WORKBOOK FOR

PHYSICS LABORATORY
B. Tech. 1st Yr

INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

BHUBANESWAR
B. Tech. 1st Year
Session:

2020

Name:
Roll No:
Section:

School of Basic Sciences

Indian Institute of Technology Bhubaneswar
 Contents

General Guidelines III

Error analysis IV-XI

List of experiments

1. Pohl’s Pendulum 01-20

2. Coupled Pendulum 21-33

3. Fresnel’s Biprism 34-41

4. Newton’s Ring 42-49

5. Michelson’s Interferometer 50-58

6. Single Slit Diffraction 59-71

7. Diffraction Grating 72-86

8. Malus’ Law 87-96

9. Young’s Modulus 97-111

Appendix A: Schuster’s Method 112-113

Appendix B: Measurement of Least count 114-115

Grade Sheet
 General guidelines
a. Instructions to be followed during laboratory hours
Students must follow these guidelines.

i. Be present in the laboratory at least five minutes before the scheduled time and
maintain silence in the laboratory.
ii. Make sure that you have come prepared for the experiment and with all accessories
related to laboratory like lab work book, instrument box etc.
iii. Put your carry bags and shoes outside the laboratory in the respective stands.
iv. Switch off your mobile phones inside the laboratory.
v. Mark your attendance in the register.
vi. Students are not supposed to leave the laboratory before 2.5 hr after it starts. In case
of any emergency, the student has to give reason in writing.
vii. All the students will be allotted experiments in groups of two or three
members and they are advised to check their experiment name and number to
be performed before leaving the lab.
b. Instructions for performing the experiments
Students should read the following guide lines before doing the experiments.

i. Students have to come prepared for the allotted experiment with the
laboratory work book.
ii. In case they have doubts, they may clarify from laboratory in-charge or
laboratory instructor.
iii. Students are advised to get the accessories related to the experiment issued
and return the same while leaving the laboratory. The student is responsible
for any damage to the accessories issued to him/her.
iv. Start the experiment in a systematic manner and record the data in the tables
in the laboratory workbook only. No rough work will be entertained.
v. Record all the readings in pen only and get at least one reading checked from
the laboratory in-charge/instructors. If mistake is found then do not
overwrite, rather write the correct reading by the side of previous reading by
cutting it with a single line.
vi. Draw graphs wherever necessary, attach them to your report and get it signed
by the laboratory in-charge/instructors.
vii. Calculate the results, put units and finally find out the percentage of error.
viii. Ensure that you face an in-class viva, when you perform your 2nd experiment
and onwards.
c. Lab. grade structure
i. 50% weightage will be given to laboratory report submission + in-class viva.
 ii. Rest 50% (30% experiment + 20% consolidated viva) weightage will be
given to final end-semester examination.
iii. There is no mid-semester examination.

Statistical analysis of errors in the measurement of any

physical quantity.

Experimental results are always important as people use them for reference in
their own field. But an experimentalist carries out the experiment to certain
degree of precession. The measurement of any physical quantity is associated
with some error due to the purpose of the experiment, the method of doing it
and the significance of the results which cannot be completely eliminated.

Errors are classified in to two categories.

1. Systematic errors

2. Random errors

1. Systematic errors:

Systematic errors are sometimes constant throughout a set of readings. These

errors occur due to three reasons.

a) Inaccurate Instruments.
b) Apparatus that differs from some assumed forms
c) Incorrect theory, i.e. the presence of ambient effects are not taken in to
consideration while doing the experiment

a) Inaccurate Instrument:

Due to the defect in the calibration of any measuring instrument, the

observed value is slightly displaced from the actual value which may be
to the positive or negative. If the observed value is displaced to the left of
the true value then systematic error is added to the observed mean value.
Similarly, if the observed value is displaced to the right of the true value
then systematic error is subtracted to the observed mean value
b) Apparatus differ from their assumed forms:

The manufacturing defect of the apparatus, sometimes cause systematic

error which is difficult to incorporate in the correction of the result. In
measuring time with a stop watch which running late or fast is an example of
this type of error.

c) Incorrect theory convention:

This type of systematic error occurs when the experimental arrangements differ
from that assumed in theory and the correction factor which takes account of
this difference is ignored. While measuring the temperature the effect of the
exposed stem in the mercury thermometer or heat losses in the calorimeter
experiments are some of the examples of this type of error.

2) Random error:

A random error is a fluctuation in observations that yield different results each

time the experiment is repeated. It is required to repeat the experiment several
times to get precise result. Random errors are always present in the experiment
and cause successive readings to spread about the true value of the quantity
being measured. These are equally likely to be positive or negative. As shown
in the Fig-1 , if we want to find out Y by measuring X such that Y=F(X) then
we arrive at the values Y1,Y2,Y3,........Yn for the observed values
X1,X2,X3,...........Xn which spread about the true value Xt. We can take the
average of the observed values to get the value close to the true value thus
minimising the random error.

