*CIV2429*

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 PREFACE

This book is designated to cover an important course in

surveyingfor civil engineering students in universities,
polytechnics and colleges oftechnology.

The book prepares the student to perform the duties ofany

member ofsurveying party both in the field and in the office,
also it serves as a firm foundation for future studies in
surveying.

The material within the book has been taken from so many
sources that individual acknowledgement is impossible ,however
our special thanks are due to all staffmembers ofcivil
engineering at Beirut Arab University.

The authors
June 2013
Definition of surveying:
Surveying is the measurement of dimensional relationships among
pOints, lines, and physical features on or near the Earth's surface.
Basically, surveying determines horizontal distances, erevation
differences, directions, and angles. These basic determinations are
applied further to the computation of areas and volumes and to the
establishment of locations with respect to some coordinate system.

Surveying is typically used to locate and measure property lines; to

layout buildings, bridges, channels, highways, sewers, and
pipelines for construction; to locate stations for launching and
trackir)g satellites; and to obtain topographic information for
mapping and charting.

Horizontal distances are usually assumed to be parallelto a

common plane. Each measurement has both length and direction.
Length is expressed in feet or in meters. Direction is expressed as a
bearing of the azimuthal angle relationship to a reference meridian,
which is the north-south direction. It can be the true meridian, a
grid meridian, or some other assumed meridian.

Reference, or control, is a concept that applies to the positions of

lines as well as to their directions. In its simplest form, the position
control is an identifiable or understood point of origin for the lines of
a survey.

Vertical measurement adds the third dimension to an object's

position. This dimension is expressed as the distance above some
reference surface, usually mean sea level, called a datum. Mean sea
level is determined by averaging high and low tides during a lunar
month.
Types of su rveys:
Engineering ,surveys: those surveys associated with the
engineering design (topographic, layout and as-built) often. And this
is the most important type of survey for construction to determine
the necessary areas and volumes of land and materials that may be
reqUired during construction. Also to produce up-to-date plans of
the areas in which Engineering projects are to be built.

Topographic survey: a survey that measures the elevation of

points on a particular piece of land, and presents them as contour
lines on a plot.

Geodetic survey: 'Geodetic surveys cover such a large area that

curved shape of the Earth has to be taken into consideration. Such
surveys involve advanced mathematical theory and require precise
measurements to provide a framework of accurately located pOints.

These points can be used to map entire continent, to measure the

true size and shape of the Earth.

photogrammetry: Surveys at most scale may be undertaken by

photogrammetry , using photographs taken with special cameras
from an aircraft or on the ground. Maps or numerical data can be
produced, usually with aid of sophisticated and expensive stereo­
plotting machines and computers.

Hydrographic survey: a survey conducted with the purpose of

mapping the coastline and seabed for navigation, engineering, or
resource management purposes.
 Instruments and Techniques:

. A.tripod: is a portable three-legged frame, used as a platform for·

supporting the weight and maintaining the stability of some other
object. A tripod provides stability against dowrlward forces and
horizontal forces and movements about horizontal axes.

Ranging pole: Surveying instrument consisting of a straight rod

painted in bands of alternate red and white each one foot wide;
used for sightings by surveyors

A compass: Is a navigational instrument that shows directions in a

frame of reference that is stationary relative to the surface of the
earth. The frame of reference defines the four cardinal directions
(or points) north, south, east and west.
A level staff: Also called leveling rod, is a graduated wooden or
aluminum rod, the use of which permits the determination of
differences in elevation.
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• The engineer's chain: 100 ft (30 m) long and also

consisting of 100 links.

• The tape: usually of steel, this has largely superseded chains; and the
rod. Tapes and rods made of Invar metal (an alloy of steel and nickel) are
used for very precise work because of their low coefficient of thermal
expansion.

':,?
l ,
The level: The height of points in relation to a datum line (usually
mean sea level) is measured with a leveling instrument consisting of
a telescope fitted with a spirit level and usually mounted on a
tripod. It is used in conjunction with a leveling rod placed at the
point to be measured and sighted through the telescope.

A total station: is an electronic/optical instrument used in

modern surveying and building construction. The total station is an
electronic theodolite (transit) integrated with an
electronic distance meter (EDM) to read slope distances from the
instrument to a particular point.
Robotic total stations allow the operator to control the instrument
from a distance via remote control. This eliminates the need for an
assistant staff member as the operator holds the reflector and
controls the total station from the observed point.
GPS: The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a space-
based satellite navigation system that provides location and
time information in all weather conditions/ anywhere on or
near the Earth where there is an unobstructed line of sight to
four or more GPS satellites. The system provides critical
capabilities to military/ civil and commercial users around the
wOild. It tS maintained by the United States government and
is freely accessible to anyone with a GPS receiver.
"

Scale o:fM:ap

< ,

Scale of maps

The map distance (d)

• Scale of map =
The real ground distance (D)

{I If the scale 1 : SOC)

1 mm on map =500 mm on ground
2 mm on map =1.00 m on ground

Presentation of the scale

• As a ratio

• Graphical representation
-Linear scale
-Grid or diagonal scale
 scale
• Scale of drawn map
with two forms :

Numerical
1 :5000 , 1:25000 ,
1:50000, ....... .

scale
• Scale of drawn map with two forms:

Graphical

~'1 il es

I I

I I
Kilometer, 5

Bar Scale Variable Scale

 .Types of maps scales

. • ,Large scale'1 :10 - 1 :2500

• Used in site planes and in planning and

designing of civil engineering works such
as streets,roads,water network and
sewage.

Types of maps scales

• Medium scales 1:5000 ------+1 :25 000

- Used in town maps, highways and railways
maps

• Small scales 1:25 000 ------+ 1:2000 000

- Used in geographic maps because it is
cover a huge areas
Question (1) :

a- Calculate the sfa1e of plan where lcm represents 24.45 m. ~.,,:"'" 5~1
--~ __:; ;._,. __P-b!!.~.f!~I!::!~_Q..~_!!!:!..~I!..__~ ______I_~____________l_td:._=-_ )-__' -:'_--1'
I . _.... - ~ '-'

_______________ ..f)L1JJ_I:!!.!dt!_:~__'!../t!5.!.L~ ______..&!I.!.!i.S_If!I.._______?lJH:;aJ/A.------~::---------- i

b- A land· area was investigated 150cm 2 on map if a scale of 1/1000 was

Determine the actual area of the land in hectares.

c- Draw ascale for a map scaled by 1:2500 to read 10m, and find out the length 270m.

- Calculate the true area (on site) of Building (B) shown on the following map:

~--.----------------------------~---,------~

B.A.U
I
'En~.M.Atu saldl

Sca]e:
1/500
~

linear Surveying

 Tape Measurement of Lines

I
droOlS
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mct~lJ'"!g
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 Tape Measurement of Lines

On every survey, there will inevitably be a variety of long and short, flat and inclined,
lines to be measured accurately.

A) The figure below shows a short survey line AB marked on the ground by two
pegs. The distance AB is shorter than one tape length.

19.133 rn

19.7 read hgure-",

0.03 wunt un!..
0.003 estlmote IT'ffi-:;
".---­_ _ _1.tmm
-------""""--­
Measurement of a short line is obtained by the following steps:

1- Unreel the tape and straightening it along t4e line between the pegs.

2- The zero point of the tape is held against station A by the rear tape person (called
the follower).

3- The forward.end ofthe tape is read against station B by the forward tape person
(called the leader) .after it has been carefully tightened.

i! I' lltl~, I I I t I • ! .16. I I ; t; I ; t; ! 1 ~! o~", I ! Ii! , ' ,!lj2 I • • ! t I • !

IA '8

1 I M' . I I I t j 1 I 118) t I " t I I I PI 9 I I , t ! ; I .4.. I • t , I • ,§]1; .: t

Ie 10
B) On surveys most of the lines will be considerably longer than one tape length and a
sound operational technique is required.

- Two ancillary pieces of equipment are necessary:

1- Ranging rods.

11- Marking arrows.

rangu"19 roo - '"

-+- }

I
I
37Smm

metal shoe +"

Measurement of a long line is obtained by the following steps: .

1- The follower holds the zero end ofthe tape against station A and the leader pulls the
tape'towards station B.

2- When the tape has been laid out the leader holds the ranging rod vertically
approximately on the line.

3- The follower signals to the leader to move it until it is exactly on the line AB.
4- The tape is tightened between the newly erected rod and station A and an arrow is
pushed into the ground at the 20 mark of the tape.

5- The follower moves forward to this new point and the whole procedure is repeated
for the remainder of the line until station B is reached.

6- The follower gathers the marking arrows and the number of tape lengths measured
is the number of the arrowS carried by the follower, the portion of tape between the
last arrow and station B is then measured and added to the number of complete tape
lengths to produce the total length ofthe line.

sOt' 'ley !of n

Obstacles:
Some way, chain lines should not be broken by obstacles, it
often happens that an unhindered line is not attainable. In the
following figure we show some solutions of obstacles:

r 3!

d/--···-­
 Correction of linear measurements

I-tape correction:

L~=Lm .(1'/1)

Lc : the required corrected length ofline (true length)

Lm : the measured length of line

I' : the actual length of tape ( lo~ger or shorter than the standard)

I : standard length of tape (nominal length 20 m , 30 m ,SOm ...)

Note: for Areas calculation the rule will be:

Ac=Am .(1'/1)2
Ac: correct area (true area)
Am: measured area

2-Slope correction:

D=L.cosa
D: the required horizontal distance (plan length)
L: inclined ]ength and a: angle of inclination (slope)

Note: if the difference of height is given use D=JL2_h2

 -Linear SurveYing

1
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1
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l BC 2753
 Linear Surveying

Where comparatively small areas have to be surveyed a linear survey might be used.

.The principle oflinear surveying is to dividetheare:aintoa number ofttiangles~ aH.the

sides of which are measured. _ . .

1';' Draw a sketch of the site. andJocate the northditeciiori~Qnjt_

i- Select the traverse station points and m~rk them with a suitable mark.

.' 3- Reference the traverse station points to be able to locate them again easily_

4- Establish a framework over the whole site to form a geometric figure, which all
sides are to be measured and can be readily pl6tted~

B
.,S-L -
79"97
~ ~ A
 5- Alllhe details (fences, walls, streams, trees, buildings~ etc.) are then added to the
framework by offsetting.

-,

\,. (j.~~::"YiI)i~~for~h lineoft)1efr~otkiIDilie$Iil¢yjjeld

@ c~~~~
- Va­ 222

L.OO

2.05

- H.O 1.82

~
l
- A
2.20
o _ 0.00_
AS 48.61.

7- Finally the survey is to be plotted starting with the framework followed by the
details.

N
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...----~

f GlAsw.w (&UG( i,Ii 8UJt.!!~

! <li!100QR tEHIRE SITE PiAN
,-" -~------
1 s.:=G.~ ~ !Io•• ~~\~~::
c fd";;:;»:--r~~-~ -r~~
".

LEGEND
Some Conventional Signs:

~I 1----1---- 1- - ­ I I I I I I I I I I I I

Post and Rai I Fence Close Paling

.-eof~ HedJJe
LI~. •. indicated
." . Hed~e by 1. <{Lnd
. h poslJ:,on
Waifs and O. C shows side
to which if be/ani-s

--< ----­
-----~~----
Gate
--.....---
Footpaths
-.......--.

- ­
Hed8e~
as ee 9=<

Road

Orchard
~\J.1.( ~").1.4 J,)i{

\Ui"""" \Ui ~
Rough Pasture Marsh

o 0 '0 I I I I I I I or ---
Brushwood Railways

~
r-----I L--l
L; ,-,
,- 1--'
,-::::J
r--;-I
c::-'
,=-.J
-------
E.mbankment Pond

~
Plob:;, of Land
~~mm . "tOpen
(Areas included [o.,s:ether) Building Barn Glasshouse
 _ Calculate the corrected plan length of line AC measured in 2

sections as follows:

AB= 152.85ms. angle of slope= 5t> 30"

BC= 48.50 ms. Difference in elevation between B & C=2. 5 m
Where steel tape which was actually 19.9 ms.

--tape correction:---AB'=152.85x(19.9/20)= 1520085 81--------­

-------------------------BC '=48.25 m
--------------------------------------------------~-~-~----------------------

--slope correction:---AB plan = 152.085xcos(s" 3(l)= 151.385 m-----­

---------------------------BC plan = 48.435 IIll -----------------------------­

-------AC piau - AB plall+ BC plnn =199.82 m

- Fig.(l) shows a survey framework A+. Add a series of suitable check lines to the

survey.

roadwo ys ;

Figure (1)
 line AD was measured in three sections as follows :
o ~
AB= 102.50 m angle of slope= 6 30
c ~
BC= 57.95m angle ofslope= 2 00

CD=48.20m angle of slope= -5 00

" /

If the tape used was later found 10 em too long than the standard 30m.

Determine: a) the corrected plan length ofline AD;

b) the length of AD on a map drawn by scale 1/2500

c) the difference in elevation between A and D;

d) the gradient of a road to be made between A and D

Solution:

a) Tape correction: Lc=Lm .(I'/l)

ABc=102.50(30.1/30)=102.84 m
BCc=57 .95(30.1/30)=58.14 m
CDc=48.20(30.1/30)=48.36 m

Slope correction: D=L.cosa

. c '
ABplan= 102.84eos(6 30)= 102.18 ill
c ;'
BCplan=58.14 eos(2 00)=58.1 0 m.
o ;'
CDplan=48.36cos(-5 00)=48.17 m
So the final corrected plan length of AD is:
ADplan= ABp,an+ BCp,an+ CD p'an=208.45 m
b) on Map: scale (1/2500)
ADon map=(208.45xlOO)/2500=8.34 em
e) Hbetween A&D=102.18tan(6v 30 )+ 58.10tan(2'> OO~)+ 48.17tan(-5"O~)=9.45m
d) gradient of Road AD= Hbetween A&DI AD p'an=4.53 0/0
Compa$S Surveying

 Prismatic compass

The prismatic compass is used to determine the north direction which is the
Magnetic north not the true north.

In general the aim of compass is to determine the Magnetic bearing of

certain line.
 What is the Bearing of line?
• The bearing of line is the angle From north
direction to this line in clock wise direction.
• if it is measured by compass is called
Magnetic Bearing.( variable due the time and
the location)

• if it is measured Geographically· from

geographic north is the true Bearing ( constant
for all the time).

- ..-----.-~-.---_i__--.-'-"- I r.",;.
 What is the declination?

• The declination is the angle between the

Magnetic north and true north (East or West
from true North).
• Example:
o
D = 3 E (Le. the magnetic north is at 3 degree
East of True North).
o .
D= 2 W (Le. the magnetic north is at 2 degree
West of True North).
Forward and Back Bearing
Jf we have a line [AB] ,the forward Bearing of this
line is the Bearing of vector AB(ranging from A to B)
But the Back Bearing of AB{B.B.of AB} is the Bearing
of Vector BA (ranging from B to A).

Whole circle Bearing and quadrant Bearing

The whole circle bearing (WeB): is the angle in dock wise direction from north
(magnetic or true) to the line from (0-360) degree.

