditches.

60
 Most main roads use a system of gullies and piped sewers.
However, soakaways may also be used to discharge water, these are large
underground chambers into which water flows from a gully. Water collects and
gradually soaks through holes into the surrounding ground or to streams and
roadside ditches.

Drainage Economic Considerations

General Considerations:
Roads will affect the natural surface and subsurface drainage pattern of a
watershed or individual hillslope. Road drainage design has as its basic
objective the reduction and/or elimination of energy generated by flowing
water. The destructive power of flowing water increases exponentially as its
velocity increases. Therefore, water must not be allowed to develop sufficient
volume or velocity so as to cause excessive wear along ditches, below
culverts, or along exposed running surfaces, cuts, or fills.
Provision for adequate drainage is of paramount importance in road design
and cannot be overemphasized. The presence of excess water or moisture
within the roadway will adversely affect the engineering properties of the
materials with which it was constructed.
Cut or fill failures, road surface erosion, and weakened subgrades followed by
a mass failure are all products of inadequate or poorly designed drainage.
Many drainage problems can be avoided in the location and design of the
road: Drainage design is most appropriately included in alignment and
gradient planning.
Hydrologic factors to consider in locating roads are number of stream
crossings, side slope, and moisture regime. For example, at the lowest point
on the slope, only one or two stream crossings may be required. Likewise,
side slopes generally are not as steep, thereby reducing the amount of
excavation.
A road drainage system must satisfy two main criteria if it is to be effective
throughout its design life:

• It must allow for a minimum of disturbance of the natural

drainage pattern.
• It must drain surface and subsurface water away from the
roadway and dissipate it in a way that prevents excessive
collection of water in unstable areas and subsequent
downstream erosion.

61
The design of drainage structures is based on the sciences of hydrology and
hydraulics-the former deals with the occurrence and form of water in the
natural environment (precipitation, streamflow, soil moisture, etc.) while the
latter deals with the engineering properties of fluids in motion.

Different structures seen in the Drainage Highway System

Culvert
A culvert is a closed conduit or tunnel used to convey water from one area to
another, normally from one side of a road to the other side. Common culvert
types are:

• Pipe culvert
• Arch pipe culvert
• Box culvert
• Bridge culvert
• Arch culvert

Manhole
Manhole is a small covered opening in a floor, pavement, or other surface to
allow a person to enter, especially an opening in a city street leading to a
sewer.
Inlet / Catch Basin
Many inlets or catch basin have gratings or grids to prevent people, vehicles,
large objects or debris from falling into the storm drain. Grate bars are spaced
so that the flow of water is not impeded, but sediment and many small objects
can also fall through.
Inlet act as the first-line pretreatment for other treatment practices, such
as retention basins, by capturing large sediments and street litter from urban
runoff before it enters the storm drainage pipes.
Channel Drain
Channel drain (can also be called as Trench drain, slot drain or linear drain) is
a specific type of floor drain containing a channel-shaped body. It is used for
the rapid evacuation of surface water or for the containment of utility lines or
chemical spills.

62
Stabilization and improvement for slope and others

Slope Stability
Slope stability refers to the condition of inclined soil or rock slopes to
withstand or undergo movement. 
The analyses are generally aimed at understanding the causes of an occurred
slope failure, or the factors that can potentially trigger a slope movement,
resulting in a landslide, as well as at preventing the initiation of such
movement, slowing it down or arresting it
through mitigation countermeasures.
Stability of slopes can be improved by:
1. Flattening of slope results in reduction in weight which makes the slope
more stable
2. Soil stabilization
3. Providing lateral supports by piles or retaining walls
4. Grouting or cement injections into special places
5. Consolidation by surcharging or electro osmosis increases the stability of
slope.
Retaining Walls
A retaining wall is a structure designed and constructed to resist the lateral
pressure of soil, when there is a desired change in ground elevation that
exceeds the angle of repose of the soil.
Is a structure that holds or retains soil behind it. There are many types of
materials that can be used to create retaining walls like concrete blocks,
poured concrete, treated timbers, rocks or boulders. Some are easy to use,
others have a shorter life span, but all can retain soil.
Gravity Wall
Standard wall type that holds the earth mainly through its own weight.

63
Cantilevered Wall
Uses the same earth pressure trying to topple it to stabilize itself with a
second lever arm.

Piling Wall
Using long piles, this wall is fixed by soil on both sides of its lower length. If
the piles themselves can resist the bending forces, this wall can take high
loads.

Anchored Wall
This wall keeps itself from toppling by having cables driven into the soil or
rock. Fixed by expanding anchors. (can be combined with other types of
walls.)

The most important consideration in proper design and installation of retaining

walls is to recognize and counteract the tendency of the retained material to
move down slope due to gravity. This creates lateral earth pressure behind
the wall which depends on the angle of internal friction (phi) and the cohesive
strength (c) of the retained material, as well as the direction and magnitude of
movement the retaining structure undergoes.

64
Group Members:
Benabon, Harold
Garrovillas, Vonne
Lachica, Tricia Dhan E.
Rubina, Cricelle
Ponco, Makee Enrico

65
 Chapter 6
Constructing the Roadbed
Soil as structure
Early road constructions concentrated mainly on the road surface pavement
and poor attention on subgrade, base material, manner of construction etc.
Too many road failures, endless maintenance and rehabilitation.

Roadway Three Major Structural Parts

1. Sub-grade or sub-base
2. Base Course
3. Pavement
Sub-grade or Sub-base:
-earth beneath the road, arranged and graded, compacted and stabilized.
-“Supporting structure on which the pavement surface and its special under
courses rest
Base Course:
-Materials laid on top of the subgrade consisting of crushed stone or gravel,
sometimes mixed with asphalt binders
Pavement:
-Material laid over the coarse consisting of asphalt concrete or Portland
cement concrete.

Types of base course

1. Granular base course or untreated soil mixture
Described as gravel road
Consist of stone pebbels or crushed rock particle

66
 Requires max liquid limit of 35 and plastic index of 4 to 9
and maximum 8%
passing No. 200 sieve (without bituminous or asphalt
surface treatment)

2. Treated Base Course:

Treated with either Asphalt, Lime, Portland Cement or
other materials as binders
A better road can be produced at a minimal overall cost
Asphalt or bituminous treatment is employed to
waterproof and bind granular aggregate to the sand and
clay
Sand and asphalt course
Compose of either loose beach sand, dune pit or river pit sand
cemented with asphalt material
Early road construction used sand and clay mixture as road surfaces
and base course
Cutback asphalt, Emulsified asphalt or Tars substitute clay binders to
produce quality base road and highways
Surface properties and grain shape must resist displacement
underload.
Asphalt binders with the grade of asphalt cement for hot plant mixing
should be:
Medium viscosity, rapid or medium curing
asphalts
Slow setting emulsified asphalt
Tars of grade RT-6 to RT-10
Content of asphalt binder by weight is 4% to
10%
Fine Grain Asphalt Base
Plastic index of 6 to 10 stabilized base and sub-grade.
Aggregates with plastic Index up to 30 are processed with
lime.
Those with up to 50% passing the No. 200 sieve and
Plastic Index up to 18 can be stabilized even without pre-
treatment