Experimental values of Y

True value of Yt

Fig-1

Experimental values of X

True value of Xt
Analysis of error:

In a set of measurements the observed value of the same quantity are obtained
as x1, x2, x3,.........xn, n being the number of measurements.

Now = .When n is very large, comparable to N, we can say

that n is a random sample taken from a distribution of N measurements. We

can plot a histogram taking spans of x and x+∆x along x axis and number of
observations having small error of ∆x occurs within that span along y axis as
shown in the Fig-2.

No. of readings with

error ∆x

Fig-2

x and x+∆x X

If we plot a fraction of N readings in each interval as a function of value of the

measurement we get a smooth curve of Gaussian shape depicted in Fig-3. We
define a function f(x) called the distribution function such that f(x) dx is the
fraction of the readings that occurs in the interval x and x+ dx. It is also the
probability that any sample observation taken at random will occur in the
interval x and x+dx.

f(x) satisfies the relation dx=1 and the mean value of the distribution
is given by ‹x›= dx where ‹x› is the true value of x.

Fig-3

f(x)dx

X=‹x›

Standard error in single observation:

The error in measurement with value x is given by

e=x-X where e is the error, X is the true value. The r.m.s. value of
e for all measurements in the distribution is given by σ and

σ²= ‹e²› = dx

If E be the error of the mean of the large number of sets of observations then

E = -X and ei =xi-X where ei is the error in each observation.

For large number of observations

E= (1/n) ∑xi- X = (1/N) ( ) = (1/N)

So E² = (1/n²) ∑ei² .The average of ∑ ei² is n‹e²›.

Hence ‹E²› = (1/N) ‹e²›.

By definition σm² =‹E²› and σ² = ‹e²› where σm is the mean standard
deviation for large number of readings.

From above we can show that

σm2 =σ²/n

Estimation of σ and σm:

As the true value of X is not known, we have to make use of .

Now we can define a term residual di =xi -

The r.m.s. value of the n residuals is given by

So s² = (1/n) ∑ di². The quantity s is called the standard deviation of the
sample. As explained earlier xi− =ei-E

So s² = (1/n) ∑ (xi- )² = (1/n)∑(ei-E)²

= (1/n) ∑ei² -2E (1/n)∑ei + E²

Taking E= (1/n)ei we get

s²= (1/n) ∑ ei² -E²= - =

So ‹s²› = σ² - σ²m = σ² - σ²/n = (( n-1)/n )σ²

Or σ = S

And σm = s where s = (1/n) ∑di and di = xi -

Thus we can estimate the standard error and mean standard error in terms of
known quantities.
Example:

From the given table calculate the standard deviation and the mean
standard deviation error and hence the best result.
No.of obs. Resistance in Residuals d in d² in ohms square
ohms ohms
1 4.615 -10 100
2 4.638 13 169
3 4.597 -28 784
4 4.634 9 81
5 4.613 -12 144
6 4.623 -2 4
7 4.659 -34 1156
8 4.623 -2 4
mean x=4.625 ∑di²=2442
s² = (1/n)∑ di² = (2442 *10 -6)/8 s = 0.017 Ω
σ= s= *0.017 = 0.019 Ω

σm = = 0.019 / √ 8 = 0.007 Ω

Thus the result of the sets of measurements can be quoted with correction factor
as ± σm
So we get R = 4.625 ± 0.007 Ω

Least square method for most probable line through the observed points:

In an experiment we measure pair of values x and y where y = f(x) .The graph

plotted between x and y in many cases gives a straight line given by the
equation y = mx + c. Due to errors all observed points may not lie on the
desired straight line. So we take the help of the least square fit method to get the
best fit line.

Suppose there are n pairs of readings ( x 1,y1), ( x2 ,y 2) ,......( xn ,yn ). Let us

assume that the errors are only with y values. For a given pair of values of m
and c the deviation of the ith reading is yi − m xi − c

The best value of m and n are taken as those for which

S = ∑ (yi − mxi – c) ² is minimum

Or ∂s/∂m= − 2m ∑ (yi – mxi − c) = 0 and

∂s/∂c =-2∑ (yi − mxi − c) =0

On solving these equations for m and c we get,

 m∑x²i + c∑x i = ∑x i yi ------- (1) and

m∑ xi + cn =∑ yi --------------- (2)

From the second equation it is seen that best fit line passes through the centre of
gravity of the observed pairs of points so that

= (1/n) ∑ xi , and = (1/n)∑ yi .

From equations 1 and 2, it can be shown that

m= (∑ (xi − ) ˟ yi )/ (∑ xi – )2) and c= −m

When the best value of m and c are inserted we get the best fit line. The
deviation of any point from the standard line is called the residuals d.

Where di = yi − mxi –c

The standard deviation in m and c is given by,

(∆m)² = (1/D)∑ di / (n-2) and ( ∆c)² =( (1/n)+( )²/D) ∑di² /(n2)

Where D = ∑ (xi− )².

If the straight line passes through the origin then C= 0 and we get,

m= ∑xi yi / ∑xi² and (∆m) ² = (1/∑xi) ∑di²/ (n-1).

