INTRODUCTION

BASIC CIVIL ENGINEERING

CV1001| 3 Credits | 3 0 0 3

By:
Raghuvesh Tiwari
Assistant Professor (PhD Pursuing)
Manipal University Jaipur
*Note: This is not only and sufficient material for study but also follow instructions of E-Mail ID: raghuvesh.tiwary@jaipur.manipal.edu
teacher
OUTCOMES:
After completion of this chapter, we will be able to

➢ Understand various types of surveying work of civil engineering such as Chain

survey, compass survey, levelling, theodolite, contouring, plane table and total
station survey.

11/29/2020 22
OUTLINE:

➢ Principles and types of surveying

➢ Site plans
➢ linear measurements, angular
measurements
➢ Levelling, ordinary levels
➢ Total stations,
➢ Use of theodolite and plane table
➢ Contouring
➢ L- section and cross sections

11/29/2020 3
 SURVEYING
➢ Surveying is the art of determining the relative positions of
different objects on above or beneath the surface of the earth
by measuring the distance, direction and elevation between
them.
➢ The object of a survey is to prepare a plan or a map so that it
may represent a area on a horizontal plane.

11/29/2020 4
 Important Objectives of Surveying
➢ The main object of surveying is to prepare a map or plan to
show the relative positions of the objects on the surface of
the earth.
➢ To determining the boundaries of land.

➢ It is very useful for alignment for major projects, such as

dams,canals,roads,railways etc.

➢ The successful completion of any engineering project mainly

depends upon the accurate surveying.
 Classification of surveying
A) Primary classification
1. Plane surveying- surveying is done without considering curvature of
earth for small measurements

2. Geodetic surveying- considering curvature of earth for large measurements

of surveying

Note: as the length of arc 12km long is laying in the earth’s surface is only one
centimeter greater than the subtended chord.

B) Secondary classification

1. Based on instruments

a) Chain surveying: Linear measurements are done using chain and taps.

b) Compass surveying: Agular measurements are done using various compass.

 Classification of surveying
c) Plane table surveying, d) Theodolite surveying
e) Tacheometric surveying, f) Photographic surveying

2. Based on methods
a) Triangulation surveying, b) Traverse surveying

3. Based on object
a) Geological surveying, b) Mine surveying,
c) Archaeological surveying, d) Military surveying.

4) Based on nature of field

a) Land surveying, b) Marine surveying,
c) Astronomical surveying,

11/29/2020 7
 Classification of surveying
Land surveying is again divided into following classes
i) Topographical surveying:- to determine the natural and artificial
features of country such as rivers, lakes, hills, roads, railways,
towns etc.
ii) Cadastral surveying:- to determine the boundaries of fields, estates,
houses, etc
iii) City surveying:- to locate the premises, streets, water supply and
sanitary system etc.
iv) Engineering surveying:- to collect data for designing of
engineering works such as roads, reservoirs, railways etc.
 Difference between Plane surveying & Geodetic
surveying
Plane surveying Geodetic surveying
1. The effect of curvature of earth is 1. The effect of curvature of earth is
not considered. considered.
2. The surface of the earth is taken as 2. It involves spherical trigonometry.
plane. So it is called trigonometrical survey.

3. The area to be surveyed less than 3. The area to be surveyed more than
250 km2 250 km2
4. The degree of accuracy is low. 4. The degree of accuracy is high.
5. Plane surveying is conducted by 5. Geodetic surveying is conducted
state agencies like Irrigation by Survey of India (GTS)
department, Railway department. department.

6. 6.
Scale
The area that is being surveyed is vast and therefore plans are made to some scale
Scale can be represented by two methods:

a) Engineer's scale: one centimeter on the plan represents some whole number
of meters on the ground such as 1cm=10m etc.

b) One unit of length on the plan represents some number of meters on the
ground, such as 1/10000 known as Representative Fraction (R.F.)
 Survey Line
• The lines joining the main survey
stations are called main survey
line
• The biggest of main survey line
is called baes line
• Check Lines: check lines or proof
lines which are run in the field to
check the accuracy of the work.
• Tie Line: a line which joins
subsidiary stations on the main
line.

