HIGHWAY AND RAILROAD ENGINEERING

Introduction: Road Development - Also, improved stone foundation by

[History] reducing depth of broken stones into
25 cm.
Early Roads
30 Years Later: Thomas Telford
- Hard surfaces found in the land of
Mesopotamia. - Improved construction methods of
- Constructed as early as 3,500 BC. Jerome Tresaguet.
- Another surface roads are found in - Road foundation course are made
Mediterranean island of Crete. Also of stones having 3 in minimum
similar to one constructed by thickness, 5 in breadth, 7 in height.
Mayans, Aztecs, and Incans. - Employed flat subgrade providing
slight crown using stones with varying
Purpose of Early Road Systems: sizes.
1. Movement of armies in conquest England Highway Development: John
and for defense against invasion. Loudon McAdam | Scottish Engineer
2. Transport of food and trade of goods
between other towns or cities. - Introduced road concept which
widely adapted.
Romans: Discovered cement - Its principle permitted the first modern
- Their empire expanded the extensive all -weather hard surface roads.
road networks radiating in many - Believe that massive foundations of
directions form capital city of Rome. rock were unnecessary, and only
- It laid with several courses: asserted the native soil alone that
1. The surface was made of block of would support the road and traffic. As
stone on concrete. long as it was covered by road crust
2. The concrete is made of gravel or that will protect the soil underneath
coarse sand mixed with lime. from water and wear.
3. Lime concrete mixed with broken
stone.
4. Lime mortar or sand laid to from a
level base.
- In simple concept [Pavement-
Gravel (Base course) – Soil (Sub-Base
course)
Three Pioneer in Road Development
17th Century: Jerome Tresaguet | “Father of
Modern Road Building”
- Introduced new method of
construction and maintenance.
- Improved crown, drainage, and
grade of road.
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integral part of contract between

Highways in the Philippines
the contractor and highway agency
Early 1900 classified as legal documents.

- Transportations highly depended on The complete detailed scheme for the road
trails, waterways, railroad, earth which are incorporated in the geometric
roads, and graveled roads. designs are:
- American government-initiated
1. Traffic
development of roadways in the
2. Drainage
Philippines to connect towns, cities,
3. Erosion Control
and provinces.
4. Roadside Development
Post WWII 5. Structure
6. Soils
- The Philippine government continued
7. Pavement
rehabilitation and construction of
roads and bridges. Partial list of subjects covered by standard
- The rehabilitations and construction drawing:
were made through war damages
1. Pipe Culverts
paid by Japanese Government also
2. Concrete Box Culvert
the financial grants and aid received
3. Guard Rail and parapet
form US.
4. Curbs
50 ears Later
5. Gutters protection
- Major highways and expressways
6. Curb Structures
were constructed through the
7. Side Walks
financial assistance and loans from
8. Drainage inlet and outlet
foreign banks.
9. Manholes
- Vehicles of various types and sizes
10. Rip-rap and other bank
began to flood the roadways
11. Fences and Right of Way
because of Industrialization.
12. Other Survey markers
Note: The Department of Public Works and
Highways must open 400 km of new roads
Specifications writing - is a delicate task
every year to reduce traffic. However,
requiring contract law knowledge and
won’t be enough to fully solve the
highway experience. Careless and loosely
worsening traffic.
worded specifications can lead to
Highway Plans and Specifications substandard materials and poor
workmanship.
- A set of documents of instructions
and conditions under which Two Divided Highway Specification:
highways and bridges are built.
1. Standard Specification (Standard) -
- The plan contains engineering
Applies to project implemented by
drawings of the project, whereas the
administration which treat the subject
specifications is a written instructions
that repeatedly occurs in the agency
and conditions considered as an
work.
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improved for the movement of

2. Special Provisions (Unique) - Covers
people and goods.
peculiar item of the project in
▪ Road – Also refer to railways that is a
question that include additional
broader application in usage while
modification to standard
generally used to describe a public
specifications.
thorough fare.
▪ Highway - a higher state of
Two Sub-Divided Highway Specifications: development than road.
▪ Expressway - a highway designed for
a.) The general clause that deals with the
fast traffic, with controlled entrance
bidding process and award execution and
and exit, a dividing strip between the
control of work and other legal matters.
traffic in opposite directions, and
b.) Specifying detail regarding materials, typically two or more lanes in each
manner of work execution and how pay direction.
quantities are to be measured. ▪ Freeway - an expressway with full
control of access.
▪ Control of Access - a condition where
Design Criteria for Highways the rights of owners or occupants of
adjoining land or other persons
Consistency – important single rule in
access to light, air, or view in
highway design. Drivers expect the highway
connection with a highway is fully or
agency to provide them with:
partially controlled by public
1. Clear information and guidance authority.
through variety of road signs. ▪ Full Control of Access - is exercised to
2. Avoiding abrupt changes in traffic give preference to through traffic by
and road standards. providing access connections to
selected public roads only.
Note: The road will be considered
▪ Partial Control of Access - is exercised
satisfactory of guides and directions are
to give preference to through traffic.
planned properly and will follow smoothly
In this condition there may be some
and easily without undue haste or change
private driveway connections
in speed.
allowed.
Definition of Terms: ▪ Through Street or Through Highway -
a highway or part of a highway on
▪ AASHTO (American Association of
which vehicular traffic is given
State Highway Transportation
preferential right of way, and every
Officials) - is a standard setting body
vehicle at the entrance of
which publishes specifications, test
intersecting highways are required by
protocols, and guidelines that are
law to yield right of way.
used in highway design and
▪ Parkway - an arterial highway for non-
construction throughout the United
commercial traffic. The term is
States.
particularly used for a roadway in a
▪ Roads and Highways – strips of land
that have been cleared and further
 HIGHWAY AND RAILROAD ENGINEERING