Significant figures and round off:

The precision of an experimental result is implied by the way in which the result
is written; through it should generally be quoted specifically as well. To indicate
the precession, we write a number with as many digits as are significant. The
number of significant figures in a result is defined as follows:

1. The leftmost nonzero digit is the most significant digit.

2. If there is no decimal point, the rightmost nonzero digit is the least
significant digit.
3. If there is a decimal point, the rightmost digit is the least significant digit,
even if it is a zero.
 4. All digits between the least and most significant digits are counted as
significant digits.

For example, the following numbers each have four significant digits: 1,234;
123,400; 123.4; 1,001, 1,000, 10.10, 0.0001010, 100.0. If there is no decimal
point, there are ambiguities when the rightmost digit is a zero. For example, the
number 1,010 is considered to have only three significant digits even through
the last digit might be physically significant. To avoid this ambiguity, it is better
to supply decimal points or write such numbers in exponent form as an
argument in decimal notation times the appropriate power of 10. Thus, our
example of 1,010 would be written as 1,010 or 1.010 ˟ 103 if all four digits are
significant.

When quoting the result of an experiment, the number of significant

figures given should be approximately one more than that dictated by the
experimental precision. The reason for including the extra digit is that in
computation one significant figure is sometimes lost. Errors introduced by
insufficient precession in calculation are classified as illegitimate error. If an
extra digit is specified for all numbers used on computation, the original
precision will be retained to a greater extent. For example, in the experiment if
the absolute precision of the result is 10mm, the third figure is known with an
uncertainty of ±1 and the fourth figure is not really known at all. We will be
barely justified in specifying four figures for computation. If the precision is
2mm, the third digit is known quite well and the fourth figure is known
approximately. We are justified in quoting four figures, but probably not
justified in quoting five figures since we cannot even have much confidence in
the value of the fourth figure.

When insignificant digits are dropped from a number, the last digit
retained should be rounded off for the best accuracy. To round off a number to a
smaller number of significant digits that are specified originally, truncate the
number to the desired number of significant digits and treat the excess digits as
a decimal fraction.

Then

1. If the fraction is greater that ½, increase the least significant digit.

2. If the fraction is lesser that ½, do not increase.
3. If the fraction equals ½, increase the least significant digit only if it is
odd.
In this manner, the value of the final result is always within half the least
significant digit of the original number. The reason for rule-3 is that in many
cases the fraction equals either 0 or ½ and consistently increasing the least
significant digit for a fraction of ½ would lead to a systematic error. For
example, 1.235 and 1.245 both become 1.24 when rounded off to three
significant figures, but 1.2451 becomes 1.25.
 Pohl’s Pendulum
Date of experiment: Partner’s name:
Date of Lab. report submission:

Aim of the Experiment

To determine the damping constant of the pendulum for different
eddy damping currents.
Apparatus Required

(i) Pohl’s pendulum set up with power supply

(ii) Bridge rectifier
(iii) Stop watch
(iv) Multimeter & connecting wire

Fig-1: Experimental Setup

Theory
Pohl’s pendulum is a torsional pendulum which swings back and forth under the
action of an external force. The complete experimental set up is shown in Fig-1.
When a system oscillates, the amplitude of oscillation decreases with time due
to natural damping (when no other force is acting on the pendulum). To keep
the pendulum in oscillation mode and maintain the amplitude of the oscillation
at a particular value ϕ, energy should be pumped into the system from the
external source.

A. Underdamped Oscillation

In a torsional pendulum the restoring torque, M 1, and the damping torque

(resistance), M2 are given by,

M1= -Dϕ and M2= -Cϕ

Where ϕ= angle of rotation due to the external force imparted on the

pendulum.

D= torque per unit angle

C= proportionality factor depending on the strength of current which

initiates eddy current. This results in the following equation of motion,

+C +Dϕ =0..................................................... (1)

where, I= moment of inertia of the pendulum about the axis of rotation

and = angular acceleration.

Dividing eqn (1) by I we obtain,

+2𝛽 +ω02 ϕ =0........................................................ (2)

where β= and ω02= .

 β is named as the damping constant and ω0 is the natural frequency of
the undamped system.

I f the pendulum is rotated to one side and released from rest at t=0, such

that ϕ= and =0 at t=0, then the solution of the equation (2) is

ϕ(t) =ϕ0e-βt cos(ωt+δ).............................................................................(3)

ϕ0= and δ=tan-1(- ) with ω= ≥0

This shows that the amplitude of underdamped oscillations decreases

exponentially with time.

The constant λ is obtained from the log of the ratio of the successive
amplitudes, which is expressed mathematically as,

λ = ln ( ) = βT

We have =

So λ = ln eβT = βT, where T = 2π/ω is the time period.

ϕ (t) ϕ0 exp(-βt)

ϕ1

ϕ2

ϕ3
 t

Fig-2: Underdamped oscillation.

Case -1

For ω02 = β2, the pendulum returns to its initial position in minimum
time without oscillation. This is the condition for critically damped oscillation

Case-2

For ω02 <β2, the pendulum returns to its initial position asymptotically.
This is called the condition of creeping or over damped oscillation.