The Quadrant Bearing(QB) or Reduced Bearing (RB): is the angle with the vertical
Direction (south or North) from 0-90 degree with precision of Quadrant.

t o u.30r::l!1t Dean ng
trom (0· gO) degre

N E
. (,,? .:-.. \ \

'tI
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Example t
The magnetic beating of line AD ~ recorded asS4lo.30'B In 1888. If
'the declinationwas2°.oo'E.wbat is the true bearing of the line? .
. . '.. . ~:~

Solution: ,A sketclt is made (Fig, 2', )ia whiclt the true dliecdons{N,
S. E. W). are ,shGWn itS'solid llii¢s and' the magnetic directions arc shown as
dotted lines. Magnetic north is shoWn 2°-GO'E or clockwise of true, nOrth
and line AB is shOWn in its proper position 43°·30'E of in agnetic south. Once
the sketch is cOmpleted; the true' bearing of the line is obvious.'

True Magnetic
NN
1',1

-
I
I B
i True bearing:: 541 0 ·30'E
Magnetic True
S S

FIGURE 2
Arbitrary north

It may not be necessary to obtain absolute r<:ference and often

the first leg of the traverse' is assumed to be 0° 00.

Example 2 True nonh is 0= 37' E of Grid North lfig3: }.

Magnetic declination in June 1962 was
10° 27'W.

GN

MW61

Fig, 3, If the annual variaiion was 10' per annum towards North an~
, the grid bearings of line AB 082e 32'. what was the magnel1C
bearing of line AB in January 19831

,Grid bearing 08r 32~

Correction -0" 31'
True ~ring 081" 55'
~fagnetic declination in June 1962 10"27'
Mae.netic bearing in June 1962 092"22'
Variation for January 1983 - 20t x 1<, 3" 25'
Magnetic bearing in January 1983 088" 57'
Beirut Arab University

SOLUTION

Question (1):

Complete the following table:(illustrate your answer with sketch)

Magnetic weB 34° 98£1 265G' 300')

(forward
Magnetic declination W 5'E 11~
True WCB(forward) 91 .' 270 289{!

True WeB (back) 224 t> 271 ,. ,~

109"

True QB (back) 84 N89w East S 71 E

Question (2):
In the following table correct the bearings from local attraction errors
then calculate the internal angle at A and B after correction.

I line F.B B.B . Difference

AB 042 0 00/ 222D 10' 180" 10'"
BC 105~ 30/ 284 v 40"
L­ 179" 10'"
CD 209 t ' 00' 028" 50" 180~ 10"
DE 267~' 50'" 086~ 10/ 181" 40'
EA 316 '"' 10/ 135 '"' 50" 180 0 20'

line F.B B.B Check

AB 042') 05/ 222<:' OS' 180'" 00'
BC 105 05 285 05 180 00
CD 208 55 028 55 180 00
DE 267 00 087 00 180 00 I

EA 316 00 136 00 180 00

 " , . . -" -~' -." ':>~.- "'__ '~'-. __ '.. ,,-.- --__ ~_,·.-.v_·~_·_

,--,----'""- - . ----------,,-- - _.-._------, -------~~"- ... -- ,.----'---­

 Theodolite

A theodolite is an instrument for

measuring both vertical. and horizontai
angles: It is considered these days as an old
instrument since it is replaced by the new .
instruments such as total stations. It· is
important in .surveying but it is more
adapted of specialized purposes such as metreology and rocket launch technology. A
modem theodolite consists of a telescope mounted within two perpendicular axes, the
horizontal axis, and the vertical axis. When the telescope is pointed at a desired point,
the angle of these axis can be measured with great precision.

Old primitive Russian Theodolite

Both axis of a theodolite are equipped with graduated circles that can
II
be read through magnifying lenses. The vertical circle (the one
associated with the horizontal axis) should read 90~ or lOOgrad
when the sight axis is horizontal (300 grad or 270~ ). Half of
difference with 300 grad is called index error. The horizontal and
vertical axis must be perpendicular. When they deviate
perpendicularly it is called an horizontal axis error. Other kinds of
error also exist in the instrument All these kinds of error are adjusted
through calibration. A theodolite is mounted on the tripod head by
means of a forced centering plate or tribrach.
 Tacheometer is an instrument for rapid surveying, since it gives both vertical and
horizontal measurements of a point on the earth surface. It is considered as a new
. developed theodolite since it directly gives the distance and angle without hand
calculations.

Vertical
axis
v
Horizontal
axis

Vertical .
circle

Horiz.ontal

circle

 Theodolite in details

alidarle:
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 Traverses'

".

 Traverses

Traverse is a method in the field of surveying to establish control networks. It is also

used in geodesy. Traverse networks involve placing survey stations along a line or
path of travel, and then using the previously surveyed points as a base for observing
the next point. Traverse networks have many advantages, including:

• Less reconnaissance and organization needed;

• While in other systems, which may require the survey to be performed along a
rigid polygon shape, the tmverse can change to any shape and thus can
accommodate a great deal of different terrains;
• Only a few observations need to be taken at each station, whereas in other.
survey networks a .great deal of angular and linear observations need to be
made and considered;
• Traverse networks are free of the strength offigure considerations that happen
in triangular systems;
• Scale error does not add up as the traverse is performed. Azimuth swing errors
can also be reduced by increasing the distance between stations.

Types
Frequently in surveying engineering and geodetic science, control points (CP) are
setting/observing distance and direction (bearings, angles, and elevation).
The CP throughout the control network may consist of monuments, benchmarks,
vertical control, etc.

~ f";;'
~ ~. ?
""~::--------------~y/

Diagram of an open traverse

Diagram of a closed traverse

Open/Free

An open, or free traverse (link traverse), consists of a series of linked traverse lines
which do not return to the starting point to form a polygon.

• Open survey is utilised in plotting a strip of land which can then be used to
plan a route in road construction.

Closed

A closed traverse (polygonal, or loop traverse) is a series oflinked traverse lines

where the terminal point closes at the starting point. I A closed traverse enables a
check by plotting or computation, with any gap called the linear misclosure. When
within acceptable tolerances, the misclosure· can be distributed by adjusting the
bearings and distances of the traverse lines using a systematic mathematical method
so the adjusted measurements close. The "Bowditch rule" or "compass rule" in
geodetic science and surveying assumes that linear error is proportional to the length
of sides in relation to the perimeter of the traverse. Allowable misclosure is decided
upon a case by case basis.

• Closed traverse is useful in marking the boundaries of wood or lakes.

Construction and civil engineers utilize this practice for preliminary surveys of
proposed projects in a particular designated area. The terminal (ending) point
closes at the starting point.

Compound

A compound traverse is where an open traverse is linked at its ends to an existing

traverse to form a closed traverse. The closing line may be defined by coordinates at
the end points which have been determined by previous survey. The difficulty is,
where there is linear misclosure, it is not known whether the error is in the new survey
or the previous survey.
Usages

• Control point - The primarylbase control used for preliminary

measurements; it may consist of any known point capable of establishing
accurate control of distance and direction (i.e. coordinates, elevation, bearings,
etc.).

1. Starting - The initial starting control point of the traverse.

2. Observation - All known control points that are setted or observed within the
traverse.
3. Terminal- The initial ending control point of the traverse; its coordinates are
unknown.
 TRAVERSING

General Traverse Specifications

TYPE TYP lCAl l?URPPSE ANGULAR OISTANCE

ACCURACY MEASUREMENT MEASUREMENT

tic 1 in 50 000 (1) Major Control 0.1" £OM

or. better . for mallPjng large theodol i te
areas
(2) Provision of
very accura te
reference po in ts
for engineering'
surveys.
'General in 5000 (1) Genera 1 1" or 20" £OM, steel
to eng'ineering surveys, theodo1 i te ·'tapes~· .
in 50 000 thatis~ setting s:ubteflse !Ile thod;s
out and si te
surveys
(2)' Seconda ry
control. for mapping
large areas
Low in 500 (1) Sma 11 scal e 20" or f" Syntheti c, .tapes.
Accuracy to detail surveys theodo 1 i te . dlains~ stadia
in 5600 (2l Rough large tacheome try'
seale deta i1
surveys ,
(3) Preliminary
or reconna is sa nce
surveys'

N B o N

whole circle a = whole cifcle

bearing of bearing of a
line AS line CO
A

Whole.circle bearings

~.

Nor-th Dire,ctions
" ' . ' '". . ,.,' , , "

• Thesp.~eifi,ed:iefefenee ,or~ nQJtht~iI;~~iQni9~w,hiGhJJ,~ariflg& ~J;:~;ba~~'WaY:'p(3JlfUe .

: north, magnetic north, sorneent~relyarhitrar¥_djJ:eetiQnassjgn,eda& :J).o.t:th, ',?I;;gf'~4
north:
 SURVEYiNG FOR ENGINEERS

True north
. .

The accurate determination'of·this.(i"irection 'is ~nd~rtaken only for special surVeys.

Tnie. north, iSilotnormallyused"in' traversing for engineering. surveys. However., 'an
.approximate va1u~:can be sc31edfiom Or.dnance.SuIvey (OS) maps.

Magne tic north

·This IS detenniried by afreefy suspended magnetic needle and can be.measured
'with a prismatic compass.

. A prismatic compass isa hand~held devicewru,chi;onsists, basically, of a inag~

netic needle freely-supported at its centre and usually immersed in oil to dampen.
oscillatIons. The n~dle will always indicate magnetic northalth,ough it' can be un-:­
reliable in areas Qf'$trong,localm(lgnetic ,attraction and 'a1so whehheld near metal
objects. For this re~S()n, a prismatic compassmus(never be held against a metal
ranging rod when taJdng readings. . .
The compass is graduatedfrom 0 to 360 in.half-degree intervals~nd is so
0 0

designed that the magnetic bearing is obtained directly. The preCision of the read­
ing system is; at best, only ±15' owing to.difficulties in holding the compass steady
and the rather crude sighting system. .
Magnetic north is used only in reconnaissance surveys or to give a general indica­
tion of north when an arbitrary north is chosen for the survey.

Arb{trary north
Arbitrary north is most commonly used to defme bearings in engineering traverses.
Any convenient direction is usually chosen to represerit north even though it is
not, in general, a true or magnetic north direction.
If a link traverse is being run between sets of known stations then the north,
direction may be determined from the values previously assigned to these known
points.

Grid north
This north direction is based on the National Grid

Rectangular Coordinates

The coordinate system adopted for most survey purposes is a plane, rectangular
system using two axes at right angles to one another as in Cartesian geometry. One
!. is tenned the north (N) axis and the other the east (E) axis. The scale along both
axes is always the same.
With reference to figure 5.4, any particular point P has an easting (E) and a
northing (N) coordinate, always quoted in the order easting, northing unless
otherwise stated.
The position of each traverse station in a scheme in relation to all the others is
specified in ter'lnsof these E andN coordinates.
Bearings are related to the nortl~ ,xis of the coordinate system.
 TRAVERSiNG .'

NoxiS

origin·.of
system'

. E oxis

Figure SA R¢ctangular coordinate system

For all types of survey ahd engineering works; theongirtis ,taken at the extreme
. south and west·of Ute area SQ that.all coordinates arepositiJie':If, at some stage in
: a surve,y, neg(itive c,oordinates arise, the Qrigjn sho\ild'be ~ov~dsuch that all co­
ordinates will aga,in be positive. '. " , . . .. .

5.4 Traversing Fieldwork:' Reconmiissanee

, : .
.

5.4.1 General

This is one of the most important aspects of any surveying operation and must

always be undertaken before any angles or lengths are meas,nred.

(1) The majn aim of the reconnaissance isto locate suitable positions for

stations and hence a poorly executed reconnaissance can resUlt i:n difficulties at

later stages in the survey, leading to wasted time.and inaccurate work.

(2) An overall picture of the area is obtained by walking all over the site
(more than once is recommended), keeping in mind the requirements of the survey
of
and balancing this against the accuracy and hence method survey to be used. If
an existing map or plan of the area is available, thisis a useful aid at this stage.
(3) Where possible, work from the whole to the part as described in section
1.4, but an attempt should be made to keep the number of st<1tions to a minimum.
(4rThe lengths of traverse legs should be kept as IQngas possible to mini·

mise the effect of any centring errors (see sections 3.3.4 and:S5.1).

(5) If the traverse is being run fora detail survey then the method which is
to be USed for this subseqijtmt operation must be considered.
For most sites a polygon traverse is usually sited aro\lndithe perimeter of the
area at points of maximum. viSibility. It should be pOSsibleto6bserve cross checks
or lines across the area to enable other points inside the area to be fixed and also
to assist in the location ofangular errors ..
Traverses for roadworks and pipelines generally requite a link traverse since
these sites tend to be long and narrow. The shape of the road or pipeline dictates
the shape of the traverse.
 (6)Jf.the linear measurements are to be carried out using a 't~pe or chain the·

gr~und conditions between stations:should be suitable for this purpose. T.ry to. .'

avoid ste~p slopes or badlY br~keIH~rciund ~ong the'tr~verSe·lineS'. It is also better

ifthere are .as fewcha~g~s ofs.fhp?~:pos~ible .. ·R,oads~dpaths· that.h~vebeen

surfacedare uSiialiygood''[o'c'grouUd measurements.':. '. '. -. : .

(7) Statiqns should be lo~atedsuch that they are'c1early intervisible~ prefer­

ably at gro~nd leveI~ that is, with a theodolite ~tupat:oneiPo.int, it should be

possible to see th~groundmar.k.~ a:tadjac~i1t stations and as:-ni~ny others 'as 'pos­

sible: T1;tiseases;t}1e ang~!a!_Tftt!~!~m~,!l.t.prO(;~s§ ~:9~t9nft.ances"its accuracy.'