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Conventional symbol
 Uses of surveying

1. It is useful for measurement of areas.

2. To prepare different types of maps such as topographical map,

cadastral map, engineering map, military map, contour map,
geological map etc.

3. It is very useful for the purpose of designing projects, such as

dams,canals,roads,railways etc.

4. It is used for making of plans in connection with legal

documents.

5. In case of dispute of property, certain plans may be used as a

legal documents
 Principles of surveying
1. To work from whole to the part.

2. To locate a new station by at least two measurement ( linear or

angular ) from fixed reference points.
To work from whole to the part.

• According to the first principle, the whole area is first enclosed by main stations
(controlling stations) and main survey lines (controlling lines).
• The area is then divided into a number of parts by forming well-conditioned
triangles.
• The main survey lines are measured very accurately with a standard chain and
then the sides of triangles are measured.
 To work from the whole to the part.
➢ The purpose of this process of working is to prevent accumulation of
error. During this procedure, if there is any error in the measurement of any
side of a triangle, then it will not affect the whole work. The error can
always be detected and eliminated.

➢ But, if the reverse process (from the part to the whole) is followed, then
the minor error in measurement will be magnified in the process of
expansion and these errors will become absolutely uncontrollable.
 To locate a new station by at least two
measurement ( linear or angular ) from fixed
reference points.

➢ According to the second principle, the new stations should

always be fixed by at least two measurement from fixed
reference points. Linear measurements refer to horizontal
distances measured by chain or tape.
➢ Angular measurements refer to the magnetic bearing or
horizontal angle taken by a prismatic compass or theodolite.
Site Plan
A site plan is a diagram
that shows the layout of a
property or “site”. A site
plan may include the
location of buildings and
structures. As well as,
property features such as
driveways, walkways,
landscaped areas, gardens,
pools or water, trees,
terraces and more.
Linear measurements

Methods

Direct measurements By optical means Electronic methods

25
UnitNovember
2 08
:Chain
➢ Direct measure is done by:
Pacing
Passometer
Pedometer
Odometer
Speedometer
Chaining

➢ Pacing: In this method surveyor walks along the line to be measured

and counts the number of steps. Then the distance measured is equal to
number of steps × average length of a step.
Average length of a step can be found by walking along a known
length. A normal man takes a step of length 0.75 m to 0.8 m.
11/29/2020 20
➢ Passometer: A passometer is a watch-like instrument which is carried vertically in
the pocket of shirt or tied to a leg. It records number of steps taken. Thus the problem
of counting number of steps is eliminated in this approximate method of linear
measurement.
➢ Using Pedometer: This instrument is similar to passometer but it can record the
distance instead of number of steps. In this, zero setting and setting of step length is
made before walking.
➢ Odometer: This instrument is attached to the wheel of a cycle or other vehicle. It
records the number of revolutions made by the wheel. Knowing the circumference of
the wheel, the distance travelled may be found.

si

11/29/2020 21
➢ Speedometer: Odometer calibrated to give distance directly is called
speedometer. This is to be used for particular vehicle only. All automobiles
are provided with speedometers. By running the vehicle along the line to
be measured distance can be found.
➢ Chaining: Surveying work is done using chain or tape called chaining,
principal of chaining is to provide a skeleton or framework consisting of a
number of triangles as triangle is the only simple figure, although other
simple shape can also be plotted

➢ Chains: The chains are composed of 100 pieces of 4 mm diameter

galvanised mild steel wires bent into rings at the end and joined to each
other by three circular or oval shaped rings.