67
 SOIL AND BASE COURSE STABILIZED WITH CEMENT.
Use of Portland cement was
initially practiced after world
war 1 1914.
By mixing natural materials
and Portland cement
compacted at optimum
moisture content and cured to
hydrate cement is
considerably strong and
stable.
Portland cement is more rigid
with its modulus of elasticity
from 100,000 for clays with
little cement up to 1,000,000
for strong mixture.
Portland cement compressive
strength is about 3000 to 5000
psi

Grading and Maintenance of Untreated Surface

Cross slope of untreated surface gravel road must be
sufficient enough to drain water to prevent potholes and softening of the
roadway. If the road materials are sufficiently stable and water tight, one inch
per slope is considered satisfactory. If the road is steep grade, substantial
cross slope is needed to direct the water into the roadside.
Untreated Surface

Seldom constructed in less than 20 cm loose depth. When compacted will be

compressed to about 15 cm thick.
The sequence of improvement could be as follows:
First: It might be an earth road surface

68
 Second: Untreated gravel road
Third: Application of asphaltover the gravel
Fourth: The use of stone type pavement with gravel as
part of the base course.
Dpwh standard specifications on aggregate sub-base course
The Department of Public Works and Highways classified the
aggregate sub-base course as item 200 which consists of furnishing, placing
and compacting aggregate sub-base course on a prepared sub-grade.
Item – 200 material requirements
Aggregates for sub-base shall consist of hard, durable particles of
fragments or crushed stone, crushed slag or crushed or natural gravel
and filler or natural crushed sand or other firmly divided mineral matter.
Composite material should be free of vegetable matter and lumps or
balls of clay that could be compacted readily to form a firm stable base.

Item 201 material requirements

Item
202 material requirement

69
Item 203 lime stabilized road mix base course

Preparation of soil aggregate

Case 1 for new Soil Aggregate
 Existing roadbed is scarified lightly and bladed to a uniform
grade according to the plan, then rolled, watered and rolled.
 All depressions appearing on the surface are filled and weak
portion of the roadbed is strengthened with new soil aggregate
 Allow one day for measuring, sampling and testing of the
sample for approval of the quality and gradation before
spreading the windrow for application of the hydrated lime
 Soil aggregate moisture exceeds two mass percent of the soil
aggregate, apply aeration by harrowing the soil aggregate until
the moisture content to 2% or less.
 Finally, spread the aggreagate smoothly and uniformly over half
the road or other convenient width of the surface ready for the
application of hydrated lime
Case 2 Salvage Soil Aggregate
 When material in the site areto be used for mixing, the surface
should be scarified and bladed to a uniform grade conforming to
the cross section of the plan
 The reshaped is scarified again to depth required leaving a
foundation of undisturbed material parallel with the profile and
cross section
 The loosened material are bladed into a windrow at the side of
the roadway. The undisturbed materials are then rolled, watered
and rolled.

70
Application of lime

 Hydrated lime is uniformly spread at specified percent using either the

dry and slurry (wet) method
 Lime is distributed in successive applications at the amount and
intervals as prescribed
 Mixing equipment to partially mix the lime with the soil aggregate
 Applied only to a specific area
 Dry application thru spotting bags or applying in bulk time
 Proportioning depends upon the percent of lime specified, type of soil
and moist
 To prevent run-off, slurry is mixed immediately after each spreading
pass
Mixing

 The mixture should be free from lean spots or balls of unmixed

particles
 If it shows an excess of deficiency or uneven distribution of lime, must
be corrected by adding soil aggragate or lime then mixed

71
  If it has excessive amount of water or volatile matter it should be
bladed, aerated or manipulated until moisture and volatile content
becomes satisfactory
 All loosened material are bladed into a windrow at the end of each day
work and retained as such until operations resumed
Spreading compacting and finishing

 Materials are spreaded by self-propelled pneumatic tired blade grader

or mechanical spreader of approved type.
 After spreading the surface is leveled to the road centerline, then to the
outer edges of the road overlapping the shoulder
 Each pass should terminate at least 90 cm in advance or the rear of
the preceding pass
 During the time of compaction, the surface is drag to fill and remove
corrugation or other surface irregularities
 Rolling must continue until after surface is in uniform texture
 Rolling should be stop whenever there is an excessive pulverizing
 Protection, curing and maintenance
 Curing methods
 Thorough and continuous moist condition should be maintained
by sprinkling
 Surface must be covered with 50 mm layer of earth or sand and
maintained in moist condition
 Surface is applied with asphalt membrane of the type and
quantity approved by the highway
Item 204 Portland cement stabilized road mix base course

72
 - Consist of a foundation for surface course composed of soil aggregate,
Portland cement and water, proper proportions of road-mixed placed
on a prepared sub-grade or sub-base.
 Proportioning Mixture
 The amount of cement added to the aggregate shall be 6
to 10 mass % of the dry aggregate
 Construction requirement and procedures is the same as
that of item 203 wherein the world lime is deleted and
replaced Portland cement
Item 205 asphalt stabilized road mixed base course

Materials:
 Asphalt materials should be Anionic or Cationic Emulsion
asphalt of the slow setting type
Mixture Proportion:
 The amount of asphalt material to be added to the aggregate
should be from 4 to 7 mass percent of the dry aggregate
Item 206 Portland cement treatment plant mix base course
A.) Travel plant mixing method:
Salvage or new aggregate is pulverized until at least 80 mass percent of all
the materials other than stone or gravel passes a 4.75 mm sieve
Procedure:
1. Aggregate to be treated, is placed in uniform windrow
spreaded to a uniform thickness to the required depth
2. Portland cement of proper quantity is applied uniformly
3. Mixing is done by machine for thorough and uniform
blended mixture
4. Maximum time of 2 hrs. is allowed for wet mixing, letdown
and finishing

73
B) Central plant mixing method:
The plant is equipped with feeding and metering devices that will introduce
the cement aggregate and water into the mixer in quantities specified
Mixing continue until after a uniform mixture is attained
C) Spreading, compacting and finishing:
Not more than 60 minutes should elapse from the start of mixing to
compaction of the laid mixture. After spreading, the mixture is compacted and
finished in accordance with the procedures as enumerated for lime stabilized
road mix base course.
Clearing and grubbing
Categorized under item 100 of DPWH standard specification it consists
clearing, removing and disposing of all vegetable matter and debris.
Methods of Measurement
 Area basis : by hectare and fractions thereof acceptably
cleared and grubbed
 Lump sum basis: No measurement of area will be made
for this item
 Individual unit basis (selective clearing): The diameter of
trees will be measured at the height of 1.4 meters above
the ground.