(8 )Stationssholild be placed in 'firm, level groun-dsothat the theodolite and

tripod aiesupported:adequatelY w4enobserving;angtesattlle:sta~ion$. .-"

: Very often stations areusedfoca site survey and at al~lerstagef()r setting ouL
Since some timernay elapsehetween-the site surVey· and the':st1itt<'if"ihe cpnstruc:..
tion the choice offirm'grouridin order to prevent the stationsmovrngin any way
-hecom.e.sevenm9r~ important. Itissometiines necessary to install semi,permanent
.statiQns(see·section5.4.;2), '.' .... , .... . .' .. ...' . ' .' .
e,>towtng'tQ'the ~ffects',9f.t<lter31·rtfractioIi and shl:mmer'; traverselines of
sight should 'be well above' ground l~veI(greater 'thin:l-m) for most of thdrlength
to avoid any possible- angular errors due to rays passing close togrourid level
(grazing rays). These effects are serious in hot weather.
(1'0) When the stations have been sited, a sketch of the traverse should be .
prepared approximately to scale. The stations are given reference letters or numbers.
This greatly assists in the planning and checking of fieIdwork~

5.4.2 Station Marking

When a reconnaissance is completed,the stations have to be marked for the

duration, or longer, of the survey. .' . " .
Station markers must'be permanent~ not easily disturbed and they should be
:dearly visible. The construction and type of station depends on the requirements
.of the survey.
For general purpose traverses, wooden pegs are used which are hammered into
the ground until the top of the peg is almost flush with ground level. If it is not
possible to drive the whole length of the peg into hard ground the excess above the
ground should be sawn off. This is necessary since a long length of peg left above
the ground is liable to be knocked. A nail should be tapped into the top of the peg
to define the eX(lctposition of the station.' . . .
a
Figure 5.5 shows such station. SeveraLmonths use is possible with this type of
marker.
Stations in roadways can be marked with 75 mmpipe nails driven flush with the
. surfaG'e.The<nailsufrQMnd~should be painted for easy identification. These marks
arefairly:pe.rmanellt,:but it, is us~allyprudent to enquire if the road is tp .be re­
. surfaced in- the,ne.a( futJ.Jre.~ .
A more pennane.nt station.would normally require marks set in concrete; com­
mon station({iesignsat~[,shoWIljn figure 14.2. These have to be placed with the
permission of1and,;ownersas sybsurface concrete blocks placed in a field could do
considerable damage to farm machinel}'9
 N.

metal
t
SOmm post
squor.e
.wooden.
. peg
3.6m

manhole COYer

Figure S.s St?ition peg Figure.S.6 Witnessing sketch

A reference.:or witnessing sketch of the features surrounding each station should

be prepared; especially. if the stations are to be left for any tirnebeforebeingused,
or if they will be required again at a much later stage; Measurements are taken from
the station to nearby permanent features to enable it to be relocated. A typical
sketch is shown in figure 5.6. . .

55 Traversing Fieldwork: Angular MeasUlocment .

Once the traverse stations have been placediil the ground the next 'stage in the field
procedure is to use a theodolite to measure the included angles between the lines.
This requires two basic operations: setting the theodolite over each station mark,
and observing the directIons to the requiTed stations. .
In most cases it will be necessary to provide: a signal at the observed stations.
since the station marks may not be directly visible. The theodolite and signals have
to Qe erected perpendicularly above the station marks, otherwise centring errors
will result.

5.5.1 Centring Errors

The measurement of traverse angles requires that the theodolite and signals be
located in succession at each station. If this operation is not carried out accurately,
centring errors are introdu~ed, the effect of which depends on the length of the
traverse leg, as discussed in section 3.3.4.
If a target displacement of 10 mm occurs on a 300 m traverse leg, the resulting
angular error is 7". The same displacement on a 30 m leg will produce an angular
error of 70". If this occurred during a traverse, the error would be carried through
the rest of the traverse, and all su bsequent bearings would be incorrect.
Hence, the effect of relatively small centring errors can be serious on short
traverse legs.
If the theodolite is also displaced a furt}wr source of error arises.
 Tli:e.cbiiil~~ll)~~ti~i\vith·both theodolites and slgrralScare fn cetitringis
· .~i~~;~~~~~tl#t.:.:;~t'~~~tra;v~rse legs are shorL. .... . .'. .
~ .';,;.
, ' .. ,~: .

~,mfll!~ft'~tit<l!>~:-p~t{eCtly straight objects set up vertkilly and centiedexad:ly

..ovtr?iiiestatlan·m·aik.: . . .' . .' "

If'4'si~~ru:isiiotyertical then a centring error will be introduced, even though

the' base'Of the signal ma.Ybe centred a.ccur(ltely over the mark. This is demon.;. .

strated by figUre5::1~'::"
> • . • •

· Ffoinfigure5.1~ the lower ,the.pomt ofobseiVation oit''thetaiget, 'the smaller

wlll'be the :oo'ntting"e"Ifftrt;: FOF"this.:·reaSofi, the-Iowestvi81ble~pob.1t on any Signal
should ahyays'be obsenred when measuring angles. However; t~sdoes no(apply
to speCial traverse targets (see section 5.7).
··<~,A:.'subject noLoft~1t;c(})nsid¢fedjs the. width or di~rnet,e:r :of a signaL It is '(1•. waste
of'.tilfi:e trying' toohsei1ie;,a~difeQtion to a ranging rod. when the: litre of sigiit3s only
.3~',ih:;.since·accurat~~bisectienis,difficultto achieve. The width.,of·a.ta~getshould
beplz0purtional totlibJength of sight. Suggestions for ~ome simple types of target
ate a~:foll()ws. '
. (1) .The station mark should be observed directly if possible. This can often

be tlle case over short lines if the mark is a nail

in the top of a wooden peg.

(2) If the mark cannot be seen directly, a pencil held on the mark can be

used for convenience.

~;(3}A marking'affowcan be held with its point on the mark or inserted in

the top 'of the peg on the line of sight directly behind-the nail.

{4}A tripod can be set up such that a plumb bob can be suspended from it
· directly Qver the. mark. The plumb line can then be observed. Care must be exercised
to ens~feJhatthepluqlhbob does,not reston the mark as the string will then no
.1onge(b~yerticatas$huwn in figure 5.8.
:t$}fo:r longer lines? ranging. poles can be used. These must be carefully

centred over the mark and must be held vertically by hand or in a ranging rod

stand. the lowest part of the rod must be observed_

if signal opserved
at this p()i(lt' ...:.'C-'_ _• correctly
centring error .......--_._-- suspended
(el r~sults plumb line

,}fta~ 9 f,;;ignal
,centred
station peg J;: t(:Qffectly

Figure 5.7 Signal not vertical . Figure 5.8 Plumb line not vertical
 TRAVERSING"
't\~: .
,~:3:-A'bslraction o/Aiig1es'

:. general cas~ aCanystationlna traverse is 'that the angle lo:be measured will be .
,weensome signal-at a 'back station and some sigDal at a'jorWard 'Sti1tion~as
::own in figure'5.9. . ' '- . ..

, . .
direction in which I~ is run

/
1heod<:iIite station

-
Figure 5.9 Left-hand angle

'. When readings have been taken to both stations, the angle abstracted may be
f ,either

(1) left-hand angle = mean forWard circle reading ­

mean back circle- reading
or (2) right-hand angle = mean back circle reading­ ,.'
mean forward circlereadiiJ..g~

For computations, either can be chosen, but, for .aparticulartnlvers.e',it ~~

important that the same angle should be abstracted at- everY station."" - ,
. It is conventional, however, that the-Ieft:ha:nd Mgle iSthose~, th.e.re~opbeing
that in computations the left-hand angle is added to :the bearing tc{iHe;h;.ck station
to give the bearing to the forward station. If the right-hand' angle i~: ~bjst~~cted, this
would have to be subtracted, an operation that is moreI1able' to 'e'irot(SeeSection
5.8.3). . " .. ' .
, F or polygon traverses, the internal angles of the polygon will be the left-hand
angles if fieldwork proceeds in an anticlockwise direction around the traverse.

5.5.4 Field Procedure and Booking

The method given in chapter 3 for the reading and booking of angles should be
adhered to wh.enever possible.
In the case where no standard booking forms are available, th«angles'.canbe '.
entered in a field book, as in figure 5.10, in which two complete rounds angles of
; have been observed and the zero changed between rounds. The reasonsfortrus'are,
discussed in section 3.3.2. 32 . .
 At STA"TION C
.:. ~- ..., .- . .~,

: .~1:At'~~ ...; : ". .FL, ..

ANGLE

@;:8 . ': 00<> 07'~p'~ 180<> 07' .,1.0". ciQ0

07~ .20'~·

' ....~ '192 0 23' 4C:I"

'.'

@ ~. 87
0
32' 40" 267
0
32' i~" 87° 32' 'JO"
D: 279
0
49' io~' .99
0
49' 00" '2.79°' ·49' 10"

. ':,' ,

DIAGIWt

l B

OBSERVER WFP

. BOOKER JU DATE 5th September 1~!35

Figure S.10 Booking traverse angles

5~5.5 Errors in Angular Measurements

The various sources of error that may arise when measuring traverse angles are
summarised' as follows. .
.. (I) Inaccurate centring of the theodolite or sig.qaL
(2) Non~erticatity of the ·signal. .'

. (3) Inilccurate biseCtion of the signal.

(4)Paral~ax not eliminated. _ ..

(5) Lateral refniction, wind and atmosphen<; effects. .
(6) Theodolite not level and not in adjustment(see sections 3.3.3 and 3.5).
(7) Incorrect use of the theodolite. ..
(8) Mi~takes in reading and booking.

5.6 Traversing Fieldwork: Distance Measurement

For the purposes of traversing, distance measurement of the traverse legs is nor­
mally undertaken using steel taping or EDM, both of which arecoiscussedinchapter,
4.

5.7 The Three~tripod System

Very often, short traverse legs are unavoidable, for example, in surveys·jn min~'~'(lJld
tunnels and on congested sites. Som&d.anufacturers provide special equipment for
 .J,'

~~t)tl:'SlrtOJrl·tI;~vef~·Iip'e·s 'and-it::iS·kitown~,·th:ethlee..tripodsystem.. This lY.pe 'of

~V"u._I.,",· is:n{fw·u~6;e'Xte~sively::iti.Qfd:ma·iy tr~verse\v()rk..",." ;':... ".' ',. 'J5::.:.
&;d~S(~Fit)e·:tl·· In. s:~di()n'3.i~l; ;the', main feature, Qfthe systemjsAhat'th~;b:()qy of '..
teUUUllle can be lifted· from the tribrach and rep laced "by a ·spe'ci3.Itatg~t.;Thli~
theu~e of three of more ~tipQds, the theodolites and: targets can occuPy the
.. positions and centrUtg:euoi:~are.gr~~t1y reduced. Distance measuringequip­
in
can also be p1.aced the tribrachs'and linear measurements are there'f'(!}re' ,
. e between exactlytne ~~me points' as angUlar measurements.
The systemoperates:asfollows,withreferen.ce tofigur-eS ..!'L ';.' <l".

o
~{figure 5.11 Three-tripod traversing
"'~'

itlhen angle ABC is measured

. ! (1) At A a tripod isset,up and a tribrach attached to the tripod head .. A
~$pecial target is placed into the tribrach and clamped in position. The target or tri­
~brach will have a tube or pond bubble attached so that the target can beset vertical
i:bY levelling using the tribrach footscrews. In order to be able to centre the target,
I Jhe tribrach usually has an optical plummet. . ..
! ~, (2) At B the theod'olite is set up in the normal manner.
. (3) At C a tripod and target is set up as at A .

. When angle BCD is measured

(1) At A the tripod and target are moved toO, where the target is again

~entred and set verticaL

(2) At B the theodolite is undamped, removed from its tribrach and inter­

: changed with the target at C. Hence, at Band C, the tripods and tribrachs remain

~cundisturbed and there is no need for recentring.

When angle CDE is measured

(l) At B the tripod and target are moved to E.
(2) The theodolite and target at C and D are interchanged, the tribrachs (and
"<centring) remaining undisturbed.
is
;.' The process repeated for the whole traverse. If four tripods (or more) are used
!;this spee<l~upthe fiel.dwprk considerably as tripods can be moved and positioned
while angles are beiflg measured. .
 .mu~~ tripQdsyst~sLareJllQ~~ ~exP~~v~:.·~~" ~~si~ ;Sy~t~~,:3,ll<lllWf~·~qt!ip,..,: .
meilt·has to. be moved around:the:.~iteJ:,Y :th~;~ngin~~r ,~n(hltis l~~ist(lnt.~. a.9W~ve~i. '.
. t.h~.¥~*ag~;Qf,;tbe; ,~.tk.requcti9.IJ,of~tring.~nors all,9,: a,.~vipg, ifl~ti4n.e~ar .
out~eigh4h~se;~dvan.tages., '. ;.' .{ .

"
'. '
:" ..
• .. ~ ,

. 5.8.'1 A~stract ofFieldwork

When all the travetsefieldwOIk has been completed, a single sheet or record con­
.taining the 'mean
an,81es observed and mean hor~ont3J (co(rected.,) I~Iigths measured ..
. shQuld be prepared" It is'preferable to show.~ the.d~taon·aSketcli·:Qfthe traverse
as t4is helps'in the f9Uowing calculations ani{ean miriimise' the' ch~lItce'of a mistake .
.SuCh an abstrac1ionof field data is shown in ftgure 5.12, th~ .anglesand lengths .
being entered onto a trayerse diagram. The example shown in figure 5.12 will be
referred to through section 5.8. " ..

. orbitrory N F

GIVEN DATA: bearing ~F = 70°00'00"

eoordin()tesof A =500,,00' mE
E
1000.00.mN o
v
on lengths corrected and reduced to horizontal .,..:: .
«>
aU oogfes are mean observed angles N

c
Figure S.12 Traverse diagram

5.8.2 Angullir Misclosuce .

Detennituition 'Of miS~lb,siJre

For it. dosed traverS~;'befote anycoordinate calculations can cOrIunence,tlie whole
circle bearings of all the lines have to be~1culated; th(Hriltial stage in the process .
 TRAVERSING

'f()'¢lieck,tJi'atthe observed':a~gIes,stiIri tQ'Jlle teqmredvalue:

o'bserved aogies of a polygQn traverse can be either the intemal oeex,terhiIl'
...' .. . is abstracted depends on'tl.'ie:t;lkecti'()Ji i)r:wIUch the trav<trseis-.tu:n'
.S.=83} , "
Th~ angular misclosures are' found by comparing ~he sum ofthe .observed angles . .
ohe-(Jfthe following theoretical values~ ' . ,
. J: . . • . '. '0
(I) S~m of internal angles '= (2n ,- 4)x 90 .
0
(2) Sum of external angles =,(2n +.4) )4 90
_~N~~~,nAs the number of angles or 'sides of, the polygon.' .... '.' . '. '. .
'·.Por the traverse', the observed anglesare.summed-and acheckls:madea~o.rdmg
'of.the above. fonnulae.- ',' . .'
When the bearings in a link traverse are c"aIC-ulated, an in(titifback bearing (see­
.. 5~83)can usually be determined from known points ~at the start of the
and, to check the observed angles, a final forward bearing (see section
is computed from known points at the end of,thetFaverise. The method for
a bearing from coordinates is given in section 5.10. The angular mis­
re in a link traverse is found by using the following theoretical relationship
sum of left-hand angles = (rmal forward bearing ...,.. .initial' back
0
bearing) + (n I) x 180
'~;Where n is the number of left-hand angles lIleasureq_

f' For both 'types of traverse, care must be taken toensure that the correct angles

:;Ih~yebeen abstracted and summed, that is, the inteqial or external angles in a poly­

J;g<in traverse and the left-hand angles in a link traverse. When the angles have been

~:~ummed and checked, a very large misclosure probably means that an incorrect

~'angle hasbeen included, or one of the angles has been excluded.

·~L

"~

~Al/(Jwable misclosure
~~

j'Owing to the effects of occasional miscentring, slight misreading and small bisection
~'errors,
c .
a small miSclosure will result when the
.
summation
I
check is made.
< The allowable misclosure (£) is E" = ±KS(N)2 where N is the number of traverse
stations, S the smallest reading interval on the theodolite in seconds, for example,
60",20", 1", and K the multiplication factor of 1 to 3, depending on weather con­
ditions, number of rounds taken, and so on. The allowable inisclosure for the
traverse shown in figure 5.12 varies from approximately 50" to 150" (assuming a
20" theodolite was used).