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11/29/2020 23
➢ To facilitate easy reading of the chain, brass tallies are provided.
➢ End of 10th link from each end is provided with a talley of one tooth,
20th link is provided with a talley of two teeth; 30th link with a talley of
three teeth; 40th link with a talley of 4 teeth and the middle of chain is
provided with a talley of circular shape

➢ length of a link is the distance between centres of two consecutive middle

rings.
➢ the length of the chain is from outside of one handle to the outside of the
other handle.
➢ Commonly used metric chains are of 20 m length. They have 100 links
with talleys at every 2 m.
➢ Each link is of 0.2 m length. Simple rings are provided at every one metre
length except wherever tallies are provided.
11/29/2020 24
 However 30 m chains are also in use. Length of each link is 0.3 m. It is
not so convenient as 20 m chain to read, since no rings can be provided
at one metre distance and each link needs multiplication with 0.3 to
arrive at metre units.

11/29/2020 25
Instruments for chaining/taping

➢ Chain/tape
➢ Arrows
➢ pegs
➢ Ranging rods
➢ Plumb bob
➢ Hand level

25
UnitNovember
2 08
:Chain
Taping / Chaining

Chaining or taping carries same meaning

Use of either chain or tape.
This method is basis for most surveying.
Precision
1/1000 to 1/5000 (ordinary land survey)
Use of chain or tape
Chain (Early 1600s)
Steel tape in use by early 2000s
Tape is very common nowadays.

25
UnitNovember
2 08
:Chain
 Contd….

Arrows
10 arrows

Pegs
➢ Station position
➢ Terminal points of survey line

25
UnitNovember
2 08
:Chain
 Contd….

Ranging rods
Used to range intermediate points on survey line
Length 2 m ( very common) or 3 m
Bands of 20 cm painted alternate colour
( red & white, black & white)

Ranging poles
Similar to ranging rod but big in size
Used in case of long lines
Used to range intermediate points on survey line

25
UnitNovember
2 08
:Chain
Instruments for chaining/taping Contd….

Plumb bob:
Verticality of ranging pole
Transferring the points to ground
Also used for centring purpose in
other surveying methods.

25
UnitNovember
2 08
:Chain
 Contd….
Locating the ground features

25 November 08 Unit 2 :Chain Surveying

 Contd….
Field work

25 November 08 Chain Surveying

Angular Measurements
Angular measurements we usually do with:
Compass: surveyor compass, prismatic compass
Theodolite
Height we usually do with:
Dumpy level
Auto level
Theodolite & Digital leveler
Compass surveying
The principle of surveying is traversing; which involves a series of lines
which are connected.
TYPES OF COMPASS

➢ PRISMATIC COMPASS
➢ SURVEYOR’COMPASS
THE PRISMATIC COMPASS
 CONSISTING PARTS

1. Cylindrical metal box 7. Object vane

2. Pivot 8. Eye Vane
3. Lifting pin and lifting liver 9. Glass Cover
4. Magnetic Needle 10. Sun Glasses
5. Graduated Ring 11. Reflecting Mirror
6. Prism 12. Spring Brake or Brake Pin
PRISMATIC COMPASS
 INSTRUMENTS USED FOR
COMPASS SURVEYING

The various instruments used in the compass survey are :

➢ Prismatic compass
➢ Tape
➢ Ranging rods
➢ Tripod
➢ Arrows
➢ Plumb Bob
PRISMATIC COMPASS

•Prismatic Compass comprises of a magnetic needle

attached to the circular ring made up of aluminum.

•The needle is on the pivot and will orient itself in the

magnetic meridian

•The line of sight is defined by the objective vane and

the eye slit, both attached to the compass box.
 A triangular prism is fitted below the eye slit.

• The readings increase in clockwise direction.

 The object vane frame can be folded on the glass lid

which covers the top at box.
 lever which lifts the needle of the pivot and
holds it against the glass lid.