Excavation
Process of loosening and removing earth or rock from its original position in a
cut and transporting it to a fill or to waste deposit.

Roadway excavation is classified into:

 Unclassified excavation
Is the excavation and disposal of all materials regardless of its nature, or not
classified and included in the bill of quantities under other pay items.

74
  Rock excavation
Consists of igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic rocks that cannot be
excavated without blasting having a volume 1 cubic meter.

 Common excavation
This are those that are not included in the bill of quotations under the rock
excavation or other items.

 Muck excavation
Consist of the removal and disposal of
deposit.

75
  Borrow excavation
It is the excavation and utilization of approved materials for the construction of
embankment or for other portions of the work obtained from approved sources
provided by the contractor.
 Borrow Case 1: Material obtained from sources designated on
the plans or in the special provisions
 Borrow Case 2: Material obtained from sources provided by the
contractor
The use of Excavated Materials
All suitable materials removed from the excavation area are used in the
formation of:
 Embankment
 Slope
 Sub grade
 Bedding
 Shoulder
 Backfill for Structures
Free haul - overhaul
 Free haul distance is the specified distance wherein an excavated
material will be hauled without additional cost
 Its distance is 600 m unless otherwise specified in the contract
 Overhaul is an authorized hauling in excess of the free haul distance.
METHODS OF MEASUREMENT
 Overhaul distance will be measured along the centerline of the
roadway
 No allowance will be made for traverse of lateral movement to or from
the centerline
 Payment will be based on overhaul distance measured along the route
Embankment on swampy areas
 Removal and replacement method is applicable where the unstable
material is shallow or thin
 Surcharging method is applied on low fill over shallow muck up to 30 to
40 cm depth.

76
  Vertical sand drain method provides rapid consolidation of deep layer
muck
 Displacement method Imported material are carefully placed along the
advancing slope allowed to flow under the dense muck to displace.
 Under-fill method: when muck is deeper or thick, the
trench is blasted and a large volume of the fill atrial is
dropped to settle into the peak
 The relief method is also employed after the fill material
are dumped in place.
 Fabric reinforcement method is covering the muck with
permeable fabrics
 Weight reduction method is installing a block of
Styrofoam over the muck to reduce the weight of the fill

Dpwh specification on embankment

 Suitable Material
- Material acceptable that could be compacted in accordance with the
contract as specified.
 Unstable Material
- Materials containing detrimental quantities of organic substances like
grass, roots and sewage.
- Highly Organic Soils like peat and muck
- Soils with Liquid Limit exceeding 80 and or Plastic Index above 55
- Soils with water content above 100%

Compaction
 Contractor should carry out full-scale compaction trials not less than 10
m wide and 50 m long.
 Contractor should adhere to the compaction procedures found during
compaction trials for each type of materials, compaction equipment
employed and each degree of compaction specified
 During construction roadbed should be well maintained and drained all
times

77
Rounding and warping slope
 Rounding
- A layer of earth overlapping rock is rounded above as was done in
earth slope
- Except solid rocks, the top and bottom of all slopes including the
slope and drainage, ditches, are rounded as planned
 Warping
- Adjustment in slope are made to avoid injury to standing trees or
marring of weather head rock
- Slope are adjusted and warped to flow into each other
Sub-grade preparation
 Categorized under item 105 of the DPWH specifications.
 Prepared for the support of overlying structural layers extended to the
full width of the roadway
Material requirement
 All materials below sub-grade is leveled to a depth of 15 cm or more
specified to meet the requirements of selected borrow toppings
 Prior to start of the sub-grade preparation, all culverts cross drains,
conduits and backfills, ditches drains and drainage outlet are
thoroughly compacted
 Any work on the preparation of the sub-grade should not be allowed to
start unless approved by the supervising engineer.
Equipment for compaction
 Pneumatic Tire Roller
- can be used effectively on all types of soil
- It compacts by kneading available as self-propelled unit or towed
units
- Load sizes varies from 20 to 200 tons of which 50 tons is commonly
used

78
 Light Rollers
- Its 20 tons type can compact 6 inches thick layer with few passes
- The 200 tons type was proven to compact 18 inches thick with limited
number of passes

 Sheep’s Foot Roller

- is limited to cohesive soils.
- Its pressure varies from 700 to 4200 KN /m 2

 Vibrator Compactor
- Most effective compactor on non-cohesive soils
- Frequency ranges from 1500 to 2500 cycles per minute

79
  Smooth Drum Roller
- Limited depth of compaction
- Not suited for earth fill compaction due to the size of the drum and
large soil contact

80
Group Members:
Asuncion, Maidelle

Del Rosario, Ronalyn

Dela Cuesta, Mara Mae

Moreno, Renzo

Romero, Dianne

81
 Chapter 7
Concrete Pavement
g CONCRETE PAVEMENT

 Are generally called rigid

pavements and bituminous
pavements as flexible pavements.
 Pavements, in general, can be
classified in two major
categories: concrete pavement and
bituminous pavement.
 Concrete pavements are generally
called rigid pavements and
bituminous pavements as flexible
pavements.
 There could be some other types of
pavements which are neither rigid,
nor flexible, for example, block
pavement, composite pavement.
 A  Pavement is a multi-layered
structure. The layers are placed
one over other. In general, the
strengths of  the layers decrease
from top towards bottom except some special situation like  inverted
pavement. The terminologies used to identify various layers of
bituminous and concrete pavements are identified in Figs. 1 and 2
 Concrete pavement is, in general, consists of three layers, subgrade,
base layer and the concrete slab.

82
Bituminous Pavement
• The subgrade is a compacted soil
layer.
• The base and sub-base course
could be made up of bound or
unbound granular layer. Some
examples of base or sub-base
layers are: Granular sub-
base(GSB), Water Bound
Macadam (WBM), Wet Mix
Macadam (WMM) etc.
• The binder course is made up
bituminous material. Some
examples of binder course are:
Bituminous Macadam (BM),
Dense Bituminous Macadam
(DBM) etc.
• The wearing course is the top
bituminous layer which is comes
in contact to the vehicle tyre.
Wearing course provides impermeability to the pavement surface
against water percolation. The binder course and wearing course

together are called bituminous surfacing.

Reinforcement of Joints
 Jointed reinforced concrete pavement uses contraction
joints and reinforcing steel to control cracking. Transverse joint spacing
is longer than that for JPCP and typically ranges from about 7.6 m (25
ft.) to 15.2 m (50 ft.). Temperature and moisture stresses are expected
to cause cracking between joints, hence reinforcing steel or a steel
mesh is used to hold these cracks tightly together. Dowel bars are

83
 typically used at transverse joints to assist in load transfer while the
reinforcing
steel/wire
mesh assists in
load transfer
across cracks.