B. Forced oscillation

For forced oscillation an external torque Ma = M0 Cos ωa t, is applied to

the pendulum. Thus we get the new equation of motion as,

+ 2β + ω02ϕ = F0 Cos ωat ----------------------------------- (4)

Where F0 =

The steady state solution of this differential equation gives

ϕ(t) = ϕa Cos (ωa – α) ---------------------------------------------(5)

Where ϕa = ---------------------------- (6)

and tan α = ---------------------------------------------(7)

Looking at Eq. 6 we observe that,

 (i) When F0 increases ϕa also increases.
(ii) For a fixed value of F0, ϕa has a peak value and the corresponding

frequency is the resonance frequency given by ωres =

= .

(iii) The greater the value of β, the smaller is ϕa.

Fig-3: Electrical connections of the set up

Procedure

Underdamped Oscillation

(i) Deflect the pointer of the pendulum to one side (bring the pointer
to 19 of the circular scale) taking care that the pendulum does not
cross the wire. Then let it free and set the pendulum for oscillation.
Take three independent observations for 20 oscillations. Find the
time period of oscillation from the average.
 (ii) Measure successive unidirectional amplitudes (on the other side of
initial deflection) of oscillation after every time interval T (i.e. ϕ 1 at
t1 ,ϕ2 at t2.............φ10 at t10).

(iii) Now connect the system to power source. Set the current value to
i1. Find out the time period according to the procedure described in
(i). Then repeat (ii) for i=i1.Note the corresponding voltage.

(iv) Repeat the procedure given in (i), (ii),(iii) for i=i2, i=i3 with the
same initial deflection to minimize errors in the measurements of
amplitudes. Note the corresponding voltage for i=i2 & i=i3.

(v) Successive unidirectional amplitudes as a function of time for

different damping currents are plotted in a semi log graph paper
(time on the normal axis and amplitude on log axis). For a fixed
damping plot should be a straight line. From the slopes of the plots,
damping resistance, β can be estimated for various damping.

Forced Oscillation

(i) Switch on the motor and keep the coarse and fine knob of the
motor at low and medium position respectively. Keep the damping
voltage at 2v.

(ii) The forcing frequency of the motor ω a can be found out by

counting the number of turns the disc makes per unit time with a
stop watch.

(iii) Slowly increase the frequency of the motor and measure the
amplitude of the pendulum when it is stabilised. The frequency of
the motor is increased in small steps turning the fine knob.

(iv) The maximum amplitude or the resonance is attained and the

resonance frequency ωa = ωres is measured.
 (v) For small value of damping, care must be taken such that the
forcing frequency should not exceed certain limit and the
pendulum does not cross the scale at resonance.

(vi) The experiment is repeated for different values of damping current.

Plot separate graph between the forcing frequency and the
amplitude for different value of damping current.

(vii) Find the resonance frequency from the graph and compare it with
the result that obtained theoretically.

Observations

Table-1: Time period for i=0 (when the set up is not connected.)

Sl. No. Time for 20 oscillations in sec Time Period (T)

T= (t1+ t2+ t3)/60 in sec

1 t1=

2 t2=

3 t3=

Table-2: Amplitude for i=0 (when the set up is not connected.)

Time Amplitude ϕavg = (ϕia+ϕib)/2

a b
i=1 to 10

t1=T/2 ϕ1a ϕ1b ϕ1 = (ϕ1a+ϕ1b)/2

t2=3T/2 ϕ2a ϕ2b ϕ2 = (ϕ2a+ϕ2b)/2

. ϕ3a ϕ3b ϕ3 = (ϕ3a+ϕ3b)/2

 . . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

t10=19T/2 ϕ10a ϕ10b ϕ10 = (ϕ10a+ϕ10b)/2

Table-3: Time period for i=0.2 amp.

Sl. No. Time for 20 oscillations in sec Time Period (T)

T= (t1+ t2+ t3)/60 in sec

1 t1=

2 t2=

3 t3=

Table-4: Amplitude for i=0.2 amp

Time Amplitude ϕavg = (ϕia+ϕib)/2

a b
i=1 to 10

t1=T/2 ϕ1a ϕ1b ϕ1 = (ϕ1a+ϕ1b)/2

t2=3T/2 ϕ2a ϕ2b ϕ2 = (ϕ2a+ϕ2b)/2

. ϕ3a ϕ3b ϕ3 = (ϕ3a+ϕ3b)/2

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .
 . . . .

t10=19T/2 ϕ10a ϕ10b ϕ10 = (ϕ10a+ϕ10b)/2

Table-5: Time period for i=0.4 amp.

Sl. No. Time for 20 oscillations in sec Time Period (T)

T= (t1+ t2+ t3)/60 in sec

1 t1=

2 t2=

3 t3=

Table-6: Amplitude for i=0.4 amp.