,~ Adjustment
tWhen the actual misclosure is known and is compared to its allowable value, two
. ~~cases may arise.
~,

(1) If the misclosure is acceptable (less than the .~pwable) it is divided

~tequally between the left-hand angles. An equal distribution is the oniy acceptable

,k method since each angle is measured in the same way and there is an equal chance

r' of the misclosure having occurred in anyJ(Sf the angles.

 . ,,
: No attempt sho\rld Qern~l1~.to:distribtite t\leln~lQSUfe .m: prQPQrtiQntQ:.t;p.e,-,;;
. ·sizet'9t~..I)·,arigle, '_ . ; ':::,,', j _,". ::'. ~: ...• ;'::" ~._
. . . • • . . . . :-,'
.-':. .

. ;(~) Jft t~e ~~elaslJ1?~:is;!1!fil~~Pta~le.(g"f.e~tfj~.t.b~ tP:6 a1lQ\\Jllble);~ru~>M~t~~:·:,

shOuld ·b.e remeasaied.ifuQ:gross error cttn be located ill the <lngle Qo<)kings:<:u' ,": ' .'
..suutQl~-~iQ.n::·. "', .~ .. -;-. .;,~. ", . .'- ;" :.; ," ~.'. . " ..:;.:',
it'fl1ay be possible to isolate a gross errQr il.la;~mall sect'ion ofthi;Hfavers6·jf . '.
check
. lines
. .
have been obs,etVed
- '"
across· ..it-
. ,...
'~-"~"
'

T}ie 4etermifl'lti9Jl::9.f th¢!rOi~lp~Jitt~~I.1~ta;dju:~t~flt of the ,angles of.~e·polygon

travfr~.gtvenj~i;~~r~~5)~~s}~~~~~~~:J;llbl€S~~/:, " ; ' .', " > .:., .' "
Example 5.1L2;at th~~n~l.of.t.tt!sch~pter sh()w~howth~,.a~gl~smaHnktravt{rse·· .
a);¢ ~iijusted~<'· " '.. .' . ' '" .' -: '.! " .. " .' '" , " '.

~. - . ..
'. " .

5.:8.~.Qlcuiati()mojWhoie--cii:€lejiearings

Types anddeterminationo/bearings. ,'.

Consider figure 5.13, which shows two legs of a traverse. The decision has been

made to calculate the traverse in the direction ... X to Y to Z ... This defines the

bearings as follows.

Bearings XY and YZ are forward :bearings since they are in the same direction in
which calculations areproceedfug.· , ..,
Bearings YXand ZY are back'lJeanngssince theY-are opposite to the direction in
.whlch the traverse calculation; is ·proceeding. . , . .
Directions ZY and YZ differlJy± 180°, as do those ofYX and XV. Therefore,
the forward bearing of aline differs from the backbearing by ± 1800~ Since whole­
circle. bearings must lie in the. range 0° to 360°, some multiple of 360° is either
subtracted from or added to a forward or back bearing outside this range to bring
the resulting bearing into the range 0° to 360°: For example
a 'bearing of 520° = a bearing of (520 - 360t
= 160°
a bearing of -200° = a bearing of (-200 + 360t = 160
0

- . ,

'Bearing,s are calculated rel~tive to the selected north line, usually starting from a
given or assumed bearing forQnelipe.
Ifb.earing YX was known, this.could be drawn as shown in figure 5.13 relative
to the 'selected north line." .
For the direction of computation shown in figure 5.13, the left-hand angle l'Y
has been abstracted and the known bearing YX is a back bearing.
ILl'Y is added to the backbearing YX it can be seen from figure 5.13 that the
resul~ing angle wUI be tt~e f0n.Y~r(l pearing YZ. Thus

forwa.rd bearing YZ = back bearing YX + l'y

Therefore, in get:leral',JoFai1)fp~rtlcular traverse station
f~t;Ward.li?~~;;~,~~·'paf"bearing + left-hand angif
For polygon trav~rses whenw8iklng in an anticlockwise direction around the
 ) ,

',:TRA,VERSING "

TABLE '5.2" '

ADJUSTMENT ' ADJUSrED,LEFT HAND ANGLE -

A 1150 Ii' 20" -' 20" i1So'~ It' ' OO'~'
"

B 959 00"2-0"
. .':
- 20" -
- ---9S
0
O()' Oou,'
C 1290 :49', 20'~ , - 20" '129°" 49' 00','
':",' 0
D ~30~ 3{) f, 20" , 20" 130 36' 00"

E '110?' :jo' "00'1 - 20" 1100 2~' 40ft

',' 0
F 'l38° 54 I, 40" 20" .138 54' 20":
0
Sums 720 02' ,00" - 02 1-
00" 720
0
00' 00"

Required Sum :::; «2x6) - 4) x 90 Adjustment per angJe:

= 7200 " QQ' 00", = - (02' 00") /6

Misclosure + 02' 00" = - 20"

traverse, the left-hand angles wllibe. the internal angles of the, trav~rseand wh~n
working in a clockwise direction, the left-hand angles will 'be the external.angies.
Either,clockwise Or anliclockwise can be run since abstracting the left~hand
angles will always give the correct angles for the bearings computations.'

•
bock beOOng YX

direction
Of CompUtation

\'
z forward bearing YZ

Figure 5.13 Whole-circle bearing calculation

Example of bearing calculation

Some of the bearings of the 'lines of the traverse shown in figure 5.12 will now'be
computed using adjustedleft~hand angles. Figures 5.14 and 5.15 show sections of
this traverse. ',, '
A t station A in figure 5)4
 ',' . . ~. ,

•
N

.
'N
"
. -' ....

,05°11'00",

,~".

f~ c
,Figure' 5~ 14 Figure 5.1'5

fOIWard bearing AB = back bearing AF + left-hand angle at A

='70° 00' 00" (given) + 115° II' 00" ,
0
= 185 11' 00"

At station B in figure 5.15

fOIW3rd' bearing,BC = back bearing BA + left-hand angle at B
But back bearing SA = forward bearirig AB ± 180°
0
= 185° 11' 00" ± 180
0 0
= 365 11' 00" or 05 II' 00"
= 05 0
11' 00" (to keep bearing in range 0 to
'360°) ,

Hence fOIWard bearing BC = 05° 11' 00" + 95° 00' 00"

= 100 0
11' 00"
The bearings of all the Jines can.be computed in a similar manner; the complete
c31culation is given in table 53.
Every bearing calculation fmishes by recalculating the initial (given) bearing.
This final computed bearing must be in agreement with the initial bearing and, if
any difference occurs, an arithmetic mistake has been made, and the bearing calcu­
lation must be checked before proceeding to the next stage in the calculation.

5.8.4 Computation of Coordinate Differences

The,ne,xt stage in the traverse computation is the determination of the coordinate

dif(erensesof ~he t~a:vers~ Ijll,cs. '
'The illformationavailabJe at this point will be the bearings and horizontal lengths
of all thelines. .
 "'-"M''''l!''''·'·'Tl:~!nE~f~!'.\ ... " ' ' ' : ' ' . , "... ,. " '!. ,!i.... ~

LINE SACK SEARING \oIHOI.E CIRCLE HORIZONTAL COORDINATE DIFFERENCES VI

.;;!
ADJUSTED LEFT
STATION HAND ANGLE BEARING
e
DISTANC£ CALCULATED ADJUSTMENTS
oE oN
ADJUSTED
COORDINATES
-
-I

i
LINE ~~R\oIARD D c.E c.N c.E c.N E N
~J:'AQ'Nr,

AF . 70 00 00 500.• 06 . 1000.00 .A-

f.. 115 11 00
A8 185 11 00 185 I 11 I 00 429.37 • -38.79 -427.61 ·0,04 +0,02 "32.B3 -427.59 461. 17 ~72.4' ,"S ."

SA OS oc·
B 95 "
00 00 . '
Be .100 11 ;00::: 100 I 11 I 00 656.54 +646.20 -116.08. ~0.05 .. +0·.03 +646.B . -115.01; 1107.32 45g:~6
..' .
C ~
:::=
,'as :,,220, fJ' :00' ~
:~.'
t :.'1 29 49. :.0.6'
CD .'. SO ;0.0 (.00':· so. I 00 I 0.0 301.83 +231.22 +194.01: "0.03 +0.01 +231.19 +194.02 1338.51 650.38 .'0 W
Gf.l
~ ...
.:.OC . 230 . ou '0:00';.. Z
.~
D . . ..1 30 36 ·.':OO~·;~
DE OU .36 :~OOf; 00 136 I 00 287.40 +3.01 +287.38 ~O.OZ +O~Ol +2.99 +287.39 '341 '50 . 9:17."· ~ .

eo 180 .';36 ";;00;·

'E 110 29 040,
EF 291 05 :·40 ' ,91 I 05 I 40 -491.42 . +189 57 -0.04 +0.0:3. +.'~Q .~n 850.04 . n27j,
F~
,,, 05 40'
525.72 -491 46 F

F 138 54 I 20
FA 250 6000 ?~() 1M I nn 372 .47 -350.01 -127.39 -O,Q3 +0.02 . -350.04 ..
-127''<7 SOO.on lonh .on A
.t 2574 t+0.21 .t-0.12 .t-0.2' t+0.12 to.OO ····t 0;:00
ACTUAL SUM OF un HAND ANGLES.
.. 720° 02 00" eE .. + 0.21
I AOJUSTM.ENT TO c.tl c.N" !:S; SQWD ITCH
REQUIRED.SUMOF LEFT HAND ANGLES
;, (2X6-4)X900=720o eN .. -0.12 .. '<
MISCLOSURE = + oi' 00«
e .. ( (+0.21}2 + (-0.12)2)2 =·0.
ADJUSTMENT TO EACH OBSE~VED ANGLE .. FRACTION"';' LINEAR. MISCLQS1JBE .~ 1 ':i n. :10 '10.0

....:.
~., ...""
 N
+,'
I .' .8(Eo·.No '··
r I !.. ~. . ... "

.I

. I
I
A (£A.NA ) ..
o
.' ·11:-_ _ _ _.'--'6_E_Ae_.~~~--··.......1

Fi.g"!.ire 5.16 Coordinate differences

Coordinate"dlffefences
.The coordinate differences are compu ted as shown in figure 5.16: Cool'dinates, 0 f
station A are EA,NAwhich are known~ Coordinates of station H,are EB',NB. which
. are to be calculated~
oAB whole circle bearing of line AB
.D A8 :::: horizontal length of line AB
'MAB = eastings t!ifference in moving from station A to statiO,n B
!INAB :::: northings difference in moving from station A to stationB
With reference to figure 5.16
Es=EA + MAB =EA + DAB sin8 AB (5.1)
NB =NA + MAB =NA + DAB cosO AB (52)
For the traverse, each line is considered separately and the coordmate differences
llE and 6.Ncomputed.
If a pocket calculator is used, values of 1lE and 6N can be obtained directly
from equations (5.1) and (5.2) for any valueof O. Alternatively, the polarj .
rectangular key found on most calculators can be used. Since the method by which
this is achieved depends.on the make of calculator, the handbook supplledwith the
calculator should be consulted. '.

Examples of coordinate difference calculation

The traverse data of figure 5.12 are again used in the following examples. The

bearmgs are the whole-circle bearings given in table 5.3. '.

Consider line AD in both figure 5.12 and figure 5.17 ..

From equation (5.1)

flEAB = DAB sin 0 AB
o I " :...
429.37 sin 185 ]] 00 = 429.37 (-:---0.09034) .
:::: -38.7~ m
 ," 'fR:AVERSING"

;:' '.
N

I
'

, I:',
I
;'
. . .'..:
:1 "
1 Soc '
I

I
f
, '

,I ll.Nec
0 1• '
.c.
,~
,,
, 'I ANAB' '
'

9~= ,100 11' 00" ,

0

, 'Dec::; 656.54 Rt '

I '
B ­
'--ll.EA8;

tigure 5.17 I'igure 5.18

:Similarly, from equation (5.2)

/INAS =D AB cos () AB
=42937cos 185°J1',001l42937 (-0.99591) ,
= -421.61m
FOr line Be shown in figures 5.12 and 5.18, the coordinate differences are given'
'by
M BC =DBc sin 6 BC
0
= 656.54 sin 100 11' 00" = 656.54 (+0.98425)
=+646.20 m
6NBC =D BC cos () BC
0
=656.54 cos 100 11'00" =65654(-0.17680)
::: -116.08 m
As with the bearihg calculations, the coordinate difference results are always
presented in tabular form since errors are easier to, dejecL
For the traverse ABCDEFA (figure 5.12) all the calculations for coordinate
differences are given in table 53.

5.8.5 Misclosure

When the 6E and tlN values have been computed for the whole traverse as in
table 53, checks can be applied to the computatiori.
For polygon 'traverses these are '
:r,Mi 0 and :r,/.lN = 0
since the traverse starts and finishes at the same point.
 . ...... : .

FQdiIik:
.
traverSes (figur~S./l)
. .
th~se are. '
. -;; ~

"E¥=Ey:- Ex ,and, EllN=Ny -Nx

where statio~ ,x is the, ~t~~in~ 'point a~d' station Y the fmal po~~·~:f:~b~ ,!ra~<!~.
Sitice sfati0ll&X' and Y 'aI:ei of knowliposition, the values ofEy ':.:.... E~ .and'tvi N x:
can be calculated.
. Inboth'c3$es, 'o:~g to field errors in measuring the angles and lengths, there
will nQrmaIly'bea mis(;lQsui¢'o~' returning to the starting poihfon a polygon
travehe'QI op:arnvafatthe(in:,U,knownstation in a link traverse~ , , .
, This,ii;'e~r .miselosure'is c9rrtputed and
any adJustment:is ,anoCat~d 'appropriately.
Therefore" befote'"the:·stati9ft coordimites' are calculated, th~ l:J£ and 8N values'
fouridfor' the traverS6a(~\'$~llffi1ed 'and 'the misclosQres, eli mid eN, are found by ,
.coinpa~.ing the sunimations"with thoSe ,expected. ' ," . ," ' " .
These misclosures fQrin,~'mea$ure of the liDear misclosuie '6f the traverse and,"
can he "used to d~termine'the:accuracy of the survey. Consider figure 5.~9 which
shows the starlingpdi,nt A of a polYgon'traverse.
Ow.ing to field erroi:~,. the traverse ends at A' instead of A. The linear. misclvslire,
e, is given'QY

To obtain a measure ofthe accuracy of the traverse, this misclosure is compared

withthetotal iength ofthe :traverse legs, 'tn, to give thejractionai linear misclosun:;;
where '
. /ractionalliflear. misclosure = 1 in (LD/e) (for example, lin .. l.O 900)
This fractional misclosure is always co~puted for a traverse and is compared
with the value required for the type of survey being undertaken. For appropriate
values of the fractional linear misclosure see table. 5.1. '
If, on comparison, the ftactionallinear misclosure is better than the required
value, the traverse fieldwork is satisfactory and the misclosures, eE and eN are dis­
tributed throughout the traverse.