Joints
 Joints are purposefully placed
discontinuities in a rigid pavement 
surface course. All types of joints are
used in rigid pavement construction
methods for all PCC pavement types. 
CRCP uses longitudinal reinforcing steel
in order to limit the number of transverse
contraction joints, but it still uses
longitudinal joints and periodic
transverse joints.

Types of Joints
 Contraction Joints
A contraction joint is a sawed, formed, or tooled groove in a concrete
slab that creates a weakened vertical plane. It regulates the location of the
cracking caused by dimensional changes in the slab.

84
  Expansion Joints
An expansion joint or movement joint is
an assembly designed to safely absorb
the temperature induced expansion
and contraction of construction
materials, to absorb vibration, to hold
parts together, or to allow movement
due to ground settlement or
earthquakes. They are commonly
found between sections of 
buildings, bridges, sidewalks, railway
tracks, piping systems, ships, and
other structures.

Building faces, concrete slabs, and

pipelines expand and contract due to
warming and cooling from seasonal variation, or due to other heat sources.
Before expansion joint gaps were built into these structures, they would crack
under the stress induced.

 Isolation Joints
An isolation joint (see Figure 5) is
used to lessen compressive
stresses that develop at T- and
unsymmetrical intersections,
ramps, bridges, building
foundations, drainage inlets,
manholes, and anywhere
differential movement between the
pavement and a structure (or
another existing pavement) may
take place (ACPA, 2001). They are
typically filled with a joint filler
material to prevent water and dirt infiltration.

 Construction Joints

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 A construction joint (see Figure 6) is a joint between slabs that results
when concrete is placed at different times. This type of joint can be further
broken down into transverse and longitudinal construction joints (see Figure
7). Longitudinal construction joints also allow slab warping without appreciable
separation or cracking of the slabs.

Properties
 Crack Control
Contraction joints as well as reinforcing steel.
 Joint Spacing
Longer than JPCP and up to a maximum of about 15 m (50 ft.). Due to the
nature of concrete, the longer slabs associated with JRCP will crack.
 Reinforcing Steel
A minimal amount is included mid-slab to hold cracks tightly together. This
can be in the form of deformed reinforcing bars or a thick wire mesh.
 Load Transfer
Dowel bars and reinforcing steel. Dowel bars assist in load transfer across
transverse joints while reinforcing steel assists in load transfer across mid-
panel cracks.

Concrete Proportions and Ratio

Basic Material for Concrete
• Portland Cement
• Aggregates
• Sand
• Water

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  A concrete mixture ratio of 1 part cement, 3 parts sand, and 3 parts
aggregate will produce a concrete mix of approximately 3000 psi.
 To produce a 3000 psi cubic yard of concrete (27 cubic feet) the
concrete mixture ratio is:
1. 517 pounds of cement  or (234kg)
2. 1560 pounds of sand or (707kg)
3. 1600 pounds of stone or (725kg)
4. 32 - 34 gallons of water or (132L)
 To produce a cubic yard of 4000 psi concrete, you have to adjust the
concrete mixing ratio to:
1. 611 pounds of cement or (277kg)
2. 1450 pounds of sand or (657kg)
3. 1600 pounds of stone or (725kg)
4. 33- 35 gallons of water or (133L)
Curing of Concrete Pavement
 Curing is the maintenance of a satisfactory moisture content and
temperature in concrete for a period of time immediately following
placing and finishing so that the desired properties may develop.
 Curing has a strong influence on the properties of hardened concrete;
proper curing will increase durability, strength, water tightness,
abrasion resistance, volume stability, and resistance to freezing and
thawing and deicers.

Curing Methods and Materials

1. Methods that maintain the presence
of mixing water in the concrete during
the early hardening period.
 Ponding or Immersion
 Spraying or Fogging
 Saturated Wet Coverings
2. Methods that reduce the loss of mixing
water from the surface of the concrete.
 covering the concrete with
impervious paper or plastic
sheets

87
  applying membrane-forming curing compounds

3. Methods that accelerate strength gain by

supplying heat and additional moisture to
the concrete
 live steam heating coils
 electrically heated forms of pads

88
Preparation of Grade for
Concrete Pavement

89
The preparation of the subgrade and base course is a very important step
since these materials have a considerable impact on the riding quality of the
concrete pavement. Concrete pavement may be placed on a prepared
subgrade or on a base course. A cement concrete base is usually placed
directly on an earth subgrade, while a concrete pavement is nearly always
placed on subbase.

 Subgrade
 Natural ground, graded,
and compacted on which
the pavement is build.
 Subbase
 Layer of material directly
below the concrete
pavement.
 Subbase is a foundation
course that is placed
and compacted on a
prepared subgrade.
 Subgrade
 The subgrade is to be constructed so that the material has a uniform
density throughout. Any soft, yielding, or other unsuitable material is
required to be removed and replaced if corrective measures are not
effective.
 The subgrade is required to be well drained at all times. No pavement
or sub-base may be placed if the subgrade is frozen or muddy.
 Sub-base
 Sub-base is a foundation course that is placed and compacted on a
prepared subgrade.
 The subbase consists of 3 in. of an aggregate drainage layer placed
over an aggregate separation layer. For all alignments, the thickness of
the separation layer is required to be 6 in.. The drainage layer consists
of coarse aggregate size No. 8 in accordance with 904.03 and may be
crushed stone or air-cooled blast furnace slag. The separation layer
consists of coarse aggregate size No. 53 in accordance with 904.03.
 After the final trimming and compacting of the subbase, depth
determinations are made for each layer. These measurements are
taken at a minimum frequency of one depth determination per each
traffic lane for each 500 linear ft of each layer of subbase. A permanent

90
 record is required to be made of all depth checks and include the date,
location, and thickness of all checks. This record accompanies the final
construction record and is required to verify the quantity of material
actually placed. If deficiencies are found in the thickness, appropriate
measures are required to be taken. If more material is required, the
additional material is mixed with the layer and the layer is re-
compacted. Additional depth determinations are then obtained.

Handling, Measuring and Batching of Materials

 The batching plant and
equivalent layout must provide
a smooth flow of continuous
supply and transport of materials
to the work.
 Stockpiles are built up in layers
of not more than one meter in
thickness with each layer
completely in place before
beginning the next that should
not be allowed to “cone” down
over the next lower layer.
 All washed aggregates and
aggregate produced or handled
by hydraulic methods are
stockpiled or binned for draining
at least twelve hours before
being batched. 
 The mixer should be charged without loss of cement and batched
material should be weighed for each material required within a
tolerance of one percent for cement and two percent for aggregates.
Water may be measured by volume or by weight and the accuracy of
measuring water shall be within a range of not more than one percent
error.

