Chapter 4

Pure
Bending
 CONTENTS TO BE COVERED
4.1. Introduction 4.5. Deformations in a Transverse Cross
Pure Bending Section
Other Loading Types 4.6. Bending of Members Made of
Several Materials
4.2. Symmetric/prismatic Member in 4.7. Eccentric Axial Loading in a Plane
Pure Bending
of Symmetry
4.3. Deformations in a symmetric 4.8. Unsymmetrical Bending
member in pure bending 4.9. General Case of Eccentric Axial
4.4. Stresses and deformations in the Loading
elastic range
Beam Section Properties
Properties of American Standard
Shapes
 Objectives

In this chapter, you will:

 Introduce bending behavior.

 Define the deformations, strains, and normal stresses in beams subject to pure
bending.

 Describe the behavior of composite beams made of more than one material.

 Analyze members subject to eccentric axial loading, involving both axial stresses
and bending stresses.

 Review beams subject to un-symmetric bending, i.e., where bending does not occur
in a plane of symmetry.
 4.1. Introduction
 This chapter analyze the stresses and strains in prismatic members subjected

to bending.

 What is bending?

 Bending is a major concept used in the design of many machine and structural
components, such as beams and girders.

 Beams are structural members supporting loads applied at various points

along the member.

 Beams are usually long, straight prismatic members.

 Steel and aluminum beams play an important part in both structural and
mechanical engineering.

 Timber beams are widely used in home construction.

 In most cases, the loads are perpendicular to the axis of the beam.

 This transverse loading causes only bending and shear in the beam.

 In pure bending shear force is equal to zero.

 When the loads are not at a right angle to the beam, they also produce axial
forces in the beam.
 This chapter is devoted to the analysis of prismatic members subjected to

equal and opposite couples M and M' acting in the same longitudinal plane.

 Such members are said to be in pure bending.

 The members are assumed to possess a plane of symmetry with the couples

M and M' acting in that plane (Fig. 4.1).

Fig. 4.1 Member in pure bending.

 Pure Bending : Prismatic members subjected to equal and opposite couples

acting in the same longitudinal plane

 It refers to flexure of a beam under a constant bending moment.

 Therefore, pure bending occurs only in regions of a beam where the shear force is

zero (because V = dM/dx).

 In contrast, non-uniform bending refers to flexure in the presence of shear

forces, which means that the bending moment changes as we move along the

axis of the beam.

An example of pure bending

Fig. 4.2 (a) Free-body diagram of the barbell as it is

held overhead by a weight lifter and (b) free-body
diagram of the center portion of the bar, which is in
pure bending.
 The bar carries equal weights at equal distances from the hands of the

weight lifter.

 Because of the symmetry, the reactions at the hands must be equal and

opposite to the weights.

 Therefore, as far as the middle portion CD of the bar is concerned, the

weights and the reactions can be replaced by two equal and opposite

960-lb.in. couples (Fig. 4.2b), showing that the middle portion of the bar

is in pure bending.
 A similar analysis of a small sport buggy (Photo 4.1) shows that the axle is in

pure bending between the two points where it is attached to the frame.

 The results obtained from the direct applications of pure bending will be used in

the analysis of other types of loadings, such as eccentric axial loadings and

transverse loadings.

Photo 4.1 The center portion of the rear axle of the sport buggy is in pure bending
 Other Loading Types

 Eccentric Loading : Axial loading

which does not pass through section
centroid produces internal forces
equivalent to an axial force and a
couple
 Transverse Loading : Concentrated or
distributed transverse load produces
internal forces equivalent to a shear
force and a couple
Photo 4.2 Clamp used to glue  Principle of Superposition : The normal
lumber pieces together. stress due to pure bending may be
combined with the normal stress due
Fig. 4.3 (a) Free-body diagram of to axial loading and shear stress due
to shear loading to find the complete
a clamp, (b)free-body diagram of state of stress.
the upper portion of the clamp. Fig. 4.4 (a) Cantilevered beam with end loading. (b)
As portion AC shows, beam is not in pure bending.
 4.1 SYMMETRIC MEMBERS IN PURE BENDING

4.1A Internal Moment and Stress Relations

 a prismatic member AB shown in (Fig. 4.5a),

possessing a plane of symmetry and subjected
to equal and opposite couples’ M and M'
Fig. 4.5 (a) A member in a state of acting in that plane.
pure bending. (b) Any intermediate
portion of AB will also be in pure  If a section is passed through the member AB
bending
at some arbitrary point C, the conditions of
equilibrium of the portion AC of the member
require the internal forces in the section to be