A~------------~

Figure S .19 Traverse misclo$ure

 .;' . TRAVERSING

.;,: . 'If; on 'comparfsdn; the: ftactiot,ialllne'ar' ni~scio~re Is.·worSe. ~t:tb~ti¥~a~ tffail .

1
:<tl1~re is filost likely ·an·ert(J-F:iil~·JUeasu:fed·lerigths·of ~ri¢·or more .91'tli~J~g~.·.·'··
. l!h. ;_>~ .c~~ulations $.9..dd~.f}<?~~y~~:t>~ thoro'~l;dy' chec~~~ befo~e. r'em:e.~.·:~·~?y'
.~ngths; '. v·····.·· .... . . . . .. . . .... . . ... , .

.:~' .An 'exampl~ dete,rmination ~f the fractionallin~ar misclosuhE cMrb.e'Qbtak~~i.'.: ".

f!i.'om table·5.3~ refflell1beriJ;lg.~3t the traverse'is a'polygon~ 'From the't;tble" , '.
, . (i}:EAE= -38.79 +·646.2()'+ 231'.22 +3.01'- 4~;1.42· '35~.Ol '. . . .
=;: +. 0.21 in

eE '= + '0.21 m since 'LM should be zero

(2) 'LLW=.-427.6l. 116.08 + 194.01 + 278.38 +.18957.:-·l21~l$f

0.12 m:
.;Hence
~: '

f
. eN = 0.12 msiiIce "LDN should 31so be zero . .' "
:iTherefore, linear misclosur~ Le~' [(+0.21)2 + (-0_12flt='0.24m.F~hirr.£jgiiTe
"'$ .12 and table 53 LlD= 2574 :IU. '
.Therefore, fractioriaIHneaini~cIoSl!re 1 in (2574/0.24) ~ 1 in lQ 700.
This procedure is shown at!he bottom of table 5.3.

5.8.6 Distribution of the Misdosure

Many methods of adjusting tile linear misclosure of a traverse are possible but, fo.­

everyday engineering traverses of accuracy up to 1 in 20000, one of two methods

is normally used.

Bowditch method
The values of the adjustment found by this method are directly proportional to the
, length of the individual traverse lines. .
Adjustment to tl.E (or flN) for one particular traverse leg

=oE (or oN) = - eE (or eN) x lengt~ of tr~ve~~ leg concerned

total length of the traverse

Transit method
.In this method, adjustments are proportional to the values of dE and llN for the
;variouslines. .
Adjustment to ilE (or AN) for one particular traverse leg
.' AE (or of tn.e .traverse leg.c.on.c. e.·.•ll.,..e.d.·
A 1\/\
='0£ (or lSN) -' ~If(or . . :. eN) x ~ •J .
absolute 'L1iE (or 'LllN) for the traverse
 :F~rh.(Jth ·m.eth!~ds; tlt~n~gatlv~ sig~}ue ne.ct[ssary· $Wc~:ii-e.E.;(~L~N}i$·.p~Sitive, :
die a4J~'$itiJ:eiii~ :wni:
b~q~g~i.ive~:, ~4. lte~:.(9f-. ~N) n;~g3:tiv.e th~ !idj;tJ~ir.!zi.nts·WiJl . is' .
be, :p:?#i\V"~:~;~.~ .~ :.~. ~ ~::':;,,' ~ ,~>".'~:~.'. '.': ,- ".'. ;~, ~.' ;~,' .. :?:: :o..;.;.;.; '. "':.' :,' '.. :' '", .' . .: ':::; '
'FIj}{the: Bowditch method, theadjustme'l1l of the values of M and 6.N gi~ven in

t'l~¥~i~~~{~~1~~~{~~lii,be~n4ete~4>~d ~_eE';T(j.i f ~n.a~d~ .~•.

'-0.12 ill: '-a·nd..the:i6tallength.of the tniverse is .25.74 m,- ' ' . ,'
'It For llne AB', , ':"" "" "
'oE AB= ~.21 X (429/2574) -= -:-0.04 m'"
,oN;;'s' = +0.-12 x(429/2574) == +0.02 m . "
ForlineBC
.. ' . '.

, ~.
."
"'SEBC = -':O.2rx (6.·S7/i574)= ~~O.05m'
oNsc ~ .+0.12 x(657/2514) = +0.03 m
Tl}isptocess is repeated fat the whole traverse: These adjustments, applied to' the '
AEarid~values; w0uld.:normally,b5!tabulated as shown in table 53.
Applying .the tJ~allsit m~t~od. to, t!le same exam pIe gives'
, _:.:~; ":,: ~ "'., ::., - ." . ~ , ., ':. I •

absolute'2:M= 1761 III and absolute 'LtyN= 1342 m

'Hence Idrlinfi AB '
, '

OEAB = -0.21 X (39/1761) = -0.00 m

oNAB +0.12 x,(428/1342) = +0.04 m
and for line BC
oE Be = -0.21 x (646/1761) = -c-0.08 m
to.l2cx (116/1342) =+O.OJ m
Again, the computation is repe~ted for each line of the traverse.
Both the transit method and Bowditch's method will a1ter the original bearings
by a very small amount. It is not necessary to recalculate these bearings unless the
t~(lverst1. is to be u~d for ,subseqllent control work such as setting' ou:t.
Checks on hoth methods of adjustment should be undertaken as follows. If the
adjustment has been carried out successfully
L,oE should = eE
. LoN,'shoqld= ~eN
,'_. . . .

These checks must be carried out before calculating the adjusted Mand !:IN values.

5.8. 7 Calculation o[ the Final Coordinates

Fo~polygon, iravers~~~'iri 9~d'~f t~cornpute the coordinates of tl~e stations, the

" ... ~~.~~'-,,~'."\. _ _ :,~ ",".,--,.: .. ,>v.,..., •. -'J,- .... ",.,~".;" :l .... -:.' •

cg'pr9'i\late:she:tl;te'~J:'9):fing;phirit
have to be known. These starting coordinates may
either be assunied"fOran <iii-etto'give positive coordinates for the whole surveyor,
 .,

A.-._'
.. ':TRAVERSING
..". _.
t _ ~.

;j1~1;9~1·~~p·y , mflY b.<p:WVe~};jf·a,pre,viou.s.ly. coordi~~ted .stat;9R is·.uSJ~d; tQ·:$ta:rJ(th~:: . /­

link·traV~r$e~:.th~:·~.;iclin.~,~i!9f~~;.St~~~g:·aQ9:tmiSh~g,.~·~~t~:~ii~~;::-i.'.":·':

"n froPla.pf(~Yio~S:.su,rV:~Y. ~ndtbe::c90fd~n~tes will be determined relative: to ..

. know'n vaIues~' ,.' "'. ' - ~. .' .__ .;;. ' .
.coordinat~s ofeac.~~pojilt.~re <>.bt~tied-f?y :adding or subtractintthe:t\d.fi1~t~d .

. ' AN vmuc's· as: ooces~a~~ ;w(jfWing'aroun'4 the· tra,verse..· ." '. . . •:.~... ' . . .

~:Witen aU the coordfua:les·have·:beefi calcu-Iate<f; fI1ereis '3: finaI'check:·to be -.

~r a polygon traveise~:the' final and:,~itia;L'G6ordiriatesshould:bc equal-as these: .

. . t the. same stadoh..'·, . .... ...• ".:, .'....

... or it link traverse, the finalcoordiriates should equal those· of the se¢Ond.k1nowH

Ifthis :check does not hold, th~re isilnaftthmeticai miSldkeand the. calculations· .'
.' be investigated u~til it is found. . . . . .'

-. At .this stage for the polygon travt;rse whjdl has been referred to tluoughoutthis

. . n (that showflln figureS~(2), the adJusted AE-and.6N;valu·es.havenoW··

determined and, since the cQold:irta,tesofthe s-tartingpeif'lt; station A, have'

.given as 500:00 mE and lOOO~OOlRN, thecQordhiates of the other traverse

tions can .be obtained from these' initla'ii~coo:tdlnates and the adjusted.Mand .

values found by the Bowditch method. For example· .

(l) EB E A ± LiEA~ ::: 500.00 - 38.83. 46.1.17 m

NB NA ± MAB 1000.00 - 427.59 = 572.41 m
(2) Ec = EB ± M BC = 46 L 17 + 646.15 ::::: 1107.32 m
Nc = NB ± !:::.NBC = 572.41 ---' 116.05 45636 m
This process is repeated until stationA is recoordinated as'3 check. The .com­

plete calculation is shown in table·53 .

. 5.8.8 The Traverse Table

For each particular step in the traverse computation every calculation should be

tabulated.

There are many variations of the layout that can be adopted but the format.

given in table 5.3 is recommended.

Table 5.3 shows the calculation for the polygon traverse ABCDEF A of figure
· 5.12. This table should be thoroughlystudied,.r~ferring to the relevant preceding
. . sections of this chapter to enable a completeunder~tanding of how the table is'
.' compjIed to be gained.

5.8.9 Precision of Computation

~
· When using calculators and computers, care Illust be taken to use only the appr9~
-

· priate arnoullt of the eight (sometimes riibie)slgnificant figures presented bxthe

~p~. '. . .
 ~t;·must· be.:i;eali$d tn~tilny.quiln·ti!y eo,li:iill{(f!.jJ:(:.qj ".iipt>be quo.ted ·to 11'li,igh¢F .

prCci$ionthUn that-of the data

supplied or i~l: theIield.observatforls.

'. .S(}~~e~~fil~'~ :at.egi"tii;t6·'demonstrate 'ihis pririciple. . . •.'

- ~·~'~·~5~:· ;:~5·.·"·~·:':-;:,~ ~."".: . . " ..:: !~... . :t..~:_:: .' "L<, .,.,.-~~ ". -'. . .- ,"", .'
{l)Ift-'Section 5."8.4, ,all the coordinate differences were calcuJ~ted'to. the

nea,J:f;{st (4),1 ~~', .' :....: '1: ,', ( .' ....,,. " " . . '. , .

·U.$ing· ~ calcUlator,. it ;~~qld h~ve been. po~b!e .to coritpute, for 'extl:;tpJr' , tJiAB
as -38·:I~O.~2.4:·~~.(t>u.t:,witho:~tsigRifican~e sinctHli~ trav~r~ legs were oilly m,e-asured~
to the ne~iest (tOl m. Hence, the fIgure is rounded to -38.79 m since the co-·
ordlnat.e,(ntferen~;<;a~"a1so~at,be8t.Q~· g"Pt~doQl¥.,to,Jhe nearest:O..0 1m.
o (2) with.(eference tq th~ example. tr~verse
• of
figure $..12, the coordinates of
statiQu.~,we!egiY.e'nas500~OOJ.11Earid IpQQ.,P(fm.~L ~.·i . 0 •

These are written in this ~anner to iridicatethat the position of statiOl}' A ·is
kri9WIJ:J~fth~p~aI~~t .Q,1{)1.1D. Thqs, aJ.lcQ9:f4ipatesdeTiye(l from this station .can~ at
best, be quoted only to the
nearest 0.01 ni.. '.. 0 • 0 0 '. . ' •

. Jfth~E;oordJin3te.s:ofsta.ti.on A. werere:cord~das 509{~O.mE and 10(10.0 mN, this

·impiie.s·that.;th~119sition·,(}(Ajs 19:t9W{1 onlY,:to toe l1e~~estO.l If this were the
m.
case, ~l:~b~qu~~t cQ~fdm.(lte~can,at best 2 Qc quote.d'.OJ;lly to the neare.st 0.1 ill

eveqth,ouiUl t4ecoordinate;djf{erences can,perhaps, h~ qlJoted to 0.01 ffi. •

When the cQ9rdi.nates:a,re.quoted as 500~OOO mEand 1000.000 mN, it is now

possible to quote coordinates9f other stations to 0.001 m so long as the fieldwork

.techniques used warrant this. .

However, since the !:ill and' AN values in·' the example traverse are known only to
the nearest 0.01 m, all the coordinates derived from those of station A can be
determined only to 0;01 m, even if the coordinates of station A are quoted to
0.001 m. .
This reaffinns the earlier statement that itis the least precise component in the
calculations which determines the precision of the final result.
The above notesreferI1otonly to traversing but also to any calculations in

engineering.

5.9 Plotting Traverse Stations

. When the fmal coordinates have been computed for a traverse, the stations have to
be plotted
.
if a site plan is. being prepared.
A common mistake is to plot the stations using the bearings or left-hand angles

and the lengths between stations. This is known as plotting by angle (or bearing)

and distance. Such a method is NEVER used in traversing and the preferred and

most accurate method of plotting traverse stations is to use the computed co­
ordin~~e.s~ '.: ... ' . " ..
T4e ti:w~hqq~ gNeninthe' f9110wing sections for plotting traverse statjon co­
ordfuates appi:y~atso to
tfi'<ingulation and other stations (see chapters 6 and 7) when
these have to be used in plan producti<l1riZ
 .TR~VERSif.JG

;liS;i 'OrkIJ1ating the Survey tIild Plot

co¢~e,,-ctitg any,plt;)t (that is, before cOi1strueting~~the gEid), the~xtentof:,
$Ufvey'should be tiikerrlf.ifo '~cc(}Upt such tll31 ~h:e pWttedsU~ey willfali "
, . OIdothQ. sheet. '" '., " ,. ','"
the case-where the north direction is stipulated, the fl;Qith4-south andeast~west
s, of.th~ are:asho1J1tl be detemtitted andthestati9ils plfittedfor the}j~sLfit
the sheet~' , , , .'
,,',,' If an arbitr;ary noxtli is to ,be used, .th~ best method of ensuring a good fit is to
l~jgn a bearing of9~~~?r ~70° t~ the longest side. This ,l1ne is then positioneti ,
~~lel to the 10ngeSt;-sid~,,:Qftlte,'$eet 80 that the survey will fit the paper properly_
w.' Sometimes it may be:'Reeessary',to'set the aI:bitrary north toa particul:ar4ir,eQti~)Jl
~order toellsUre that the sUrvey wnI fit ,a particular sheet size_This willoft~'1:1~e
~.\1e case with long:, riarrow site surveys'where, to save paper and; for con:veniencc"
{the plot of the ,survey isto:go on to ;i'sirigle or a mfujnium :nu,~ber of sheets, or the
, lijUnimu{l1length ora tolLThe boundary of the survey shquld:be roughly sketched
~~dpositioned until a ~~iiable fit is obtained. Again, the longest or most convenient
~tineshould be assigned a suit~ble arbitrary hearing.
F- Where the northp,~int::'is;arbitrary, it has to be est~bli$'edbefore the coordinate'
. :galculation takes place~ In order to estimate the extent of the$urvey it should be

~etched, roughly to scale, using the left-hand angles and the lengths between

stations.

,5.9.2 Coordinate Grid

The first stage in plotting coordinates is to establish a coordinate grid.