Mixing the Concrete

 The concrete may be mixed at the
site, in a central plant of by truck
mixers of approved type and
capacity. Mixing time will be

91
 measured from the time when all the materials except water are
already inside the drum.
Limitation in Mixing
• No concrete should be mixed,
placed, or finished, when natural
light is insufficient, unless an
adequate and approved artificial
lighting system is operated.
Placing of Concrete 
• Before placing concrete, the formwork and
reinforcement should be checked to make
sure that they are clean and free of any
detritis, such as ends of tying wire. The
fresh concrete should be deposited as
close as possible to its final position. Care
should be taken when discharging concrete
from skips to avoid dislodging the
reinforcement or over filling the formwork.
When filling columns and walls, care
should be taken that the concrete does not
strike the face of the formwork, which
might affect the surface finish of the
hardened concrete. For deep sections the
concrete should be placed in uniform layers, typically not more than
about 500 mm thick, each layer being fully compacted.
Removal of Concrete Formworks
 The removal of concrete formwork 
also called as strike-off or stripping
of formwork should be carried out
only after the time when concrete
has gained sufficient strength, at
least twice the stress to which the
concrete may be subjected to when
the formworks are removed. It is
also necessary to ensure the
stability of the remaining formwork during formwork removal.

92
Group members:
Barcelona, Mary Alyssa S.
Castro, Pauline Joy M.
Ferrer, Jolly Joy D.
Pronebo, Lawrence C.
Pidlaoan, John Lenard D.

93
 Chapter 8
Road Maintenance
Highway Maintenance
Maintenance is categorized into:
1. Road Surface Maintenance
2. Shoulder and approach maintenance
3. Bridge Maintenance
4. Traffic Services

Road Surface Maintenance

Road maintenance requires speed performance to cause the least
possible disruption & danger to traffic.
Purpose of Road Maintenance
• To provide safety to users
• Improve road performance
• Lengthen maintenance cycles
• Reduce maintenance costs
Maintenance of Roadside
The type and kind of roadside maintenance depends upon the following
conditions:
1. If the roadside is full of grass
2. If the roadside has dry grass
3. If the bushes cover back-slope
Drainage Maintenance
1. Cleaning of ditches, culvert, drop inlets and catch basins.
DITCHES
CULVERT

94
 DROP INLETS
CATCH
BASIN

2. R
emoval of sediments, branches
and other debris gathered at trash
racks.
3. Riprap and back protection to prevent recurrence.

Bridge Maintenance
1. For steel bridge structure
2. Cleaning and re-sealing of deck joints
3. Repair of drainage handrails
4. Re-surfacing of rough or slicky deck surface
5. Correct serious scour around the pier and abutments
6. Concrete bridge decks normally deteriorate due to deicing salts
7. Sometimes seal out or overlay of asphalts
8. Check the bridge deck deterioration by:
a) Applying waterproof membranes
b) Applying latex modified concrete
c) Impregnating the deck with polymers
d) Passing electric current through reinforcing steel

Traffic Services
1. Stripping is a continuing functions
2. Repair of road signs
3. Maintenance of street and highway lights and signals
4. Coping up with emergencies
Maintenance Management
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 • Before, maintenance is regarded as secondary function of the highway
agency.
• Today, now regarded as one of the most important part of the highway
agency

Rehabilitation
Pavement rehabilitation is an activity primarily to provide good riding
and skid resistance or to improve the structural effectiveness of the pavement.
Primary Objectives of Pavement Rehabilitation
1. To improve the smoothness of the road surface
2. To extend the pavement life
3. To improve the skid resistance of the road
4. To construct the section with poor foundations
5. To improve the drainage facilities

Resurfacing
 Resurfacing is the addition of pavement layer over the existing
roadway or bridge deck surface to provide additional capacity. The
additional re-surface pavement should not be less than 20mm in
thickness.
Restoration and Rehabilitation
1. Replacement of defective joints.
2. Repair of spalled joints.
3. Substantial pavement work.
4. Reworking or strengthening of sub-base.
5. Recycling existing materials to improve their structural integrity.
6. Adding under drains.
7. Improving shoulders
8. Removing and replacing deteriorated materials.

96
Reconstruction
 Refers to the removal of existing pavement and replacing them with a
new pavement and under course.
Overlays
 Could be either by Portland cement or asphalt concrete land on an
existing pavement.
Recycling
 Means repeated use of existing materials working on asphalt materials,
Portland cement lime.
Pavement Recycling is categorized into:
1. The type of materials to be used
2. The structural benefit to be employed
3. The structural benefit to be gained
The recycling procedures could be as follows:
1. Surface recycling
 consist of reworking about the top surface of asphalt pavement.
2. In place surface & base recycling
 the procedure involves pulverizing all existing pavement,
followed by reshaping and compacting before relaying the
materials are upgrading with lime, Portland cement or
chemicals.
3. Central Plant Recycling
 is the removal of materials from the roadway crushing them,
mixing in the plant then compacted with conventional
equipment.

Evaluation and Maintenance of Concrete Pavement

Maintenance decisions are based on pavement conditions data
gathered from project to project basis. From these gathered data it, is
determined which project calls for maintenance or rehabilitation including the
decisions required to correct pavement deficiencies.

97
Highway Beautification
Highway beautification is a broad term that activities like:
1. Landscaping and roadside development within the right of way.
2. Improvement of strips and land adjacent to the highway for restoration,
preservation and enhancement of natural beauty.
3. Acquisition development of publicly owned and controlled rest area,
recreation areas and sanitary areas including other facilities.
Factors that Contribute to Highway Beautification
• Good Location
• Good Design
• Construction
• Maintenance
Outdoor Advertising
For public interest, the government should extend full assistance to the control
and use of the areas adjacent to the highway regulating the erection and
maintenance of outdoor advertising signs, display or other devices within a
reasonable distance from the edge of the right of way still visible from the
main travelled way.

Environmental Laws
• The government recognizes the impact of man’s activities in relation to
all components of the natural more particularly:
a) Influence of population growth
b) High Density Urbanization
c) Industrial Expansion
d) Resource Exploration
e) Expanding Technological Advances
f) Restoration & maintenance of environmental quality to welfare
& development of man
• The Present generation must fulfill the responsibility as trustees of the
environment for the succeeding generations.
• To assure all Filipino people of a safe, healthful, productive and
aesthetically and culturally pleasing surroundings:

98
 • To provide the widest beneficial use of the environment without
degradation and risk to health or other undesirable consequences.
• To preserve some important historic, cultural and natural aspect of our
natural heritage and whenever possible an environment which uphold
diversity and variety of individual choice.
• To maintain balanced distribution of population and use of resources
that will give high standard of living 7 wide sharing of life’s amenities.
• To impart all persons has the responsibility to contribute to the
preservation and enhancement of the environment.

Environmental Effects of Highway

Air Pollution Control
 Air pollution be it from fixed or mobile sources is the main concern in
most urban areas.