 When bright objects are sighted dark glass

may be interposed in to the line of sight.
The following are the adjustments usually necessary in the prismatic
compass:

➢ Centering
➢ Leveling
➢ Focusing the prism.
CENTERING:
➢ The center of the compass is placed vertically over the station point by
dropping a small piece of stone below the center of the compass, it falls on
the top of the peg marking that station.

LEVELLING:
➢ By means of ball and socket arrangement the Compass is then leveled the
graduated ring swings quite freely. It may be tested by rolling a round pencil
on the compass box.

FOCUSSING THE PRISM :

➢ The prism attachment is slid up or down focusing till the readings are seen to
be sharp and clear.
THE
SURVEYOR’S
COMPASS
SURVEYOR’S COMPASS
WORKING OF SURVEYOR’S COMPASS

1. Centering
2. Levelling
3. Observing the bearing line
TYPES OF MERIDIANS

1. Magnetic Meridians and Magnetic Bearing

2. True Meridian and True Bearing

3. Arbitrary Meridian and Arbitrary Bearing

TYPES OF BEARINGS

1. True bearing
2. Magnetic bearing
3. Grid bearing
4. Arbitrary bearing
MEASUREMENTS OF BEARINGS
REDUCED BEARING [RB]

W.C.B OF ANY QUADRANT IN RULE FOR QUADRANT

LINE WHICH IT LIES CONVERSION

1. 0° to 90° first RB = WCB N-E

2. 90° to 180° second RB = 180° - WCB S-E

3. 180° to 270° third RB = WCB - 180° S-W

4. 270° to 360° fourth RB = 360° - WCB N-W

LEVELLING
➢ Levelling is the process by which differences in height between two or more
points can be determined.

➢ Leveling is a branch of surveying, the object of which is to find or establish

the elevation of a given point with respect to the given or assumed Datum
(reference point).

➢ Common leveling instruments include the spirit level, the dumpy level, the
digital level, and the laser level.
Some Basic Definitions
➢ Level surface (e.g. the geoid)
A water surface with no motion Gravity gradient is the normal to
the level surface The Instrument’s Bubble is in the normal (!)
➢ Horizontal surface
At the instruments axis, the horizontal surface is tangent to the
level surface Over short distances (<100 m) the horizontal surface
and the level surface will coincide For long leveling lines the
effects of the gravity field must be considered

➢ Vertical Line
A line that follows the direction of gravity as indicated by a plumb line.

➢ Horizontal Plane
A plane perpendicular to the direction of gravity.

ODINAFRICA/GLOSS Sea Level Training Course - Oostende, Belgium - 13-24 Nov. 2006
 Definitions

➢ Datum
Any level surface to which elevations are referred. for example, mean sea
level)
➢ Mean Sea Level (MSL)
The average height of the sea's surface for all stages of the tide over a 19-
year period.
➢ Elevation
The vertical distance from a datum to a point.

➢ Bench Mark (BM)

A permanent point of known elevation.
Can include artificial objects such as metal disks set in concrete, foundation
corners, and fire hydrants or natural objects such as large rocks.

ODINAFRICA/GLOSS Sea Level Training Course - Oostende, Belgium - 13-24 Nov. 2006
➢ Vertical Control
A series of bench marks in a project of known elevation. Bench marks established
using higher order leveling are used to control the elevation of other points
established during a project.

➢ Back sight (BS)

The first reading from a new instrument stand point (i.e. take the height to
the instrument)
➢ Fore sight (FS)
The last reading from the current instrument station (i.e. give the height to
a benchmark)
➢ Intermediate sight (IS)
Any sighting that is not a back sight or fore sight

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Basic Principle of Leveling

Measures height differences between points

Along a line
Several points from one occupation

Leveling rods
Line of sight
Back sight Fore sight
fs
bs
Dh = bs - fs

Gravity Gradient
ODINAFRICA/GLOSS Sea Level Training Course - Oostende, Belgium - 13-24 Nov. 2006
Reading a Staff