Time Amplitude ϕavg = (ϕia+ϕib)/2

a b
i=1 to 10

t1=T/2 ϕ1a ϕ1b ϕ1 = (ϕ1a+ϕ1b)/2

t2=3T/2 ϕ2a ϕ2b ϕ2 = (ϕ2a+ϕ2b)/2

. ϕ3a ϕ3b ϕ3 = (ϕ3a+ϕ3b)/2

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

t10=19T/2 ϕ10a ϕ10b ϕ10 = (ϕ10a+ϕ10b)/2

Table-7: Time period for i=0.6amp

Sl. No. Time for 20 oscillations in sec Time Period (T)

T= (t1+ t2+ t3)/60 in sec

1 t1=

2 t2=

3 t3=

Table-8: Amplitude for i=0.6amp

Time Amplitude ϕavg = (ϕia+ϕib)/2

a b
i=1 to 10

t1=T/2 ϕ1a ϕ1b ϕ1 = (ϕ1a+ϕ1b)/2

t2=3T/2 ϕ2a ϕ2b ϕ2 = (ϕ2a+ϕ2b)/2

. ϕ3a ϕ3b ϕ3 = (ϕ3a+ϕ3b)/2

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

t10=19T/2 ϕ10a ϕ10b ϕ10 = (ϕ10a+ϕ10b)/2

Table-9: Estimation of damping constant and resistance for different damping

currents.
 Damping Avg. Time period T Damping Ωres=
Current ln ( ) Logarithmic sec) 2π/ω constant
decrement
λ β=

Table-10: Plot of frequency vs amplitude under forced oscillation

Sl. No Damping Time period in sec Frequency Amplitude

Current(A) (sec-1)

T1 T2 Tavg ϕ1 ϕ1 ϕ1 ϕavg
 Table-11: Plot of frequency vs amplitude under forced oscillation

Sl. No Damping Time period in sec Frequency Amplitude

Current(A) (sec-1)

T1 T2 Tavg ϕ1 ϕ1 ϕ1 ϕavg
 Table-12: Plot of frequency vs amplitude under forced oscillation

Sl. No Damping Time period in sec Frequency Amplitude

Current(A) (sec-1)

T1 T2 Tavg ϕ1 ϕ1 ϕ1 ϕavg
 Table-13: Plot of frequency vs amplitude under forced oscillation

Sl. No Damping Time period in sec Frequency Amplitude

Current(A) (sec-1)

T1 T2 Tavg ϕ1 ϕ1 ϕ1 ϕavg
 Table-14: Calculation of natural frequency

Damping Logarithmic Damping Resonance frequency(Hz) Resonance Natural

Current decrement const. Observed Estimated amplitude frequency from
λ Β(Hz) ϕres damped osci.
(Hz)

Conclusions

1. Analyse the results and depict the interesting conclusion from the

experiment.
2. Give any suggestions so that it can be incorporated to make the

experiment simpler or more applicable practically.

Precautions
 (i) While giving oscillation one should not give much pressure to the
pulley.
(ii) Do not disturb the spring while doing experiment.
(iii) While noting down the amplitudes during oscillations one should
be very careful to avoid mistakes.
(iv) Do not keep the pendulum in resonance condition without damping
or with a very low damping for a long time.
(v) Observations should be taken after the pendulum gets stabilized.

References

1. The Physics vibrations and waves, H.J. Pain.

Considerations
(i) What is the difference between simple pendulum and torsional
pendulum? Is Pohl’s pendulum a simple or a torsional one? Justify
your answer.
(ii) Explain the terms under-damped, critically damped and over-
damped oscillation.
(iii) What is forced oscillation and resonance. How resonance does occur?
(iv) What is logarithmic decrement factor? How is this related to nature of
damping?

Calculation
Conclusion
Graphs

Coupled Pendulum
Date of experiment: Partner’s name:
Date of Lab. report submission:

Aim of the Experiment

To determine the resonance and beat time period of a coupled
pendulum.
Apparatus Required

(i) Coupled pendulum set up (connected to computer and printer).

(ii)Stop watch.
 Fig-1: Experimental set up

Theory

The experimental set up is shown in Fig-1. It comprises of a coupled pendulum

having two identical pendula each with a rod of length ‘l’ supporting a mass
‘m’ coupled by a presumably massless spring of stiffness ‘k’. A schematic
representation of the set up is shown in fig-2.
 Fig-2: Schematic diagram

Here, the length of the spring is the separation between the two pendulums at
zero displacement as shown in Fig-2.
If x and y are the respective displacements of the two masses, then the equation
of motion for the coupled pendulum becomes

m =-mg - k(x-y) and m =-mg - k (y-x)............................... (1)

Writing the natural frequency of each pendulum as ω02 = , we have

+ω02x= - (x-y) and + ω02y= - (y-x)................................... (2)

Adding Eqns. (1) and (2) we get,

+ + ω02(x+y) =0........................................................................ (3)

And subtracting Eqn. (2) from Eqn. (1) we get,

- + ω02(x-y) + (x-y) =0............................................................. (4)

Substituting X= x+y and Y=x-y in (3) & (4) respectively, we obtain the
following equations

+ ω02X =0................................. (5).