Coordinated lines are drawn at specific intervals, for example, 10 m, 50 m, 100 m
. in both the east and north directions to form a pattern of squares. The stations are
then plotted in relation to the grid. .
When drawing the grid, T -squares and set squares shoUld not be used since they
are not accurate enough. Instead, the grid is constructed in the following manner~
(1) From each corner of the plotting sheet two diagonals are drawn, as shown
in figure 5.20a. . -' .
(2) From the intersection of these diagonal.s an equal distance is scaled off
along each diagonal using a beam comPflss. This scaled distance must be large, see
figure 5 .20b.
(3) The four marked points on the diagonals are joined using a steel straight
edge to fonn a rectangle. This rectangle will be perfectly'true and is used as the
basis for the coordin{l:te grid (see figure 5.2Oc).
On all site plans and maps it is conventional to have the north point (true, mag­
netic or arbitrary)'Qn:th~:drawing such that the north 'direction is from the,bottom
to the top of the sheet and roughly paralleL to the sides . o f the sheet. ThiswilLbe
achieved if the grid framework'is constructed as described. '
(4) By scalingequal,;diSiances along the top and bottom lines of the re'PtSlngle
and joining the points, the vertical (E) gridlineswillbe fonned. The horiz(l)n:titl{(:!N)
grid lines are formed in a Similar manner using the other sides of the rectangle{see
figure 5.2Od and e).
 : :".

(0) . ",

.' .
, '
mark on equal distance .
(b) 'olOng eachdiagoflOl :..'
•. ftQmi"te r sectio!1.

(c.) . Join marks to

formriktaocile

A 0
X
Y
measure distance X aloog
lines AO and BC, join
(d)
to form E grid line-;­
similarly for Y
X
Y
B C

A o
,
measure distance P along
lines BA and CO and
(e) join ta form N grid line
Q Q
similarly for Q

B tp pt
C

Figure 5.20 Establishing coordinate grid

All lines must be drawn with the aid of a steel straight edge and all measure­
mentsmust be taken from lines ABand Be and not from one grid line ,to dIe next.
This avoids accumulating errors. "
(5}Thegrid lines should now be numlJered accordingly. The sizeofa grid
squar~s11()uldnot be greater than IOO.min by 100 mm. 'It isnotne.ce$sary~tOplot
the origin of ttIe survey if it lies outside the area concerned. '.
 .. : . .t. .' "~: . .' - ...'

'~~~en plotti'ng b;'·coo.rd~.a~es: ~i~~'"'~r~~~dure is as follows. " .' , ,.:.:;: .. ' .".': . '-;.:
:~.};':~'Let, thesta.tiont.ohe:p..lotted~have coordjDates 283 .6~ mE: 427.;~5 m~:. and·J¢t it
J.lC .plotted on a I.OOmgndipfieVlously:pr.epared. as descnbed.Ill s.ectIon 5.9.2. ,~~:'.
\..... (l)·:Th~"gii~mt~~$e~iih~:fd.QjT~~'~1dd~WN islopJed on th~:~,r~p¥.~d~ri~.. : .
.
e2) Alp~ ,the ·~qO·I}l~;lWr~.;~~:~?~,m ~ssG~¢d o~ffroni, the 2'90 fQE.w!ei: . '.'
• < ••••

li1~~~on. ~?wa~q.~. ~~~. 39q ~~ '1!l~erse~t~oJ1 anq pO.tnt a 18~ located (se~_~~~r~ 5:~ ~~': .
l~~~~~!~f!Itb~~s"p~q.ttf~ ,~qng the. 500 mN hne. Potnts a an~ b are Jo~ned ~rth'
P, . . . . .,; '."" ~ -. ,.... '. . . ,,"
. . (3fAlong the 200 triE':1ine·,:.'47AS,.m:i,8scruedfrom the 400 mN intersection'
Itowards the 500 rnN int~rsecti~n fo locate {lointe. Pointd is f~und by 'scaiing': ' .
27.45 rn along the 300 mE line. Points c and d are joined. .
(4) The intersection of lines ab and cd gives the position of tJte station. " '.
(5) TQ. check the plotted position, dimensions X and Yare 'me\iSure'<i'from
th~ pl~t~nd comparyd with their~~peF,ted values. In this case,X sho,uld equ~ .

100.0Q .~. 83.62 = 16~~8in and, Y$nould equal 100.00 - 27.45.= 72.55 m. .

(6) When all the statJo.ns'h<:ive been,'plotted, the lengths' between the plotted
stations 'an~measured and compared with their accepted values. . '.':
(7) The traverse lines are cadded by carefully joining the plotted stations. This
is to aid in the location of detail (see section 8.5).

200 mE 83.62 m 300 mE

500 mN 500mN
1\
I b
I
I
I
I
Y
I
I
I
C I d
1___ --- ----4---
I

27.45 m
ix 2 7.45m
o I
.~
400 mN 400mN
200 mE 83.62 m 300 mE

Figure 5.21 Station plotting

5.10 Whole-circle Bearing and Distance Calculation from Coordinates.

. .

[n seGtion 5.8.4 it was shoWl1th,at, ~~9~ingthe whole-cirCle bearing andlengtll of

a line, the coor~inat~s of oneendoftl"te Jirie could be computed if the coordinates
of the other end were known. .
, For the teverse case, where the c()Ordinafes of two points~J:e kq:own','#:,is:.pus- '
sible to compu te the whole-circ!e, bearing and the horizon~ distance of the line
between the two points~ .:':, ,< ," '" ,>' ' "," ,;' , ',' , ' - . ' -', , "
This ,type' Qf calculation. is 'ooinnulRl:¥: used in. ,engineering ,surveying when ,;setting
out wor:kShypolar coo~d~ates~ Thisjs,diSc.~dnsection~ 14Jk2.
In ~.~ Mfyefs~~iJt"i~t~rt~ ~~~~~~,~,!o:ffl(;\H~t~';ttt;~~h~I~-circle, b~.a~gs of
the start. ap.~;~jSh, IJ~e.s fr9W' J~e, '.pQQr(lPia~.'~9rUie .~Xistihg;,khow:n ~t~tion's.
the wells: ~d ~Qiji()p~ ais~3ri~~';c~n;b~ ~~YIa~e4 by, ~ne of two .ri;teth~d~; " ,
eit4ei by~q~~<;I¢~g, the;q~rtUi,f'm ,w.hliih th~jme' fa1Js 0.1:, ~y' uS,irig the' recidngul~T
pOlar co;Wers'dn key tOUDti" 66 m()st 'caIcula:t{jtklf tilis'-type 'of c.tlculation 'uifdet­ is
t*eri tl~~g ~ computer. W~f?4 ~~. n.'?~< 4~ve ,a .re<;~~2W:lar/pQlar ~acility,'~' 'pt-o-'
grains writtell mJ}st be ~~(I '?n' tn:e~~~a4r3n~s method., ' ,
' . . ~. ,­ ..... _. . . . .
:.­ ~ i '", - i ."

. M;

.. QUadr(liJ,ts
5.1O.l By .... ,

A== 469.72;338.46
•
B = 268.14, 116.19

I
j -,----'­

J
Figure 5.11

(1) A sketch showing the relative positions of the two stations should always
be drawn in order to determine in which quadrant the line falls. This is most im­
as
portant the greatest source of error in this type of calculation is wrong identifi­
cation of quadrant. For whole circle bearings the quadrants are shown in ftgure
5.23.
(2) 8ABjsgiVen'~y;i(mJigure 5.22)
0 0
(JAB = tan- 1 (4E.Aill¢1NAB) + .180 = tan- 1 [(EB - EA)/(NB - N A )] + 180

. ..• dtan-, ';l~:;~=~!:!~ J+ ISO- ~t~~-l [=~~:;~ J+ 180 0

.
 >=. tan~l {OJ'06,915}+ 18tf

'. ~421j;'i2~ j~ +: t800.>· ':

-:"," ;.~'.

'cnre . I' .

.... •• > • ~~~ ~~2~,IJ'}t~: . .' :- .• -t '!- -- ..'

.It Inustlle realised that, in general, the fmal value of BAB will depend· on 'th.e,
q;uadrantof the Jineiaho'a sei.-of rules, based. on the-'quadrant ·Ul:which.:the.line falls;'

N
. "~ ~~ "

WOl

.270°-----+----90.

IB n

Figure 5.23 Quadrant

. can be proposed to determine the whole circle bearing. These rules are shown in

table 5.4.

I . (3) Having now found 0 AB , DAB is given by

DAB '= (MAD/sin 0AB) = (MAB/COS 8AB)
For fIgure 5.22 .
D - -201.58 20_1_.5_8_
= __ = 300.06 ill
AB - sin 222 0 12' 19" -0.671789

" = -222.27 = -22227 = 300.06 m (check)

~
l~
0
cos 222 12' 19" -0.740743 .
II'grossWhen evaluating D. both of the above shollld be calculated as a check against
error .. in the case where small differences occur b~tw~en
I the two' results, the
correct ansWer is given by the trigonometric function which is the slower changing,
p
t: TABLE 5.4

rf~------------------~--~
QUADRANT . I ifIll IV

1r.~_f_~~~~ ~_6 =_.t~a~n-~lt~A~ti_~_)~~6_=~u_n~-1~(_4E~I_M~}_'_+_1_~_O~~6~=

~ Noee:
__ __ ta_n_~_I_(A_E_/A_N_)_+~3~6_00~
__
(4~/AN) must be calculated al19Wing for their signs.
ex
fora line XY"~ AEx~ == Ey' - and ~xy == Ny - NX
1'-----.. -----=----r--~----- __ ~ ____ ____1

j
 fo r' example, if f) = s°, D found "from (M"/cos,8) .gives~the~mot(;f acCurate ·answer
since the cosine funGtjon is changing less rapidly. !~Jh~ si.ne (uJl~on at this·
angle value" '. . ' . ': '. 1 . . ' . '. ...

Alternatively,D'may be giv~by D= (LlE'::+·Aft/?-)2.If an·electronic 'caIcul'ator .

is being used then this method. will give a satisfactorY an~,~r bq.t Rliovi4e~ no check .' :
on the result. For this reason, the methodinvolving thetiigonometncalfu:nCtions ;
is preferred.. . " . '. , ,., ' ':::";.'' ..., ,
, Exainples:efthis;type of'~alculation are given.in·section S~ 11 and, section 5~ 12.2., .

. 5.10.2 By.Rectangular/Polar Conversion

If a calculator is ayailable which ~ fitted with~frectangular/polar key, values of D

and 8 can be obtained directly. When using this function, the coordinate values
must be entered into the.qllcul(itor in the correct seqpe~ce otherwise the wrong
bearing will be-obtained. In all cases, if8 is displayed as having a negative value,
0
360 must be added' to give thecorreciwhole,.circle bearing. Th!s is due to the fact
that calculators display Oeitheih<itweeri 0° arid +180<? or between 0° and 180°.'

5.11 The National Grid

All Ordnance Survey (OS) maps and plans in Great Britain are based on a rectangular
coordinate system known as the National Grid. Whole-circle bearings on this co­
ordinate system, are -related to the north axis of the National Grid, a ,direction known.
asgna north. The network of stations which form the basis of this grid are known as
triangulation stations (see section 6.3.2) and these are specially con~tructed pillars
or permanent marks on prominent features stich as churches, tall bU'ildings, water
towers and so on. Triangulation stations, which are distributed throughout the
country, have been very accurately coordinated on the National Grid by the OS and
are, therefo're, very useful in many engineering projects, particularly road schemes,
when used as reference or control points for setting out works (see section 14.6)
or as khown points in link. traverses.
The National Grid is derived from a map projection. lfiis is a means of represent­
ing the curved surface of the Earth on a plane so that maps and grids can be drawn.
In forming the National Grid ,the relative positions of pOints on the grid are altered
slightly from their ground positions as a result of using a map projection to account
fo~ the'clJrvature of the Earth. Therefore, distances and beariilgs calCulated from
Na'tio.nal Gridcoo~dul(ites will not, in some cases, agree with their equivalent
'measured in Ine field.'
.To convert measured distances to grid distances the scale factor (F) must be
uSed as follows
grid distance measured distance x F
,·The,~(;ple faetor.varies acrQss the coun try, as shown in table 5.5 .
. In practice, ,beariflgs deri\,~dfrom National Grid coordinates are assumed to
agree with those ohfa.'itiedfrom measurements, provided the length of any individual
line is less than 10 km. . ,
 _TRAVERSIIiG

- - "­
- - -

National Gr,i-d" tasting

"f
-'fkrit) .
" •. ':.f,' ,- ..­
i.'

S~ale Factor (p)

400
400. Q.999,60 ,
410
390 ­ -, '6tt
420
380
61- '.
430
370 61 __

440
360 62 -­

450
-350 63­
460: ·340 : 6.5

47.0
330 66 ­
480
320 ·68

490
310 70

500
300 7'2

510
290 75,

520
280 78

530
270 8T

540
260 84

550
250 88

560
240 92

570
230 0.999 96

580
220 1 .000 00

590
210 04

I 600

610

620

630

640

200
190
- 180
170
160
09

14

20

25

31

650
150 1 .0'00 37

 :TRAVERSING,
,.,

., '
'~.'.". : '.~~'

'. ~ . -" .
.! .~ ••.•
. .:~-
'.
;0'
"
-
. . ~ ..... ".:- :.-., ," ~

."traverse was ru~ 'betWeen stations A and X.as sh,own iIi th~ !f~~~~i~i!'d~~ra~
5.25. ,, ,. ''

" cOQtdmates otth~conhQuilig sta,tiq;nS'at, the ends of the. tJ;averse.ar~,~

" '. ." . ,1:.. .- . ,.-. ~ :.'".~: .. ',' .. _ - . , .

'; ~ ...
E(m) N(m)

A 1169.15, 209432

B 105'7:28 " 2492.39'

X 2334.7F 1747.32

Y 2995.85 1616.18

, / Calculate the coordinates of stations 1,2, 3 and 4, adjusting any misdosure by ,

*~ Transit method. " . "
~,~~:J14iiO
~
n '
,
' "
b~~..:Z'. . ' . . .
I1'Jiecomplete solutionis given in the traverse table shown in table?.7.
~.

~L (1) The solution follows the, direction A toX as this will give the left;;hand,
iPgles,
!p" '
as shown in figure 5.25.

to B (Q~
............ 115 0 37'00"
fO'Y
, ..... "' tz,0 all lengths corrected and 242 0 53' 40"
reduced to horizontal

all angles are mean observed

angles

- .......

x To Y

!figure 5.25
 " • .' w.