• Read the [m], [dm] & [cm]

• Estimate the [mm]

1422

• Check yourself for frequent used

numbers (2/3) or (7/8)

ODINAFRICA/GLOSS Sea Level Training Course - Oostende, Belgium - 13-24 Nov. 2006
Basic Rules for Leveling

Always start and finish a leveling run on a Benchmark (BM or TGBM) and
close the loops Keep fore sight and back sight distances as equal as possible
Keep lines of sight short (normally < 50m) Never read below 0.5m on a
staff (refraction)
Use stable, well defined change points Beware of shadowing effects and
crossing waters

ODINAFRICA/GLOSS Sea Level Training Course - Oostende, Belgium - 13-24 Nov. 2006
Effect of Earth Curvature

Horizontal Level

(r +Dh)2 = r2 + s2
=>
Dh  s2/(2r)

Distance (s) in m 10 20 50 100 1000

Effect (Dh) in mm 0,008 0,03 0,2 0,8 80

www.fh-oow.de/institute/ima/personen/weber/VK_12/VL_VK1/geo_niv_6.htm

ODINAFRICA/GLOSS Sea Level Training Course - Oostende, Belgium - 13-24 Nov. 2006
 Refraction

Mean Gradient: 0,2 °C / m

www.fh-oow.de/institute/ima/personen/weber/VK_12/VL_VK1/geo_niv_6.htm

ODINAFRICA/GLOSS Sea Level Training Course - Oostende, Belgium - 13-24 Nov. 2006
 Collimation error

Occurs when the line of sight (as defined by the lens axis and cross-hairs) is not horizontal
Leads to an incorrect staff reading

error

horizontal line

ODINAFRICA/GLOSS Sea Level Training Course - Oostende, Belgium - 13-24 Nov. 2006
Procedure of leveling
1. The instrument must be check before use! (see lecture)
2. The instrument and level must be stable settled-up
3. The bubble tube must be leveled before the reading
• Beware of sun exposure (will wander)
• Ensure the instruments pendulum is in-limit
4. The instrument must be set up in the middle between two staffs
• Prevents curvature effects
• If impossible, use the same distances, but opposite for the next
readings
5. You must not use the parallax screw between the backsight and
foresight readings

ODINAFRICA/GLOSS Sea Level Training Course - Oostende, Belgium - 13-24 Nov. 2006
 Procedure of Leveling

6. Readings must be taken 30-50 cm above the ground

• Surface refractions
• Beware also of temperature gradients (inside/outside buildings)
!!!!
7. Staff should be set up vertically
8. A change plate should be used
9. Leveling must be done in two opposite directions but the same line
(beware of gravity gradients)
10. Staff should be calibrated, especially if INVAR
11. Be careful when crossing rivers (large water surfaces)
• Use “same-time” (mutual) observations
• Repeat it during different times of the day

ODINAFRICA/GLOSS Sea Level Training Course - Oostende, Belgium - 13-24 Nov. 2006
Levelling Staff

11/29/2020 64
Pictures of levelling Instruments

Line
Level

Dumpy
Level
11/29/2020 66
Auto level
Automatic Level

1. Base Plate
2. Horizontal Circle
3. Eyepiece
4. Circular Bubble
5. Sighting Pointer
6. Objective Lens
7. Focusing Knob
8. Fine Motion Drive
9. Footscrew
10. Bubble Mirror
•.

LEVELING METHODS
➢ Taping
➢ Barometric Leveling
➢ Trigonometric Leveling
➢ Differential Leveling
TAPING
➢ Using a tape or a graduated rod to measure the vertical distance
between two points. applicable when an unobstructed vertical line
between the two points exists.
Examples:
➢ measuring the depths of mine shafts
➢ construction layout of multistory buildings
➢ depth of ditches for water lines, etc

11/29/2020 69
PLANE TABLE
SURVEYING

70
Plane Tabling
Plane Tabling is a graphical method of surveying in which the field
work and plotting are done simultaneously.