+ ( ω02+ ) Y=0...................................(6)

The Eqns. (5) and (6) are the equations of simple harmonic motion with natural

angular frequencies ω0 and ω1= respectively.

Case-I (In-Phase mode)

When x=y and Y=0, then Eqn. 5 is valid. This case is equivalent to the
uncoupled case. The spring is unstressed and uncompressed when the coupled
pendulum is in phase. In this case, the two pendulums oscillate in the same
direction with equal amplitudes.
 Fig-3: In phase mode

Case-II (Out of Phase mode)

When x= - y and X=0 Eqn. 6 is valid to represent the oscillation of the

pendulum. The frequency of oscillation is greater than the natural frequency of
the independent pendulum as the spring is either compressed or stretched. In
this case, one pendulum oscillates in just the opposite direction to that of the
other and this is called as out of phase mode of oscillation.

Fig-4: Out of Phase mode

Case-III (Resonance)

When the natural frequency of any system matches with the frequency of the
force applied, resonance occurs. In case of resonance, x=2a or y= -2a.
 Fig-5: Resonance/Beat mode

So, the general solution for Eqn. 5 and 6 are the following:
X= x+y = X0 cos (ω0t+ϕ1)
Y= x-y = Y0 cos (ω1t+ϕ2)

Where = + . For resonance we choose amplitude X0 =Y0=2a and

phase ϕ1= ϕ2 =0, the displacement of right pendulum is given by:

x = (X+Y) = a cos ω0t + a cos ω1t

=2a cos cos

Similarly the displacement of left pendulum is

y= X-Y = a cos (ω0t) - a cos (ω1t)

=2a sin sin

The displacement given to one of the pendulum as, x=2a, y=0 at t=0
executes a motion which is a combination of ‘in-phase’ and ‘out of phase’ in
equal proportion. Energy of one pendulum (oscillator) gets transformed to the
other as they oscillate. When W1=W2; (where W1 and W2 are the weights of the

two pendulums) and is an integer, complete energy exchange occurs and

the two pendulums exhibit successive stops and maximum displacement. The
pendulum which stops has zero energy and the other one is in maximum energy
state.
 Since in phase and out of phase modes are combined, the plot we get is a

result of two frequencies, one with a high frequency ω c= (resonance

frequency) and other with a lower frequency. The second one with a lower
frequency occurs at half of the normal mode frequency difference whose value

is and the phenomenon called as beat. This occurs when ω 1 ω2. The

amplitude of oscillation varies with this frequency and we get the envelope
pattern as shown in the Fig-6.

Fig-6: Envelope pattern amplitude vs frequency.

Thus, we have T0= (In phase time period)

T1= (Out of phase time period)

T c= = (Time period for coupled case or resonance time

period)
 Tb= = (Time period for beat)

The degree of coupling is χ= =

Procedure
(i) Uncouple the pendulums.

(ii) Take three independent observations of each pendulum (50

oscillations each).

(iii) Calculate the time period for one oscillation taking the average over
the three oscillations. This is the time period in the uncoupled case.

(iv) Now couple the two pendulums with the given spring.

(v) Impel both the pendulums to the same extent in same direction and
calculate the time period of the oscillation (called in-phase time
period T0) by taking three independent readings each for 50
oscillations.

(vi) Impel the two pendulums to the same extent but in opposite direction.
Calculate the time period of oscillation by taking three independent
readings each for 50 oscillations (called the out of phase time period
T1).

(vii) Impel one of the pendulums to some extent keeping the other one
fixed. This is called as “resonance mode”. Both the pendulums
resonate with total energy E where E=E 1+E2. The value of E1 and E2
varies from zero to E.
 (viii) When Ei =0(i = 1 or 2), it constitutes a stop of the pendulum. Observe
the time period for five consecutive stops of a particular pendulum.
Calculate the time period averaged over three independent
observations. This is called beat time period.

(ix) When the coupled pendulum oscillates in the resonance mode, observe
individual pendulums. Take three readings of time for five oscillations
of each pendulum. Calculate the time period by averaging over the
total numbers & number of oscillations. This is called the resonance
time period.

(x) Now compare the values Tmeasured, Tcomputational and Tcalculated and calculate
the percentages of error Where Tmeasured is the T value measured
directly. Tcalculated is the ‘T’ value calculated from the equation.
Tcomputational is the ‘T’ value measured from the computer printed graph.

Observations
Table-1: Resonance and beat time period.

UNCOUPLED COUPLED

Time for 20 Average IN-PHASE OUT OF PHASE BEAT RESONANCE

oscillations T Time for 20 Time for 20 Oscillations Time for 5 stops in secs Time for 5 Oscillations in
Oscillations secs

t1= Avg. T= t1= Avg. t1= Avg. T1= t1= Avg. Tb= t1= Tc=
T0=
CTb=Beat (Resonance
Time
Time period)
period
t2= t2= t2= t2= t2=

t3= t3= t3= t3= t3=

Conclusions

Conclusion should incorporate

(i) Interesting results you found in the experiment.

(ii) Lacunas /difficulties that you encountered.
(iii) Practical applications/implications of the experiment.
(iv) Any other issues.