, (2).When liiJk: tlaversing~ the starting and cIosingbeadngs mayeititerbe given'

directly or nnpfied by the coordinates of the stations used an4 end the ' to start
traver$e. In tl)is:ease~ c~idinatesare givenall:d it is necessary to coillpute the " " .
initial and :i.tat:~iaIin:g$~ , "',,'' ,
, " ;'{aflii1l!tlith*k{;~gJtB: :'~ ,"
, FigQre 5~l5' i8a,s~etc,11 or the travf?rse, ,~pp,r~~,imatelyto scalY~:~4, th~re~
foret stm,ws?fliaf;tne"be~gA)riSm: tnefdiirill '4uadtari't.Heriee;"the' wh;ole~ ,
circle beiring,8A~,~giveil by (~section 5;10.1) ,"
"6AD = tan- I ,(AEAB/ANAB ) +- 360 0
- '

=~-1 [(1(j57~i8:--..
1769~15)/(4~9~.39
~.. .
~' 209.4.72)1 + 3.60 ­
0
,

, = tan- I (-7 l L87/397.67) + 36,Qo

=tan~1 (1-19010) + 360°

, ~AB = -60°48'40" + 360°

Therefore

:OAs::::;,299°11 ~26~'~
, AHernatiy~ly,;a,.re¢t'31lgular/polarconversion cart be,used as described in
section 5.10.2>
(b) Final [onyard bearingXY
From figure 5.25, the bearing XY lies in the second quadrant hence,
8xy = tan- 1 (Mxv/llNxy ) + 180°
= tan- I [(2995.85 2334.71)/(1616.18 1747.32)1 + 180°
= tan- 1 (661.14/-131.14) + 180°
= tan- 1 (-5.04148) + 180°

Hence

Therefore

OXy = 101° 13'10"

Again, a rectangular/polar conversion can also be used_

(3) The angular misclosure is found as follows (see also section 5.8.2)
Sum'ofleft-hand a{lgles = 1061 °59'50"
«(mal fOrWar4be¥ing - initial back bearing) + (n - 1) x 180°
=(101° 13~10" -299°11'20") + (5 x 180°)
~~4fY1 <>'13'10" - 299° 11'20") + 900°
'~1062°01' 50"
:' ~'-.' " . '

.The misclQsllfejs,th,e.f~fQr~3 -:-:Q2'OO" and each left~hand angle is adjusted by

adding 20" to iL
 U·rrLE""5':'7

LINE BACK BEAR ING WHOLE

-
HORIZONTAL COORDINATE DIFFERENCES VI
-t

STATION ADJUSTED LEFT

HAND ANGLE CIRCLE DISTANCE CALCULATED ADJUSTMENTS .ADJUSTED
.'COORDINATES
-i
~

LINE FORWARD BEARING D A£ AN o£ oN tiE ! AN E N

BEARING e
-­
AB 299 11 20 17~69. 15. ' 2094.72 A
!'
A 115 37 20
A1 54 48 40 54 I 48 140 208.26 +170.20 +120.01 +0.02 +0.'01 +170.22 +120.02 1939.37 . 2214.74 .1
1A 234 48 40
,,:;~
1 19 30
12 43 08 10 43 I 08 110 193.47 +132.28 +141.18 +0.02 +0.01 +132.30 +141.19 20,71.67 2355.·93 2
21 223 08 10
2 281 13 00
23 144 21 I 10 144 1 21 110 326.71 +190.40 -265.49 +0.02· +0.02 +190.42 -265.47 22$,2.09. 2090.46 3
l' 324 21 10
<
3 242 54 00
34 207 15 10 207 1 15 110 309.15 -141.57 -274.83 +0.02 +0.02 -141 .• 55 -274.81 2120.54 1.815.65 4 '.

43 27 15 10 "

4 80 26 40
4X 107 41 50 107 I 41 150 224.79 +214.15 -68.33 +0.02 ;+0.00 +214.17 ~68,; 33 2334.71 1.147.32
-.
·X
, .
X4 287 41 50
X 173 31 I 20
,
XV 101 13 10 101 I 13 110
1: 1262 1:+565.46 1:- 347.46 1:+0.10 HO .0,6 1:+565.56 1:-j47.40
ACTUAL SUM OF LEFT HAND ANGLES = 1061°59'50" = +565,46
l:AE -347.46
l:AN '" 'abs EAE • 8;49"
REQUIRED SUM OF LEFT HAND ANGLES = 1062°01' 50" EX-EA'" ,+565.; 56 . NX-N '" -347.40
A abs UN • 870, ' . . ' : :

MI SCLOSURE = -02' 00" eE'D -0'.10,' eN '" -0.06 ADJUSTME'NltO ~;E/~ BY 'TMti~:1:" .

e '" ((-0.10)2 + ( .. Q~ 06) 2) 2 i: 0,12

.•...
ADJUSTMENT TO EACH OBSERVED ANGLE = +20"
FRACTIONAL LINEAR MIS:CWSURE tI 1 in 10 sqo
_ an open traverse has the following data:

line WCB Length (m)

AB 60 20 30 125.745

BC 308 15 50 222.861

CD 172 4700 53.221

-Given that the coordinates of station A are 100 east and 100 north,
calculate the coordinates ofstations B, C and D.

line Length WeB E N

AB 125.745 60"20'30''­ 109.271 62.222

Be 222.861 308"15'50 -174.983 l38.014

CD 53.221 172"41"00 6.685 -52.799

i
I
Pts E(rn) N(m)
I
r A 100 100
I
! B 209.271 162.222
i II
I
I
i C
I
34.288­ 300.236 1
i i
!
I D 40.973 247.437
t I
 the following data were obtained in a short traverse A!::SCUA

line .Bearing Length (m) ,

AB W.C.B= 70° 34" 295.541
BC Q.B.= S 9 c 18·E 269.42
CD W.C.B.= 210°30' 184.32
-

Find the length and the W.C.B. ofline DA, calculate also the coordinates
ofC if the coordinates of A are (2250 E,1720 S).

line LlE AN I
Length WCB
I I
AB 295.54 70°34" 278.70 98.33

BC 269.42 170"42/ 43.54 -265.88

CD 184.32 210"30' -93.55 -158.81

--
DA ? ? X I Y
'--­ I I .-l

Closed Travese: Sum ofLlE =0 and Sum ofAN =0

DA= -V Xl..+ y'l... = 398.509 m

_I Ii; t' "/
Bearing ofDA = Tan (AE/6N)= N 35 01 12 w
C ( 2572.24 E~ 1887.5 S)
Engineering Leveling

BASICS OF LEVELLING

USES OF LEVELLING

In the context of tidal measurements, levelling is used for the following

purposes:

Referencing of Tide Gauges: To determine and check the vertical stability of

the tide gauge bench mark (TGBM) with respect to reference points
(benchmarks) in its immediate vicinity. In order to isolate any local
movements, there should be at least three such benchmarks, and the
levelling should be repeated on an annual or semi-annual basis.

Connection to GPS Reference Points: To determine its regional stability and

to separate sea level rise from vertical crustal motion, the TGBM should be
connected via GPS to reference stations fixed in a global co-ordinate
system. Generally speaking, the GPS antenna cannot be directly placed on
the TGBM and a GPS reference point must be established a short distance
away. This must be connected to the TGBM by levelling.

Connection to National Levelling Network: Mean se-a level is used to define vertical
datums for national surveying and mapping - hence the TGBM must be connected
to the national levelling network. Connection to the network will also allow all tide
gauges to be connected to each other, providing information on spatial variations in
mean sea level.

PRINCIPLE OF DIFFERENTIAL LEVELLING

Differential levelling provides a means of accurately measuring height differences

between points some tens of metres apart. A level is set up on a tripod and levelled
so that the line of sight is horizontal:
~raduaIed
,Iaff

Oh = backsigbr - foresight

;b-f
Direction of travel

.::ircular ___
«­----'i;;:ii;::JC==:r==::;......,'
bubble

A schematic illustration of a basic level

 :-U:-p.:rbl'.'H
nUn'or \\ 1T~:-

('QUuna1ton
- - - tiXi1l

Automatic Compensator:

Collimation Error:
 Vertical Distances - Levelling

Measuring the height

Measuring and calculating the height of a point

relative to another point

level Spirit level Water level Optical level

A surveying optical telescope

line of
diaphragm focusing screw collimation

eyepiece

focusing lens
 Pond Bubble

When pond bubble is centred the instrument's standing axis

is approximately vertical.

The compensators in the instrument take over and adjust

the optical Line of Collimation so that it is horizontal (hopefully)

When the instrument is rotated the compensators ensure that

a horizontal plane of collimation is swept out (hopefully)

Levelling Staff
Levelling

Height of the Plane of Collimation (HPq

51 --------------- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 52
Reduced

Level of A

RL A (known)

(unknown)
.szMeasured and Cal
Reduced
Level of A Sl.........RLB

Level of B

DATUM
B

HPC = RLA + 51

RL B = HPC 52

-Definitions

"_Bench Mark" BM'" it is a point with known level, given from municipality
measured as AOD level
" backsigth "BS": it is the first staff reading
"Intermediate sigth "IS": it is the intermediate readings of staff in which the
position for the level did not change
"Foresight "FS": it iS,the last reading of staff before changing the position for the
level
• turning or changing point "CP or TP": it is a common point between the positions
of the two level, i.e. the following reading will be B.S and ES for the new position

HPC

RLA is known

HPC = RLA + BS RL B = HPC - FS

Now the RL B is known So we can repeat the process

HPC = RL B + BS RL C = HPC FS

HPC
Generally: Known RL + Back Sight
Unknown RL HPC - Fore Sight
 Reading an E-type levelling staff

~ The value is ?

ead value at
he
orizontal
ross hair

======= 1:§ 3(9

'-"--- 1.920
~- 1.910

~-1.900

.:1J:3d 3
.120
 Topographic Surveying

Case ofinverted sight:

X (h.p.c)-(-Rx)

X 1----':
X (h.p.c)+Ry

_~~.1/J.J'-d;L_

Put the reading in a negative sign

Topographic Surveying

4. Reciprocal Leveling
The purpose of this type of leveling is to get the difference in level between
Two points lie in opposite of lake, a river or a big hall the following procedures
have to be followed.

1. Use two instruments

2. Take the readings at the same time

3. Exchange the two instruments.

We will have four difference and we will take the average

 Topographic Surveying

t:.h- [(Al -Bl)+(A2 -B2)+(A] BJ (A4 -B-l)]

4

Topographic Surveying
\-----------_._-_ .. __._._-.-...\

Case of water body:

1.0 ~Jl!!)_

2.0 1.8

(a) = 1.50 -1.00 = 0.50m

(b) = 1.50 - 1.20 =0.30m

 Topographic Surveying

5. Height of Collimation Method:

The following readings were taken by a level:

0.30 - 1.60 - 1.80 0.40 - 0.60 - 1.20 - 0.90- 0.50 - 0.20.
And:
1. The forth and sixth readings are back sights.
2. The third and fifth readings are forsights.
3. The third and forth points are turning points.
4. The level was moved after the third and the fifth readings.
=
The level of point number 1 2.10 m and the reading number 8 is
Inverted sight.

Topographic Surveying

-1:60 _. 1.80 1.2

0.3

7
2 3 4 5
 Topographic Surveying

Point B.S I.S ES H.P.C levels Dist. Rem.

1 0.30 2.40 2.10 000 I known
2 1.60 0.80 100 I
3 0.40 1.80 1.00 0.60 200 I Turning
4 1.20 0.60 1.60 0.40 300 i Turning
5 0.90 0.70 400
6 ·0.50 2.10 500 Inverted
7 0.20 1.40 600
)­ 1.90 i 2.00 2.60 6.00

Topographic Surveying

Mathematical checks:

1. # of b.s readings =
# of f.s readings
3 3
ok
2. Y b.s· I f.s = (last point)· (first point)

1.90-2.60 = 1.40 2.10

-0.70 = -0.70

ok

3. L Levels except the first point + L 1.5 + L F.5 + = .

L (H.P.C) * # of times to get new levels

Left side = 6.00 + 2.00 + 2.60 = 10.60

Right side = 2.40 * 2 + 1.00*1+ 1.6*3 =10.60 =left side

Ok
 Topographic Surveying

The allowable error in leveling is nJk mm

As n =5, 10, or 12

K is the length of leveling line in km

Topographic Surveying

7. Rise and fall Method:

The following readings were taken by a level:

0.30 - 1.60 - 1.80 - 0.40 - 0.60 - 1.20 - 0.90- 0.50 - 0.20.

And:

1. The forth and sixth readings are back sights.

2. The third and fifth readings are forsights.
3. The third and forth points are turning points.
4. The level was moved after the third and the fifth readings.
=
The level of point number 1 2.10 m and the reading number 8 is
Inverted sight. .
 Topographic Surveying

1.60
0.3

7
2 3 4 5

Topographic Surveying

Point B.S I.S F.S Rise Fall levels DisL Rem.

1 : 0.30 2.10 000 known
2 1.60 1.30 0.80 100
3 0.40 1.80 0.20 0.60 200 Turning
4 1.20 0.60 0.20 0.40 300 Turning
5 0.90 0.30 0.70 400
6 -0.50 1.40 2.10 500 Inverted
7 0.20 0.70 1.40 600
I: 1.90 2.00 2.60 1.70 2.40 6.00
 Topographic Surveying

Mathematical checks:

1. # of b.s readings = # of f.s readings

3 3

ok

2. I b.s - I f.s = (last point) - (first point) = '5' rise - I fall

1.90 - 2.60 = 1.40 2.10 = 1.. 70 2.40

-0.70 = -0.70 = -0.70

ok
figure (1) shows the readings observed to points A,B,C and D on the
multi-storey bUildings. Given that the reduced level of the BM is
(72.30) m above datum, calculate the reduced levels of all points by
HPC method.

I~

Fig(l)

Pts Staff Readings HPC Ris Remarks .

I B.S I 1.S F.S
ENl 1.750 \
74.05 \ . (72 ~O) \, Bench
i
Mark
A
I
-3.100 (77.15) inverted I.
,
I B
•

1.490 (72.56) I
I
r-
I
c
i

I
-3.210
I
.
\
-2.560

3.200
73.40 (76.61 )

(70.20)
cp

D I
1
! •
 _ The following readings were taken with a metric staff on a series of pegs
at 100 intervals along the line of proposed trench:
2.15,2.85,3.51'( 1.80),1.58,2.24,2.94,(1.68),2.77,3.06,3.83
The first reading was taken on BM (30.75) m AOll.) outside the line and
the last reading was taken on BM (29.94) m. the other readings were
taken on the heads of the pegs, where the readings between brackets are
FS readings .you are required:
1) Calculate the reduced level trench using HPC method and carry out
the normal checks.
2) Draw a longitudinal section showing the ground and formation levels,
then compute the height of cut or fill at pegs if the trench is to be
excavated from the first peg at formation level (28.5tG)m AOD and
falling to the last peg at gradient of 1: 250.

BS I
FS HPC SUlfacer Grade Fill I Cut Remarks
IS reduced lel1el Reduced Level .
2.15 32.90 (3G.75) --------­ -----­ BM1
i 2.85 (30.05) (:8..50) 1.55 0
3.51 I
(29.39) (28.10) . i 1.29 100 m
1.58 1.80 32.68 (31.10) (27.70) 3.4 200m
2.24 (30.44) (27.30) 3.14 300m
2.94 (29.74) (26.90)' 2.84 400m
2.77 1.68 33.77 (31.00) (26.50) 4.50 500m
3.06 (30.71) (26.10)' 4.61 600m
3.83 CPt) {j·n
MJ :;~ ... ~!.
-... __ .... _---­ ..._---­ BM2
/' _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _--'--I.,r

~If----__c_o_n_t_o_u_r_i_"_9_ _,

 steep slope Mild slope

Topographic Surveying

vertical I--_~_
 4 8

3.2 "" '" ... " '"

5.2 .... .,. .......