 Air pollution be it from fixed or mobile sources is the main concern in

most

urban areas.
• Land Use Control
• Lower the emission
• Modification of the fixed existing facilities

Noise Control
 Noise is defined as unwanted sound. Noise is measured in decibels
with a common unit dBA.
Construction in relation to roadside development
• At the time of grading operations, topsoil should be preserved for the
future landscaping. Likewise, trees outside the distance limit from the
travelled way, should be protected from damages caused by man &
equipment.

Vegetation and the Highways

99
 • Ground cover is defined as low growing herbaceous or woody plants
more than one meter at maturity.
• Ground cover is an alternative to grass in controlling erosion by wind
and water.

Other vegetation desirable for roadside protection

1. Bushy dense foliage plants
2. The rapid growing species with inconspicuous flowers.
3. Fire resistant plant with the ability to sprout
4. Plants that are subject to disease and insect damage, poisonous or
irritating to the skin
Trees and Shrubs
 Trees and shrubs are effective means of providing interest, variety and
beauty to the roadside. The following tips in planting.
1. For rural roads, the objective is to preserve or recreate a natural
foreground in harmony with a distant view.
2. Trees should be planted back a distance from the travelled way to
provide recovery area for vehicles that run off the roadway.
3. Replanting should be considered only when irregular introduction of
trees and shrubs serve to highlight the natural beauty.
4. Row planting along rural road is not considered a good taste.
5. Avoid monotony over along stretches of the route.
Parking and Rest Area
• Parking turnout to accommodate stopping of the travelled way is an
important adjunct to major rural highways.
• Wayside rest areas are necessary facilities of the highway wherein
motorist stops relaxes and use sanitary facilities.

100
Group Members:
Aveno, Marlowe P.
Davin, Trisha Nicole T.
Flores, Alyssa Jane B.
Mendoza, Jona B.
Toling, Goddess C.

101
 Chapter 9
Traffic Engineering

WHAT IS TRAFFIC?
 Movement of not only vehicles, such as cars
and trucks that travel on roads and highways,
but also to people and pedestrian paths and
walkways.

WHAT IS TRAFFIC ENGINEERING?

 Understanding and changing the technical
aspects of road design to maximize traffic flow and reduce congestion.
 Other factors such as road geometry, traffic lights, road signs and
pedestrian walkways are all related to Traffic Engineering and require
optimization in order to achieve one common goal; reducing traffic
congestion and improving safety.

ROAD TRAFFIC SIGNS

 Importance of road signs has been recognized worldwide because of
the increasing incidence of road accidents due to the volume of traffic
and bad habits of motor vehicle drivers.

●OCTOBER 7 TO NOVEMBER 8, 1968

 United Nations Conference on Road Traffic

●JUNE 6, 1973
 Presidential Decree No. 207

EFFICIENCY PRINCIPLES
1. UNIFORMINTY - includes the prohibition to use unofficial signs and
markings.

102
2. HOMOGENEITY - requires that in the same conditions, the user notices
signs or markings with the same value.
3. SIMPLICITY - to avoid super abundance of signs that over strain the
drivers having the tendency to neglect the given instruction.
ROAD SIGNS OBJECTIVES
1. To lead to a safest road traffic.

2. To facilitate this traffic.

3. To indicate or to remind some particular traffic rules.

4. To inform the drivers.

CATEGORIES OF SIGNALING DEVICE

ROAD TRAFFIC SIGNS
ROAD TRAFFIC SIGNALS
PAVEMENT MARKINGS
GUIDE POST AND DELINEATORS

4 OBJECTIVES OF SIGNALING DEVICES

1. To Inform
2. To Prevent
3. To Guide
4. To Act as a Liaison Agent

PARAMETERS OF ROAD SIGNS VISIBILITY & LEGIBILITY

1. DETECTION - is the minimum area in contrast with the environment
perceptibility by human eye.

2. IDENTIFICATION - an analysis of the form and color of the road signs to

understand the message it conveys.
3. READING - is the fundamental role of road signs conforming to alpha
numerical language or by the symbol of information transmitted to the driver.

CLASSIFICATION OF ROAD SIGNS

1. DANGER WARNING SIGNS

 Signs used to warn motorist of potentially hazardous conditions on or

adjacent to the road. It advice motorists of road conditions that

103
 requires caution and may call for a reduction of speed, in the interest of
safety and that of other road users.
 Its objective is to attract the driver’s attention.

EXAMPLES:

2. INTERSECTION SIGNS

 Signs when one approach an intersection or junction.

MUST REMEMBER WHEN ENTERING AN INTERSECTION:

STOP SIGN – driver must stop at designated STOP LINE.

GIVE WAY - yield to the vehicles on right side of intersection.

LEFT TURNER MUST GIVE WAY

EXAMPLES:

104
LOCATION OF INTERSECTION SIGN
 Normal distance between the intersections and the warning signs is
150 m; it can also be modified according to site conditions. It can
reach up to 400 m on highways. In exceptional cases it is only 100
m away from the intersection.
 When signs are located more than 200 m from the intersection, it
should be repeated at half distance.

3. PRESCRIPTION SIGNS / REGULATORY SIGNS

 Signs that informs the road users of traffic laws and regulations
which, if disregarded, will constitute an offense.

EXAMPLES:

2 CATEGORIES OF REGULATORY SIGNS

a.) PROHIBITIVE SIGNS

105
 - Circular in shape, have a white background, red ring and
prohibitive red bar, symbols, and letters.
- used to prohibit certain types of maneuvers or some types
of traffic, also known as Restriction Signs.
EXAMPLES:

106
b.) OBLIGATION SIGNS
- Circular in shape, has a dark blue background, the symbol and
border is white, also known as Mandatory Signs.
- Road signs which are used to set the obligations of all traffic
which use a specific area of road. Unlike prohibitory signs,
mandatory signs tell traffic what it must do, rather than must not do.
EXAMPLES:

107
4. GENERAL INFORMATIVE SIGNS

 Either indicated in blue rectangular boards, these road signs give

drivers information where to find nearest hospital, parking area, gas
station, as well as the jeepney, bus stop and etc. It has also green
and yellow versions, which provide distance to the next city or town.

EXAMPLES:

108
5. DIRECTION SIGNS

 Signs that indicate directions to a certain place.

4 CATEGORIES OF DIRECTION SIGNS

a.) ADVANCED DIRECTION SIGNS

b.) INTERSECTION DIRECTION SIGNS

c.) REASSURANCE CONFIRMATORY SIGNS

109
d.) ENTERING AND EXIT

6. RAILWAYS CROSSING SIGNS

EXAMPLE:

7. TEMPORARY SIGNS

110
  This signs are usually used when there is a road construction.

EXAMPLE:

8. SPECIAL INSTRUCTION SIGNS

 

EXAMPLE:

111
 ROAD TRAFFIC SIGNALS

 Defined as all power operated traffic control devices, except

flashers, signs and markings for detecting or warming motorist
cyclist or pedestrian.