Useful to fill in details between stations fixed by triangulation or

theodolite traversing.

Particularly adapted for small scale or medium scale mapping in

which great accuracy in detail is not required.
Parts of Plane Table
➢ Plane Table

➢ Tripod
➢ Alidade
➢ Trough Compass
➢ Spirit level
➢ U-Fork with Plumb bob
➢ Drawing paper
➢ Pins
➢ Drawing accessories
 PLAIN ALIDADE

Sight Vane

Object Vane

Fiducial Edge
Setting Up the Plane table

i. Fixing the plane table on the tripod stand

ii. Leveling the table
iii. Centering the table
iv. Marking the North-line
v. Orientation
1. Orientation by magnetic needle
2. Orientation by backsighting
METHODS OF PLANE TABLING
There are four methods of surveying with the plane table:
1. Radiation Method
2. Intersection Method
3. Traversing Method
4. Resection Method
 RADIATION METHOD
In this method the objects are
located by radiating lines from the
point, and measuring the distance
with chain or tape with suitable
scale. It is chiefly used for locating
the details from the station, which
have been established previously
by other methods triangulation, or
traversing.
 RADIATION METHOD

B
C

b
c
d
P
A
a
e
f

F
 INTERSECTION METHOD
In this method the point is fixed on the plane by the intersection of the rays
drawn from the two instrument stations. The line joining the stations is called
Base line. A
C
B
The method
requires only the
linear
measurements of a b c
this line BASE LINE
p q

f d
e

P Q

F
D
INTERSECTION METHOD
Theodolite
A theodolite is a tool for measuring vertical and horizontal
angles. It is used in triangulation networks. It looks like a
small telescope and is used everywhere from construction sites
to highway points. Theodolites measure angles using age old
principles of trigonometry and assist surveyors in establishing
precise locations.
Purpose of theodolite
➢ An instrument used in surveying to measure horizontal and vertical angles
with a small telescope that can move in the horizontal and vertical planes.
➢ Theodolites are electronic devices that are widely used for the measurement
of vertical and horizontal angles for mapping applications, and in the
construction industry.

➢ From geometry, we know that it is possible to calculate unknown lengths

and angles of a triangle given particular information regarding the other
angles and lengths of the sides of a triangle.
➢ For example, given beginning coordinates such as (x,y) in plane
coordinates or the latitude and longitude, it is then possible to calculate
new coordinates by measuring certain angles and distances (lengths of
sides of a triangle).
Parts of Theodolite
 Contouring
Contour An imaginary line on the ground surface joining the points of
equal elevation is known as contour.

Contouring
The process of tracing contour lines on the surface of the
earth is called Contouring.

Contour Map
A map showing contour lines is known as Contour map.
A contour map gives an idea of the altitudes of the surface features as well
as their relative positions in plan serves the purpose of both, a plan and a
section.
PURPOSE OF CONTOURING

Contour survey is carried out at the starting of any engineering project such as
a road, a railway, a canal, a dam, a building etc.
i) For preparing contour maps in order to select the most economical or
suitable site.
ii) To locate the alignment of a canal so that it should follow a ridge line.
iii) To mark the alignment of roads and railways so that the quantity of
earthwork both in cutting and filling should be minimum.

iv) For getting information about the ground whether it is flat, undulating
or mountainous.
v) To find the capacity of a reservoir and volume of earthwork especially in
a mountainous region.
vi) To trace out the given grade of a particular route.
CONTOUR INTERVAL
The constant vertical distance between two consecutive contours is called
the contour interval.