Precautions

(i) The independent pendulums should be adjusted first with the help
of moving masses to have approximately equal oscillation time
periods.
 (ii) Amplitude of oscillations should be kept small i.e. the angular
amplitude should be kept below 100.
(iii) Time should be noted for large number of oscillations.

(iv) Spring should be kept at its natural length. It should not be too
loose otherwise sag will be produced in the string.
References

1. The Physics of vibrations and waves, H.J. Pain.

Considerations

(i) What is simple harmonic motion and a simple pendulum? Find

out the time period of a simple pendulum.
(ii) What is coupled pendulum and define its spring constant.
(iii) What are normal modes of vibration and resonance?
(iv) What is beat and beat time period?
(v) How many normal modes are there and what are they?

Calculation
Conclusion
Graph
 FRESNEL’S BIPRISM
Date of experiment: Partner’s name:
Date of Lab. report submission:

Aim of the experiment

To determine the wave length of the given source using Fresnel’s
biprism.
Apparatus Required
(i) Fresnel’s biprism set up
(ii) Optical bench
(iii) LASER source
(iv) White screen with stand
 (v) Two lenses with focal length 20 mm & 300 mm
(vi) Measuring tape

Fig-1: Experimental setup

Theory
A biprism consists of two acute angled prisms placed base to base. The
experimental set up and the schematic diagram of a typical biprism is shown in
Fig-1 and Fig-2 respectively. A biprism acts as a single prism with an obtuse
angle 1790 and two equal acute angles of 30ꞌ each. When light falls on the lower
part of the biprism it bends upward and appears as if it has come from the
virtual source B. Similarly when light fall on the upper part of the biprism, it
bends down ward and appears as if it has come from the virtual source A. Thus
A and B act as two coherent virtual sources and we get interference fringes of
equal width at the screen between E and F.
 Fig-2: Schematic diagram

From the theory of interference of light we have,

Where β is the width of the bright or the dark fringe

λ is the wave length of the light used
D is the distance of the screen from the source
d is the distance between the two virtual sources
To measure d, a lens of focal length 300 mm is placed between the biprism and
the screen such that the real images of the two virtual sources are formed on the
screen and the distance between these real images ‘b’ is measured.

From basic optics we know that = or =

where u1 is the distance of the virtual source from the lens and v 1 is the distance
of the screen from the lens. The value of u1 is found out by applying the lens
formula
 u1=

So we obtain d= .

Thus obtaining the values of d, β and D the value of λ can be determined by

the formula λ= .

Procedure
(i) Place the source and the lenses of focal length 20mm at appropriate
positions on the optical bench.
(ii) Place the biprism on the prism table and adjust it such that the
light from the source falls exactly on the centre of the biprism.
Place the screen with a ruler paper fixed on it at an approximate
distance of 2 m from the source.
(iii) The screen should be perpendicular to the optical bench. Adjust the
prism by rotating it slightly so that a number of parallel fringes of
equal width are formed on the screen.
(iv) Measure the width of 10 consecutive bright fringes.
(v) Place the lens of focal length 300 mm on the optical bench. Adjust
the position of the lens such that the two real images of the virtual
sources are formed on the screen.
(vi) Measure the distance b between the two images of the two virtual
sources with the help of a scale.
(vii) Repeat these observations for 4 to 5 times for different positions of
the screen.
Observations
Table-1: Position of various optical components

Source Lens L1 Biprism Lens L2 Screen

Position (cm) (cm) (cm) (cm)
(cm)

Table-2: Measurement of fringe width

Width of 10 Fringe width (β) Mean fringe width

fringes (cm) (cm) (β) (cm)

Table-3: Measurement of the separation of the virtual sources

Object to lens Image to lens Separation between Separation between the

distance (u1) distance (v1) (cm) the real images (b) virtual images
(cm) (cm)
d= (cm)
Conclusions

Conclusion should incorporate

(v) Interesting results you found in the experiment.

(vi) Lacunas /difficulties that you encountered.
(vii) Practical applications/implications of the experiment.
(viii) Any other issues.

Precautions
(i) One should not look directly into LASER light because it may
damage the eye.
(ii) The optical bench should be levelled properly.
(iii) The refracting edge should be normal to the direction of the light.
(iv) The width of the fringe should be accurately measured.
(v) As many fringes as possible should be taken to find out the mean
fringe width β.

References

1. Fundamentals of optics by F. Jenkins and H. White.

2. Optics by A. Ghatak.
3. Introduction to Optics by E. Hecht
4. Feynman Lectures.

Considerations

(i) What is interference of light and what are the different ways in
which light interferes?
 (ii) What is wave theory of light?
(iii) Is the Fresnel’s biprism experiment better than Young’s double slit
experiment? Justify your answer.
(iv) What are coherent sources and how coherent sources are realized
in biprism experiment?
(v) What will happen if we increase the focal length of the lens?

Calculations
Conclusion
 Newton’s Ring
Date of experiment: Partner’s name:
Date of Lab. report submission:

Aim of the Experiment

To study the interference pattern and determine the radius of curvature of the
planoconvex lens using Newton’s rings apparatus.