FUNCTION:
1. Provide orderly movements of traffic.

2. Increase traffic handling capacity of intersection.

3. Reduce the frequent certain types of accidents.

4. Coordinate Traffic.

5. Interrupt heavy traffic to permit crossing.

6. Control traffic lane use.

7. Provide ramp control and free entrances.

8. Interrupt traffic for emergency vehicles.

TRAFFIC SIGNALS ARE CLASSIFIED INTO:

 Pre- Timed Signals – traffic time intervals divided to the various traffic
movements.

 Traffic Activated – where the time intervals are controlled as whole or

as part by traffic demands.

POSITIVE MEANING OF EACH COLOR OF TRAFFIC SIGNAL

LIGHT
1. The steady Circular Green MEANS GO
2. Green Arrow GO TO SUCH DIRECTION
3. Solid Red light STOP AND WAIT FOR THE GREEN
LIGHT
4. Flash Red MEANS AN ARTERIAL STOP SIGN
5. Flashing Yellow MEANS PROCEED WITH CAUTION
6. The use of STEADY YELLOW for caution is prohibited except as
warning between green and red indication.

112
PAVEMENT MARKINGS

 Early road markings were first introduced in Wayne Country of

Michigan in the year 1911. After a decade, pavement markings
gained universal acceptance.

EXAMPLE:
1. Roadway center line 2. Line boundaries
3. No passing zone 4. Pavement edges
5. Roadway transitions 6. Turning patterns
7. Approach to obstruction 8. Light rail & bus clearance
9. Stop line 10. Cross walk
11. Railroad crossing 12. Parking limits

In the Philippines, 80% of the drivers do not respect the horizontal

markings because of its complicated design.
EXAMPLE:

113
114
 GUIDE POSTS AND DELINEATORS

 Are set to guide the drivers and to pinpoint a particular or linear

danger.

TYPES OF GUIDE POST BEACONS:

 CURVE GUIDE POST

 INTERSECTION GUIDE POST
 HAZARD MARKER
 DELINEATOR
 WIND CONE
 NOSE MARKER

CURVE GUIDE POST

Winding road sign

A number of closely spaced curves to the left and
right are ahead.

Reverse curve signs

2 curves in opposite directions are close to

each other on the road ahead.

115
 Curve signs

A curve is coming up on the road ahead. The

arrow shows you the direction
of the curve.

Hairpin bend signs

A sharp bend, greater than 90 degrees is coming

up
on the road ahead. You should slow down and
approach the bend with caution.

Side road intersection on a curve signs

A curve is on the road ahead with an intersection at

the
side road.

Side road intersection on a curve signs

A side road continues straight ahead off the curved

continuing road.

INTERSECTION GUIDE POST

HAZARD MARKER
 Motorists must be warned when they are about to encounter a
roadside hazard which they should keep either left or right of. To
indicate to motorists which side(s) of the hazard they should

116
 maneuver their vehicle to, the WA-36 (L/R) hazard marker sign
is used.

WA-36 WA-36-L WA-36-R

WIND CONE
 Also called as wind sock. Windsocks are used to tell wind speed
and the direction of the wind speed itself. Windsocks typically
are used at airports to indicate the direction and strength of the
wind to pilots and at chemical plants where there is risk
of gaseous leakage. They are sometimes located
alongside highways at windy locations

DELINEATORS
 Are light reflecting device mounted on posts at the side of
roadway in series to guide the driver along the proper alignment.

RAISED BARS/ JIGGLE BARS

117
  Used as channel device to keep vehicles out of certain paved
areas.

DISTANCE MARKER
 Usually made of reinforced concrete indicating the number of km
distance from and to a specific place.
 Origin of the marker has started as early as the Roman times.

GUARD RAIL
 Generally designated to
prevent a car from leaving the highway or from colliding against an
obstacle by deflecting it so that it continues to move at reduced velocity
along the guardrail and in the normal direction.
 It is designated to stop vehicles whose weight smaller than 1800 kg.

CONCRETE BARRIERS
 introduced in US
 tested in France in 1972 under following conditions:
 For light vehicles impact angle of 30 ⁰ at 80 kph.
118
  For 10 tons truck impact angle of 20 ⁰ at 70 kph.

After 2 years of testing it was authorized in France. In 1977 it was used

in USA, Canada, Sweden, Belgium, Germany, Ivory Coast and Morocco.

 HIGHWAY & URBAN STREET OPERATIONS

 Despite of existence of freeways and highways, arterial

roads serves as the major traffic flow to the nearest access
points because arterial roads offer the most advantageous
route.

ARTERIAL STREETS – are considered substitute for a controlled

access when traffic volume exceed 20,000 vehicles per day.
BASIC CONSIDERATONS IN PLANNING ARTERIAL ROADS:
1. Selection of convenient route.
2. Studies of traffic volume.
3. Origin and destination.
4. Accident experienced.

 FREEWAY & EXPRESSWAY

 Freeways are designed for high speed, free flowing, low

accidents facilities and operate without hindrances from
traffic control.

 STREET LIGHTS

 Street lights are generally incorporated in the design to

illuminate the road to provide seeing silhouette.

119
  LIGHTING SOURCE & INSTALLATION

 Highway lighting adopt the new and more economical types

high and low pressure sodium and metallic handle but the
trend is toward the use of high pressure sodium with
common wattage for all types from 175- 1000 watts.

REFERENCE:
https://www.autodeal.com.ph/articles/car-features/how-well-do-you-
know-ph-road-signs
http://whatisengineering.com/topic/what-is-traffic-engineering/
DPWH MANUAL 2012
ELEMENTS OF ROADS AND HIGHWAYS (2nd edition)
by MAX B. FAJARDO JR.

120
121
 Chapter 10
Recycling Methods and Equipment
Recycling
 The repeated use of existing materials working on asphalt materials,
Portland cement or lime.
 Contributes to the stabilization of cost conservation due to inadequate
material resources and reduction of energy requirements.
Why Recycle?
 Recycling roads saves:  Future work
 Money  Natural Resources
 Work  The environment
 Energy  Investment
 Headaches  Time

Pavement Recycling

Categories of Pavement Recycling

1. The type of pavement to be used
2. The procedure to be employed
3. The structural benefit to be gained
Asphalt Recycling Benefits
RAP (Reclaimed Asphalt Pavement)
 A highly valuable commodity
 Its greatest potential value is attained through 100% recycling
accomplished with an asphalt recycler
 1500 Php-3500Php per ton, depending on local hot mix costs.
 Savings can be as high as 10,500,000.00 Php/year

Asphalt Recycling offers other significant benefits such as a reduced reliance

on the local hot mix plant.
Asphalt is one of the most abundant recyclables on the planet. Asphalt is
100% recyclable.
Pavement Technologies focused on advancing the progress of asphalt
recycling.