HORIZONTAL EQUIVALENT
The horizontal distance between any two adjacent contours is called as
horizontal equivalent.
The contour interval is constant between the consecutive contours while
the horizontal equivalent is variable and depends upon the slope of the
ground.
FACTORS ON WHICH CONTOUR -INTERVAL DEPENDS

i) The Nature of the Ground In flat and uniformly sloping country, the
contour interval is small , but in broken and mountainous region the
contour interval should be large otherwise the contours will come too
close to each other.
ii) The Purpose and extent of the survey. Contour interval is small if the area
to be surveyed is small and the maps are required to be used for the
design work or for determining the quantities of earth work etc. while
wider interval shall have to be kept for large areas and comparatively
less important works.
iii) The Scale of the Map. The contour interval should be in the inverse ratio
to the scale of the map i.e. the smaller the scale, the greater is the contour
interval.

iv) Time and Expense of Field and Office work. The smaller the interval, the
greater is the amount of field-work and plotting work.
COMMON VALUES OF THE CONTOUR -
INTERVAL
The following are the common values of the contour interval adopted for
various purposes:-

i) For large scale maps of flat country, for building sites, for detailed
design work and for calculation of quantities of earth work;
0.2 to 0.5 m.

ii) For reservoirs and town planning schemes; 0.5 to 2m.

iii) For location surveys. 2 to 3m.

iv) For small scale maps of broken country and general topographic work;
3m,5m,10m,or 25m.
CHARACTERISTICS OF CONTOURS

i) All points in a contour line have the same elevation.

ii) Flat ground is indicated where the contours are widely separated and
steep-slope where they run close together.
iii) A uniform slope is indicated when the contour lines are uniformly spaced
and
iv) A plane surface when they are straight, parallel and equally spaced.
CHARACTERISTICS OF CONTOURS

v) A series of closed
contour lines on the 80
map represent a hill , if
75
the higher values are
inside 70

65
HILL
60
60
65
70
75
80

A HILL
CHARACTERISTICS OF CONTOURS

80

vi) A series of closed 75

contour lines on the
DEPRESSION
map indicate a 70
depression if the higher
values are outside 65

60

70
60
65
70
75
80

A DEPRESSION
CHARACTERISTICS OF CONTOURS
vii) Contour line cross ridge or valley line at right angles.
If the higher values are inside the bend or loop in the contour, it
indicates a Ridge.

If the
100 higher 100
values
90 90
are
outsid 80
80
70 e the
70
bend,
60 60
50 it
repres 50
ents a
Valley
VALLEY LINE
RIDGE
LINE
CONTOURING 16
CHARACTERISTICS OF CONTOURS

Contour lines cannot merge or

cross one another on map
except in the case of an
overhanging cliff. 40

30

20

10

40 30 20 10

OVERHANGING CLIFF
CHARACTERISTICS OF CONTOURS
Contour lines never run into
one another except in the case 50
of a vertical cliff. In this case
,several contours coincide and 40
the horizontal equivalent
30 VERTICA
becomes zero. CLIFF

20

10

10 20 30 40 5050

OVERHANGING CLIFF
 USES OF CONTOUR MAP

(i) A contour map furnishes information regarding the features of the

ground , whether it is flat, undulating or mountainous.
(ii) From a contour map , sections may be easily drawn in any direction
(iii) Intervisibility between two ground points plotted on map can be
ascertained
(iv) It enables an engineer to approximately select the most economical or
suitable site for an engineering project such as a road, a railway, a canal or
a pipe line etc.
(v) A route of a given grade can be traced on the map.
(vi) Catchment area and capacity of a reservoir may be determined from the
contour map.
(vii) Contour map may be used to determine the quantities of earth work.
 Longitudinal Section
➢ A section taken through the lengthwise dimension of a structure. It can also be
termed as the Side Elevation of a structure.

➢ Longitudinal sections of Roads, Canals, Bridges, etc are very useful in

determining the theoretical gradient of the proposed structure based on the
existing surface conditions
L-Section Profile
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 Cross Section
cutting or piece of something cut off at right angles to an axis also : a
representation of such a cutting.

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CrossSection of Highway
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 THANK YOU

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