4.9 ....... .... v ..." .,.

4A 3.8 4.2 5.8 6.5

6.2

Topographic Surveying

 - Drawio scale the contoudinesofthe following leveling net ifthe vertical

interval = 1: $"00

6.10

T
· &·40 58S" ! 3/io 2.1r­
..i

31.20
5.1b 4'4~ 3SS­
3.05

ii

-L . r - - - - - - - - - ' - - - - - - - - J . - - - - - -.. . .~
4·2.5 \. 2- go 2.90 2,-=j-()
I

--->I~$~________ ;) 'I. 2 5.0~_

I

>
 I

f.­
I'
I
I

k,.

\'6
~
~
rr----r-~~;---~~--:---+~:::::-------J ~ ~
-I.
\13
'><:
\"(;
Vj
/
~ /
:~
/ I

/
~ : \..,:l
\.a.
(l() i \J,\
\)\ J

\
\

\ \
\
/
/ """
J
 Problems
u
 Beirut Arab University Engineering Surveying
Civil Engineering Dept. Exercise No. 1

LINEAR MEASUREMENTS.

PART I - Scales

1- Calculate the scale of plan where 1 cm represents 22.50 m.

2- It is required to draw a linear scale 1:5000 to read up to 25m (least count).

3- Draw a scale for a map scaled by 1:2500 to read 10m, and find out the length

275m.

4- The scale of a map is 1:32000, it is required to draw a linear scale to read 1 Ian.

5- Calculate the true Area if it is measured on map drawn by scale 11500 with 7 cm 2 .

PART II - Errors in Linear Measurements

1- A survey line AB was measured along a 6 degree gradient. The slope distance was
49.75m. Calculate the plan length ofthe line. (49.48)

2- A survey line XY is measured along a steep gradient of &0 by two survey teams
A and B. Team A used a 30 m shrunk by 50 mm, the measured length was 85.24
m. Team B used a 20 m steel tape which was actually 20 mrn too long. The
measured length was 84.94 m.

Calculate the most probable horizontal corrected length XY (84.23).

3- A line AB known to be 65.35 m long was checked using a 20 m tape. It was found
to measure 65.10 m. Calculate the actual length of the tape (20.077).

4- Calculate the corrected plan length of line AD measured in 3 sections as

follows:
Ii' /
AB= 102.3 ms angle of slope= 6 30

BC= 37.93 ms. Difference in level=5.88 ms

CD=48.2 ms gradient = -5° 00 I

Beirut Arab University Engineering Surveying

Civil Engineering Dept. Exercise No.2

Compass Surveying
It ° 0 0
1)- for the whole circle bearings (WCB): 75,130,240, 310
Determine the Reduced Bearing ( RB). (use a neat sketch) •
2)- Determine the WCB for the follo-.ying
0
RB :
0
a-N 18 20' E b-S 46° 24 E' c- S 25 47' W
3)- The magnetic bearing of a line is observed to be 120°25.'What is The true
bearing if the magnetic declination is 23 0 W ?

4)- Explain ,by means of diagrams and notes, the difference

between:

a)-Whole-circle bearing and quadrant bearing.

b)- Forward and back bearing.

I (11

5)- The geographic azimuth ofa line AB was found to be 346 20 • At a certain
time of the day the magnetic bearing of the same line was: 03 0 23 ~ Another line
. " ,
CD was magnetically observed as 19520.
Calculate:
a)- The magnetic declination.
b)- true bearing ofline CD.
6)- For the bearings oflineAB complete thefollowing:
o o
Magnetic bearing 60 230
o
True bearing 221
o o
Angle of declination 10 W 4W
o I
7)- At a given place the magnetic bearings oftwo lines are N 4832 E
". 0 ,
And S 54°36E. Ifthe magnetic declination is 250E, What are the
True bearings ofthe lines.

8)- Change, the following true bearings to magnetic bearings for

04(;'30 W magnetic declination: N 2° 06'E ,N 4 "'lO"W and

S 87°39'E.

 . /
o·
9)- In 1860 the magnetic bearing ofa line was S 86 30W and the
Magnetic declination was 4°30~W. Compute the magnetic bearing
Ofthis line allhis year if the magnetic declination is now lE~
What is the true bearing at this year?

10)- The following readings are measured for the traverse ABeD.
Adjust the readings:

LINE
FORBEARING
0 /'
BACKBEARING
0 /'
I
. 42°09", 11
225 18'"
AS
. 105°28'" 284"48"
BC
209 02 28 50
CD
267 58 86 18
DE
316 10 135 54
EA

I I)-Correct the following observation for the local attraction

Line F.W.C.B B.W.C.B

A8 118u 20". 30Qu 40'
BC 224° 40. 46° 10'
CA . 39° 10 219° 60'

Calculate the corrected R.B.B for the line CA.

",

Beirut Arab University ,Engineering Surveying

Civil Engineering Dept. Exercise No.3

Theodolite surveying
1- The following angles were measured on a closed theodolite traverse:

Instrument Station Target Station Face Left.

. D 00° 10' 20
A B 892640
B A 892640
C 1890520
C . B 1890520
D 2692940
D C 2692940
A 000900

Calculate:
a) The measured angles, b) The angular correction,
c) The corrected angles, d) The quadrant bearing of each line
given that bearing AD is 45°36' 00"

2- Calculate the closing error and accuracy of the following traverse:

Line LengJh (ml Bearing

.
AB " 110.20 1560 40' 00
BC 145.31 75 1800
CD 98.75 3510800
DE 163.20 2762900
EA 52.34 1872700

3- The partial coordinates of closed traverse .are:

I Line Length
(m)
Difference in
Easting
Difference in
Northing
PQ 252.41 0.00 252.41
QR 158.75 -110,76 -113.82
RS 153.50 -25.24 -151.41
SP 136.74 ,'----c"----'
+136.15 12.67
DIstrIbute the closing error by BowdItch's rule and calculate the corrected partIal
coordinates.
4) The following data refer to an open theodolite traverse round an old farm house
which is to he demolished at a future date. '
Line I Plan: Angle Observed c
. Length(m) Value
XA 160.00 XAB 330 0 00'
AB 186.40 ABC 251 30
BC 234.00 BCD 19830
CD 170.60 CDE 28045
E
DE I 138.00 I
",

Given that the coordinates of station X are 100 :ME and 100 mE and 100 mN and that
the forward bearing ofline XA is 210 0 00' 00", calculate:

a) The total coordinate of each station,

b) The length of and the bearing of a proposed sewer that is to be laid between
the patnts' X and E.
c) The values of the angle~ to beset out at X and E by the theodolite to
establish the line of the s~r. .

5) The following lengths and angles were obtained 'on a closed theodolite traverse
usino a 20 m steel band and the theodolite'
'''' Line Plan len1!fh Q~adrant Bearing
..
AB 167.25 North
Be 228:34 N30024' OOE
CD 367.50 S 18° 1640 E
DA 220.70 . N892840W'
.
It IS suspected that there is a gross error in one of the linear measurements. Calculate
the total coordinates of each station: hence determine the erroneous line and the
probable reason for the wrong measurement.

6} For the closed traverse given in fig.(l), it'is required to;

. a) calculate the length Md the bearing of the Sid DA and the RB of AD.
b) Calculate the coordinates of stations B,C & D if the coordinate of A are
( 200 E, 200N).

c
Fig. (1)

,'V'- Determine the corrected angles from the following observation taken about
station X.
,,--O-b-s-er~edl~;~-I' F.L " ., ' ,
tar et -----I~
A "'176°04' 00" 356°06'10'" --­
r---=B--f31804~40~~7 56 10
_ C~~_,~ 12 19_2751420",~--
A 17602 00 3~56~0~3~2_0-4______-+__________L -_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _~
-r-,
Be~rut Arab University Engineering Surveying
Civil Engineering Dept. Exercise No.4

Theodolite surveying

J) A link traverse was run between stations A and X as shown in the traverse
-.diagram ofFig (1).
The coordinates of controlling stations at the ends of the traverse are as
follows:

Stn. E(m) N(m)

A 1769.15 2094.72
B 1057.28 2492.39
X 2334.71 1747.32
i

Y 2995.85 1616.18

Calculate the coordinates of stations 1,2,3 and 4, adjusting any misclosure by the
Transit method.

all lengths corrected and 242 0 53' 40"

reduced to horizontal

all angles are mean observed

angles

Fig (1)

x -- ....
To Y
<' •

2) Repeat Exercise (1) for fig(2)

N 1540.11
E 807.53

'A

Field data
unadjusted

1760 10'00"

N 524.85
E 1407.36

Fig (2)
t

Beirut Arab University Engineering Surveying

Civil Engineering Dept. Exercise No.5

Simple Levelling
1- The following list of readings was taken in sequence during a ]evelling survey

Readioe (m) Remarks

1.250 BM, 1.435m AOD
1.285 Peg.A
1.125 . Peg.B
0.810 Change point
1555

1.40 Inverted staff reading taken to

the underside ofa bridge

1.235 Peg.C

0.666 Change point

i 1.905
i 0.070 BM, 4.600m AOD
Adopt a standard form of booking and reduce the levels to Ordnance datum.

2- The following table shows the readings taken to determine the clearance
between the river level and the soffit of a road bridge. Reduce the levels and
determine the clearance between the river level and the saffit ofthe bridge.

BS IS FS RL Remarks
0.&72 21.460 OBM
0.665 3.980
2.920 River level at A
-1.332 Soffit of bridge at A
-1.312 Soffit of bridge at B
-1.294 Soffit of bridge at C
-1.2&0 Soffit of bridge at D
2.920 River level at D
4.216 0.597
1.155 OBM
 3- Complete the following missing data of a level book and carry out the normal
.check.

BS IS FS Rise Fan Reduced

Level
3.786 /' 36.642
..­ \.1,1-,,­ 2.474 . -,,/" 39·'r..t,
/ - 1.960 0.e:4~/ 38.468
tll'tt)1 3.560 1.6 - \ 36,868
3.698 / :l·'b~L~ 34.042
/ 0.670 ')·9)C() ,,-0­ n,O-'7­
Jl.,).J"i ~/ 2.180 , 1. S1, 35.560
1;.054.' J 1.186 / 1, (,.'!-u ,
2.874 / J..,D~ I.,. !$]. 34.992
\.}Yo­ 1.158 ') G'Il)
0.950 ! 0.766 ! 36.916
1.412 I J,t{ g~L ~6, ~S'1
. .
4- The following table shows the staff readings obtained from a survey along the line
ofproposed roadway from A to B.
i) On the table, reduce the levels from AJo B applying all the appropriate checks.
ii) Given that the finished rodway has to be evenly graded from A to B, calculate
the depths of cut or fill at 20 meter intervals between A and B.

BS FS Rise Fall Surfacer Grade Fill Cut Remarks

IS OrHPC reduced level Reduced Level
0.824 39.220 BMI
1.628 A
0.790
. 20mfromA
0.383 40 m from A
2.154 1.224 60 m from A
2.336 80m from A
2.757 100m from A
2.555 0.461 Change point
2.275 120m from A
0.436 140m from A
0.227 160m from A
0.716 180m from A
0.652 B,200m from A
0.233 BM2
c; ~ The following table shows the values of readings, taken on the leveling survey, of
an area that is to be developed as part of a new project (the area shown in the

figure), reduce the levels and apply check. Interpolate the ground contours, at 1

meter v~rtical intervals using scale 1:200 for the grid. Draw section 4D using

appropriate scale.
..,
BS IS FS Rise' Fall Reduced . I -­ Remarks .
OrHPC Level
.
1.320 26.34 BenchMark
0.290 .. .. A4,
0.910 ' B4
2.170 C4
~.620 . D4
1.920 ., A3
0.830 3.010 B3
1.780 C3
2.650 . .. D3.
1.930 A2 ..
.. .. ...
2.480 •• w ••

'B2 -
0.610 3.240 C2
1.570 D2
1.840 .. Al
1.840 Bl
1.850 Cl
' . . Dl
3.320

. ~4.:-_-:...._..-_ _ _.--_ _--,

~
2
-{O·D

-+- 11 A
+-- -10.0 J
B C D
·.

] - .Figure (1) shows a direct application for level measurement between two points.
Use the method of rise & fall to determine the level for the seven points as shown.
[The mathematical check is required].

(I) 2.43

2-J;'igu~~ (2) shows a similar level problem as in figure (1).

Use the HPC method to determine the level for the various points as shown.
[The mathematical check is required].

t.96 1.80 1.65 1.36 1.76 I.:

.21
.20 .2S

A
(8.00) L M N
3- Figure (3) shows a closed traverse ABCDEFGHIJKLA. In order to determine the level of
. .

its various stations, the project engineer selects the level positions and conduct the level
process as indicated in the figure. Use the data shown to determine the level of the traverse
stations by using the rise & fall method.

4- Figure (4) shows a part of a construction project under development, internal stairs. It is
required to check the levels of the various parts to compare with the consultant drawings.
Use the data shown in the figure to determine the levels of the various points using the
HPC method.

HIS 051 O.ffi 0.61>

(17)

(18)
(19) (20)
0,77 0.76 0.18
1.19
(ll)

(IS) (14)
22 0,42 0.74 OJ5
1.32

132 132

(9) (10)

(3)
(5) (4)

Page 2/4
., ,

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Good Luck.
Page 414
5- The Figure in page 4 shows a construction project, internal stairs.
It is required to check the levels of the various parts to compare with the consultant
drawings.

- The reading 6f the point shows in the following table:

. Point Staff Reading . Point Staff Reading

BM (20.0 m) 1.45 P21 0.07 J 2.98

PI 1.75­ P22 2.09
P2 1.48 P23 1.21 .
P3 1.47/4.65 P24 1.65
P4 1.78 P25 0.83 J 4.32
P5 1.43 P26 0.27
P6 1.46/4.69 . P27 . 1.24
. P7 1.80 P28 2.45
P8 1.49­ P29 3.1 011.47
P9 1.46/4.68 P30 1.74
PlO 1.79 P31 1.44
Pll 1.46 P32 1.70/4.82
P12 1.82 P33 1.50
P13 2.95 (15 cm above BM) P34 1.48
P14 1.62 P35 1.76/4.92
PIS 1.98 P36 1.47
P16 2.12 P37 1.73
PI? 0.63 J 4.78 P38 1.75/4.96
P18 1.34 P39 1.43
P19 2.07 P40 1.73
P20 0.32 P41 1.46

Page 3/4
 - Draw to scale the contour lines ofthe following leveling net ifthe vertical
interval = 1: 1000

6,/0
~

b·lto S.rjS· ! 3.qo

..i

3X20

S.to 4'4 S' 3SS"

I ..
I
I

1 . .­

2.Q '6
I
~r----------- 3';< 25.0 .!2:l..-:..-- - ----4.,
I'