122
Recycling Procedures
 Surface Recycling
 Central Part Recycling
 Full Depth Recycling
 In Place Recycling
 Hot In Place Recycling
 Cold In Place Recycling
SurfaceRecycling
 Reworking about the top surface of asphalt pavement.
 Has a disadvantage of creating noise, heat and air pollution.
 Applied for the treatment of :
 Ravelling  Flushing
 Wheel Truck Rutting  Corrugations
Equipment
Heater Planer
 Heated the asphalt surface using gas burners emitting huge plumes of
smoke from the burning asphalt (and in some cases tar).
Heater Scarifier
 Heats the pavement surface and then scarifies it to a depth of 1 to 2
inches depending on the pavement properties.

Cold Planer
• Removes 1” to 4” of surface asphalt or 1” – 2” of concrete allowing for
the application of a thin overlay or wearing surface.
• It preserves ancillary structures (e.g. Curb and gutter)

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Cold Milling
• Capable of removing up to 12 inches of paving material and base in a
single pass.

Advantages
1. It reduces reflection cracking.
2. Promotes bond between the old pavement and the thin overlay.
3. Provides transition between the new overlay and the existing gutter,
bridge, pavement, etc., that is resistant to ravelling (eliminates
feathering).
4. Reduces localized roughness.
5. Treats variety of types of pavement distress such as ravelling, flushing,
corrugations, rutting oxidizing pavement faulting at a reasonable cost.
6. Improved skid resistance.
7. Minimum disruption to traffic.
Disadvantages
1. Limited structural improvement.
2. The heater-scarifier and heater planning has limited effectiveness on
rough pavement without multiple passes of equipment.
3. Limited repair of severely flushed or unstable pavements.
4. Some air quality problems.
5. Vegetation closer to roadway may be damaged.
6. Mixture with maximum size aggregate greater than 1 inch cannot be
treated with some equipment.

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In place surface and base recycling
• Involves pulverizing all existing pavement, followed by reshaping and
compacting.
• The materials are upgraded with lime, Portland cement or chemicals.
• Used for both asphalt and Portland cement concrete pavements.
• Increases load carrying capacity of the pavement without major
changes in the grade.
Two Types of In Place Surface and Base Recycling
1. Hot in place recycling (HIPR)
• This rehabilitation technique is meant to address asphalt
concrete surface distress and texture issues only, therefore the
underlying base layers must offer adequate support.
• Involves recycling the existing asphalt surface layer by heating,
scarifying, and adding a recycling agent.
3 basic HIPR Processes
1. Heater-Scarification
2. Repaving
3. Remixing
Process of HIPR
• Condition of pavement before recycling
• Recycling Operation
• Recycling Train
• Preheater
• Heater Miller (Primary)
• Heater Miller (Secondary) with paver
• Condition before and after recycling

2. Cold in place recycling (CIPR)

 Addresses distresses within the bituminous portion of the
pavement structure, but can reach as deep as 4 to 6 inch.
 The base must also be sound, with repairs made to locations that
have failed or show potential for failure.

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ADVANTAGES
1. Significant structural improvement.
2. Treats all types and degrees of pavement distress.
3. Reflection cracking can be eliminated.
4. Frost susceptibility may be improved.
5. Improved riding quality.
DISADVANTAGES
1. Quality control not as good as from the central plant.
2. Traffic disruption.
3. Pulverizing equipment repair equipment.
4. Higher in cost.

Central plant recycling (CPR)

Maintenance and rehabilitation programs are based on different types of
collected data that includes:
1. Surface roughness
2. Surface distress
3. Surface deflection
4. Surface friction or skid resistance
ADVANTAGES
1. Significant structural improvement.
2. Good quality control.
3. Treats all types and degree of pavement distress.
4. Reflection cracking can be eliminated.
5. Improved skid resistance.
6. Geometric can be more easily altered.
7. Better control if additional binder or aggregate is used.
8. Improved riding quality.
DISADVANTAGES
1. Increased traffic disruption.
2. May have air quality problems at plant site.

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Cold Central plant recycling (CCPR)
Cold Central Plant Recycling (CCPR) is a process whereby RAP
(reclaimed asphalt pavement) is processed into a usable cold paving material
at a central stockpile location. This process involves using a screening and
crushing plant to size the material and a computer controlled pug mill that
thoroughly mixes the material after the introduction of the asphalt emulsion.
Benefits of cold central recycling
• Significantly Reduces Costs
• Potentially Shorter Downtime
• Environmental Advantages
• As Durable as Traditional Surfacing Methods
HOT CENTRAL PLANT RECYCLING CONSTRUCTION SEQUENCE :
1. Pavement removal
2. Crushing and stockpiling
3. Mixing in central plant
4. Lay down and compactions
GENERATING RAP
MILLED RAP
Little additional processing required
Uniform properties in layer
• Gradation
• Asphalt content
• Asphalt properties
Usually stored in separate stockpile
RAP FROM FULL DEPTH REMOVAL
1. Pavement broken in slabs
2. Materials must be processed
3. Often stored for later processing
4. Material from different source
5. Blending or crushing mixed RAP can produce consistent material

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STOCKPILING RAP
• Large, conical stockpiles preferred
• RAP does not re-compact
• Forms “crust” (200-250mm) 8-10 inches
• Crust sheds water and easily broken
• RAP under crust easy to manage
RAP IN PLANT FACILITY
Plant type:
• Butch
• Drum
RECYCLED MIXTURE DESIGN
Project considerations
• Uniformity
• Depth of HMA
• Presence of chip seals
• Asphalt content (bleeding)
• Aggregate gradation
• Asphalt properties
• Traffic
• Type of pavement distress
MIXTURE DESIGN
Evaluated salvaged material
• Asphalt properties
• Aggregate properties
Need for additional aggregate
Selection of recycling agent
• Type
• Amount
Preparation and testing of mixtures
Select optimum for design

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Full depth reclamation with cement (FDR)
• This process rebuilds worn out asphalt pavements by recycling the
existing roadway.
• The old asphalt and base materials are pulverized, mixed with cement
and water, and compacted to produce a strong, durable base for either
an asphalt or concrete surface.
• Full-depth reclamation uses the old asphalt and base material for the
new road. There’s no need to haul in aggregate or haul out old material
for disposal.
Process of FDR
• Scarification and Pulverization
• Shaping and Grading
• Spreading Cement
• Mixing
• Compaction
• Curing
• Pavement Surface
Quality control
Recycling with cement follows the same basic procedures used for
normal soil cement operations. The success of a recycling project depends
upon the careful attention to the following control factors:
• Adequate Pulverization
• Proper Cement
• Proper Moisture Content
• Adequate Density
• Adequate Curing

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Group Members:
Abdullah, Elias Bin
Altura, John Eric
Malano, Patrick Jay
General, John Michael
Pollarca, Gielen Marie
San Jose, Alexis
Villamor, Ma. Lourdes

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