Fig. 4.6 Stresses resulting from pure equivalent to the couple M (Fig. 4.5b).
bending moment M.
 The moment M of that couple is the
 Moreover, the moment of the couple is
bending moment in the section.
the same about any axis perpendicular
 Following the usual convention, a positive to its plane and is zero about any axis
sign is assigned to M when the member is contained in that plane.
bent as shown in Fig. 4.5a (i.e., when the
 Selecting arbitrarily the z axis shown in
concavity of the beam faces upward) and
Fig. 4.6, the equivalence of the
a negative sign otherwise.
elementary internal forces and the
 a couple M actually consists of two equal couple M is expressed by writing that
and opposite forces. the sums of the components and
 The sum of the components of these moments of the forces are equal to the
forces in any direction is therefore equal to corresponding components and
zero. moments of the couple M:
 4.1B Deformations
 We will now analyze the deformations of a prismatic
member possessing a plane of symmetry.

 Its ends are subjected to equal and opposite couples

M and M' acting in the plane of symmetry.
Fig. 4.7 Initially straight members in
 The member will bend under the action of the couples,
pure bending deform into a circular
but will remain symmetric with respect to that plane
arc
(Fig. 4.7). Moreover, since the bending moment M is
the same in any cross section, the member will bend
uniformly.
Fig. 4.8 (a) Two points in a cross section at D that is perpendicular to
the member‘s axis. (b) Considering the possibility that these points do
not remain in the cross section after bending.
 Beam with a plane of symmetry in pure bending:
 member remains symmetric
 bends uniformly to form a circular arc
 cross-sectional plane passes through arc
center and remains planar

 length of top decreases and length of

bottom increases
 aneutral surface must exist that is parallel
to the upper and lower surfaces and for
which the length does not change
Fig. 4.9 Member subject to pure bending shown  stresses and strains are negative
in two views. (a) Longitudinal, vertical section
(plane of symmetry). (b) Longitudinal, horizontal (compressive) above the neutral plane and
section. positive (tension) below it
Fig. 4.10 Establishment of neutral axis.
(a) Longitudinal-vertical view. (b) 
Transverse section at origin.
Fig. 4.11 Bending stresses
vary linearly with distance
from the neutral axis.
  For two beams with the same cross-sectional area A (Fig. 4.12), the beam with
the larger depth h will have the larger section modulus and will be the more
effective in resisting bending.

 In the case of structural steel, American standard beams

(S-beams) and wide-flange beams (W-beams) are
preferred to other shapes because a large portion of their
cross section is located far from the neutral axis (Fig. 4.13)
Fig. 4.12 Wood beam cross sections
.
 Thus, for a given cross-sectional area and a given depth,
their design provides large values of I and S.

Fig. 4.13 Two types of steel beam cross sections: (a)

American Standard beam (S) (b) wide-flange beam (W).
Properties of American Standard Shapes
Fig. 4.14 (a) Bar of rectangular
cross-section in pure bending. (b)
Centroid and dimensions of cross
section.
Fig. 4.15 (a) Semi-circular
section of rod in pure
bending. (b) Centroid and
neutral axis of cross section.
 In a member of rectangular cross section, the expansion and contraction of

the various elements in the vertical direction will compensate, and no change

in the vertical dimension of the cross section will be observed.

 As far as the deformations in the horizontal transverse z direction are

concerned, however, the expansion of the elements located above the neutral

surface and the corresponding contraction of the elements located below that

surface will result in the various horizontal lines in the section being bent into

arcs of circle (Fig. 4.14).

Fig. 4.14 Deformation of
a transverse cross
section.
 Sample Problem 4.2
SOLUTION:
• Based on the cross section
geometry, calculate the location of
the section centroid and moment
of inertia.
 yA 2
Y  I x   I  A d 
A

• Apply the elastic flexural formula

to find the maximum tensile and
compressive stresses.
Mc
m 
I
A cast-iron machine part is acted
upon by a 3 kN-m couple. KnowingE
• Calculate the curvature
= 165 GPa and neglecting the effects
1 M
of fillets, determine (a) the maximum 
tensile and compressive stresses, (b)  EI

the radius of curvature.