park or connecting to a park which

Ideal Transportation System
heavy vehicles are excluded.
▪ Arterial Street - a high-capacity road Safe, efficient, rapid, comfortable,
that often serves as the most convenient, economical, and
advantageous routes for relatively environmentally compatible movement of
long-distance travel. people and goods.
▪ Collector Street - a low-to-moderate
Road Design Parameters:
capacity road which serves to move
(Speed Management)
traffic from local streets to arterial
roads. Design Speed - Important to ensure a safe
▪ Local Road - street or road primarily design.
for access to residence, business, or
other adjoining property. Factors to consider when designing Speed:
▪ Highway Capacity - the maximum
number of vehicles that are 1. Function of the Road - arterial Road
reasonably expected to pass a given such as a national highway would
point over a period of time. It is usually generally, have higher design speed
expressed as vehicle per hour. than local road.
▪ Average Daily Traffic (ADT) - the 2. Anticipated operating speed –
average number of vehicles passing Necessary to depend on the
through a specified point during a 24- geographical location of the project.
period. Terrain – lower speed and Flat – high
▪ Annual Average Daily Traffic - the speed with large radius curves.
average number of vehicles passing 3. Anticipated Speed limit - necessary
through a specified point in one to adopt a different design speed for
calendar year. different sections of the road as
circumstances change.
Components of Transportation Network 4. Economics - implications relating to
1. Links (Road users) – Physical links cost of construction.
2. Means of moving persons and goods Current Speed Limit – Motorist shall drive at
(Vehicle) safe speed determined by driver based on
3. Terminals (Infrastructure) – Travel and road environment and conditions.
shipment commences and ends.
Also, where change of mode or Maximum allowable speeds for different
vehicle takes place. road environments:

Road Hierarchy 1. Open Country Roads with no “Blind

Corners” and not bordered by
habitation:
a. 80kph – passenger’s cars and
motorcycles.
b. 50Kph – trucks and buses
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2. On through streets with no “blind

highway to the topography of the site while
corners” and clear of traffic:
meeting the safety, service, and
a. 40Kph – passengers cars and
performance standards. Concerns with the
motorcycles
elements of the highways that are visible to
b. 30Kph – Trucks and buses
the drivers and users.
3. On city and municipal streets, with
light traffic, when not designated Design Consideration
“through streets”:
- Design Speed
a. 30kph – passenger cars,
- Design Traffic Volume
motorcycles, trucks and buses
- Number of Lanes
4. Through crowded streets,
- Level of Service (LOS)
approaching intersections at “blind
- Sight Distance
corners”, passing school zones,
- Alignment, super-elevation and grades
passing other vehicle which are
- Cross section
stationary, or for similar dangerous
- Lane width
circumstances:
- Horizontal and Vertical Clearance
a. 20kph - passenger cars,
motorcycles, trucks and buses Design Process
The following are sections describe where
1. Location Design - is a crucial stage in
certain speed restrictions could be
project planning, involving the
appropriate to inform motorist:
routing of a planned highway
1. High Risk Pedestrian Areas (40Kph) - through existing infrastructure,
appropriate on roads where there communities, and natural terrain. It
are no footpaths and pedestrian are involves input from various
required to walk on the road. stakeholders, including Civil
2. Low Risk Pedestrian Areas (60Kph) - Engineers, Planners, Economists,
areas where there are not so many Ecologists, Sociologists,
pedestrians. Environmental Experts, and Lawyers.
3. 80Kph - appropriate on a high The designer then designs the route,
standard duplicated carriageway ensuring its effectiveness.
road where there is only occasional 2. Alignment Design - The problem
access from adjoining properties. involves a three-dimensional highway
4. 100Kph - appropriate on very high alignment, represented by its center
5. standard expressways, which have line in x, y, and z coordinates, with
low crash rate. These expressways plan and profile views for ease of
should have a high standard construction drawing interpretation.
geometry and should be free of 3. Cross Sectional Design
roadside hazards. 4. Assess Design
Highway Geometric Design
Refers to the calculations and analyses
made by transportation engineers to fit the