 SOLUTION:
Based on the cross section
geometry, calculate the location of
the section centroid and moment
of inertia.2 3
Area, mm y , mm y A , mm
1 20  90  1800 50 90  10 3
3
2 40  30  1200 20 2 4  10
3
 A  3000  y A  114  10

3
 y A 114  10
Y    38 mm
A 3000

I x   I  A d 2    121 bh 3  A d 2 

 121 90  20 3  1800  12 2   121 30  40 3  1200  18 2 

I  868  10 3 mm  868  10 - 9 m 4
 • Apply the elastic flexural formula to find
the maximum tensile and compressive
stresses.
Mc
m 
I
M cA 3 kN  m  0 . 022 m
 A  76 . 0 MPa
A   9 4
I 868  10 mm
M cB 3 kN  m  0 . 038 m
B     B  131 . 3 MPa
9 4
I 868  10 mm

• Calculate the curvature

1 M

 EI
3 kN m 1
 20 . 95  10 3 m - 1

165 GPa 868  10 - 9 m 4  
  47 . 7 m
Knowing that the couple shown
acts in a vertical plane,
determine the stress at (a) point
A, (b) point B.
4.4 MEMBERS MADE OF COMPOSITE MATERIALS

 The derivations given in Sec. 4.2 are based on the assumption of a homogeneous material
with a given modulus of elasticity E.

 If the member is made of two or more materials with different moduli of elasticity, the
member is a composite member.

 Consider a bar consisting of two portions of different materials bonded together as shown
in Fig. 4.18. This composite bar will deform as described in Sec. 4.1B, since its cross section
remains the same throughout its entire length, and since no assumption was made in Sec.
4.1B regarding the stress-strain relationship of the material or materials involved.

Fig. 4.18 Cross section made with different material.

 Fig. 4.19 Stress and strain distributions in
bar Made of two materials. (a) Neutral axis
shifted from centroid. (b) Strain
distribution. (c) Corresponding stress
distribution.

Fig. 4.21 Distribution of stresses in

Fig. 4.20 Transformed section based on transformed section.
replacing lower material with that used on
top.
 My
x  
I
1   x  2  n x
 Example 4.03
SOLUTION:
• Transform the bar to an equivalent cross
section made entirely of brass
• Evaluate the cross sectional properties
of the transformed section
• Calculate the maximum stress in the
transformed section. This is the correct
maximum stress for the brass pieces of
the bar.
Bar is made from bonded pieces of
steelE(s =29 x106psi)and brassE
( =• Determine the maximum stress in the
b
6 steel portion of the bar by multiplying the
15x1 0 ps
i)
. Deter
m i
ne t
h e m ax
im u m
maximum stress for the transformed
stress int
he s te
eland br
a ss when a
section by the ratio of the moduli of
m om entof4 0 k
ip
* i
nisapp l
ied.
elasticity.
SOLUTION:
• Transform the bar to an equivalent cross
section made entirely of brass.
Es 29  10 6 psi
n   6
 1 . 933
Eb 15 10 psi
bT  0 . 4 in  1 . 933  0 . 75 in  0 . 4 in  2 . 25 in

• Evaluate the transformed cross sectional

properties
3 3
I 1
 12 bT h  12  2 . 25 in. 3 in 
1

4
 5 . 063 in

• Calculate the maximum stresses

Mc  40 kip  in 1 . 5 in 
m   4
 11 . 85 ksi
I 5.063 in

 b  max  m  b  max  11 . 85 ksi

 s  max  n  m  1 . 933  11 . 85 ksi  s  max  22.9 ksi

4.5 ECCENTRIC AXIAL LOADING IN A PLANE OF SYMMETRY

 the distribution of stresses in the cross section of a member under axial

loading can be assumed uniform only if the line of action of the loads P
and P' passes through the centroid of the cross section. Such a loading
is said to be centric.

 when the line of action of the loads does not pass through the centroid Photo 4.5 Walkway light.

of the cross section, the loading is said to be eccentric. Let us now

analyze the distribution of stresses under such loading

 examples of an eccentric loading are:-

 the weight of the lamp causes an eccentric loading on the post.

Likewise, the vertical forces exerted on the Bench press cause an
Photo 4.6 Bench press
eccentric loading on the back column of the press.
  our analysis will be limited to members that possess a
plane of symmetry, and it will be assumed that the
loads are applied in the plane of symmetry of the
member (Fig. 4.39a).

 The internal forces acting on a given cross section

may then be represented by a force F applied at the
centroid C of the section and a couple M acting in the
plane of symmetry of the member (Fig. 4.39b).
Fig. 4.39 (a) Member with eccentric
 The conditions of equilibrium of the free body AC
loading. (b) Free-body diagram of the
require that the force F be equal and opposite to P' and
member with internal loads at that the moment of the couple M be equal and
section C. opposite to the moment of P' about C.
 Fig. 4.40 (a) Free-body diagram of
straight portion DE. (b) Free-body
diagram of portion CD.

Fig. 4.41 Stress distribution for eccentric loading is

obtained by superposing the axial and pure bending
distributions.
  The results obtained are valid only to the
extent that the conditions of applicability
of the superposition principle are met.

Fig. 4.42 Alternative stress distribution for  This means that the stresses involved
eccentric loading that results in zones of must not exceed the proportional limit of
tension and compression. the material. The deformations due to
bending must not appreciably affect the
distance d in Fig. 4.39a, and the cross
section where the stresses are computed
must not be too close to points D or E.
 Example 4.07
SOLUTION:
• Find the equivalent centric load
and bending moment

• Superpose the uniform stress

due to the centric load and the
linear stress due to the bending
moment.
• Evaluate the maximum tensile
and compressive stresses at the
inner and outer edges,
respectively, of the superposed
An open-link chain is obtained by bending low- stress distribution.
carbon steel rods into the shape shown. For 160 lb • Find the neutral axis by
determining the location where
load, determine (a) maximum tensile and
the normal stress is zero.
compressive stresses, (b) distance between
section centroid and neutral axis
4 - 58
 • Normal stress due to
a centric load
A  c    0 . 25 in 
2 2

2
 0 . 1963 in
P 160 lb
0   2
A 0 . 1963 in
 815 psi

• Equivalent centric load

and bending moment • Normal stress due to
bending moment
P  160 lb
I  1 c  1   0 . 25 
4 4
M  Pd  160 lb  0 . 6 in  4 4

 104 lb  in  3 . 068  10 3 in 4
Mc 104 lb  in  0 . 25 in 
m   3 4
I . 068  10 in

 8475 psi

4 - 59
• Maximum tensile and • Neutral axis location
compressive stresses P My
t  0 m 0   0
A I
 815  8475  t  9260 psi
P I 3 . 068 10 3 in 4
y0   815 psi 
c  0  m A M 105 lb  in
 815  8475  c  7660 psi
y0  0 . 0240 in

4 - 60
Sample Problem 4.8
The largest allowable stresses for the
cast iron link are 30 MPa in tension and
120 MPa in compression. Determine
P which can be applied
the largest force
to the link.
SOLUTION:
• Determine an equivalent centric load
and bending moment.

• Superpose the stress due to a

centric load and the stress due to
bending.
• Evaluate the critical loads for the
allowable tensile and compressive
From Sample Problem stresses.
2.4,
A  3  10
3 2
m
• The largest allowable load is the
Y  0 . 038 m
smallest of the two critical loads.
I  868  10 9 m 4
4 - 61
 • Determine an equivalent centric and bending
loads.
d  0 . 038  0 . 010  0 . 028 m
P centric load
M  Pd  0 . 028 P  bending moment

• Superpose stresses due to centric and bending

loads P Mc A P  0 . 028 P  0 . 022 
A     3
 9
 377 P
A I 3  10 868  10
P Mc A P  0 . 028 P  0 . 022 
B     3
 9
 1559 P
A I 3  10 868  10

• Evaluate critical loads for allowable

stresses.
 A  377 P  30 MPa P  79 . 6 kN

 B  1559 P  120 MPa P  79 . 6 kN

• The largest allowable P  77 . 0 kN

load

4 - 62
4.8 UNSYMMETRIC BENDING ANALYSIS

Our analysis of pure bending has been limited so far to members possessing at least one
plane of symmetry and subjected to couples acting in that plane.

Because of the symmetry of such members and of their loadings, the members remain
symmetric with respect to the plane of the couples and thus bend in that plane (Sec.
4.1B).

This is illustrated in Fig. 4.44; part a shows the cross section of a member possessing
two planes of symmetry, one vertical and one horizontal, and part b the cross section of
a member with a single, vertical plane of symmetry.

In both cases the couple exerted on the section acts in the vertical plane of symmetry of
the member and is represented by the horizontal couple vector M, and in both cases the
neutral axis of the cross section is found to coincide with the axis of the couple.
continued