Apparatus Required
(i) Source of light (Hg lamp)
(ii) Newton’s ring apparatus
 (iii) Power supply for Hg CS/50 W lamp
(iv) Interference filters (Green & yellow)
(v) Mounted lens & Screen

Figure-1: Experimental set up for Newton’s ring.

Theory:
In Newton’s rings experiment, a parallel beam of monochromatic light is
incident normally on a combination of a planoconvex lens L and a glass plate G
as shown in Fig.1. A part of each incident ray is reflected from the lower
surface of the lens. The other part after refracting through the air film between
the lens and the glass plate is reflected back from the glass plate. These two
reflected rays from coherent sources of light. As a result, they interfere and
produce a system of alternate dark and bright rings with the point of contact
between the lens and the plate as the centre. These rings are known as Newton’s
rings. Looking at the diagram we can write,
rm2 = R2 – (R –t )2 or 2t = rm2 / R When 2Rt >> t2 or 2R >> t
 Where rm is the radius of the mth bright fringe,
R is the radius of the curvature of the planoconvex lens,
t is the thickness of the air film .
For bright fringes 2tμ cosθ = mλ
Where µ= refractive index of the medium
θ= refraction angle
𝛌=wavelength of the monochromatic source
m= order of the fringe
As we know, μ=1 for air and θ to be very small, we have
2t =mλ or rm2 / R = mλ
From this relationship one can obtain the wavelength of light if the radius of
curvature of the plano-convex lens is known.
From the above expression we can write Dm2 =4rm2 = 4Rmλ.
If Dn is the diameter of the (n)th bright ring then D2n=4Rn𝛌 .
So we can write,

for n>m

From this the value of “R” the radius of curvature of the planoconvex lens can
be determined.
 Figure-2: Schematic diagram of Newton’s ring.

Procedure:
(i) All the requisite apparatuses including the mercury spectral lamp is
mounted on the optical bench.
(ii) Switch on the universal choke of the power supply and wait for the
warm-up for a few minutes.

(iii) Adjust the position of lens and Newton’s ring apparatus to obtain
coloured rings on the screen.

(iv) Clamp the green filter in the object holder.

(v) Measure the diameter of mth and nth ring on the screen.
 (vi) Repeat the measurement with blue colour filter.

(vii)Plot a graph between radii of the ring as a function of order number for
various wavelengths.

Observation:
Table-1

Sl. No. Colour of the Diameter of mth Diameter of Dn2 – Dm2 R (m)
filter & its ring (Dm) nth ring (Dn)
wavelength

1 YELLOW
(578 nm)
2

Table-2

Sl. No. Colour of the Diameter of mth Diameter of Dn2 – Dm2 R (m)
filter & its ring (Dm) nth ring (Dn)
wavelength

1 GREEN
(546 nm)
2

Table-3
Sl. No. Radius of ring Green Yellow

1 r1
2 r2
3 r3
4 r4
5 r5
6 r6
7 r7
8 r8
9 r9
10 r10

Calculation:
Wave length of the filter = _______ nm

For example, we will select 25th and 20th rings from the pattern then the formula
for calculating radius of curvature will be

R=

Conclusion:

Conclusion should incorporate

(ix) Interesting results you found in the experiment.

(x) Lacunas /difficulties that you encountered.
(xi) Practical applications/implications of the experiment.
(xii) Any other issues.
Precautions

(i) One should carefully handle the Newton’s ring set up while moving
the mounted screws.

References

1. Fundamentals of optics by F. Jenkins and H. White.

2. Optics by A. Ghatak.
3. Introduction to Optics by E. Hecht
4. Feynman Lectures.

Considerations

(i) What is interference of light and what are the different ways in
which light interferes?
(ii) How interference takes place in case of a Newton’s ring?
(iii) Why the fringe pattern obtained from Newton’s ring is circular and
can it be straight?

Calculation
Conclusion
Michelson’s Interferometer
Date of experiment: Partner’s name:
Date of Lab. report submission:

Aim of the Experiment

To determine the wavelength of the given source using the

phenomenon of interference based on division of amplitude.

Apparatus Required
(i) Michelson’s interferometer set up.
(ii) Light source (He-Ne Laser 1.0 mW, 220 V AC)
(iii) Lens mounted, f=20 mm with holder
(iv) Optical bench and Screen

Fig-1: Experimental Set-up

Theory
When two coherent sources of light interfere with each other we get an
interference pattern. As a result of this a new wave is generated with
modification in the distribution of intensity through superposition. Two sources
are said to be coherent if there exists a constant phase relationship in between
the two sources. The interference pattern is produced in terms of point of
maximum intensity (maxima) and minimum intensity (minima). In case of
Michelson’s interferometer interference takes place by division of amplitude.
The complete experimental set up for Michelson’s interferometer is shown in
Fig-1.

Fig-2: Schematic diagram

The schematic diagram is illustrated in Fig-2. Basically the set up consists of

lens L, a half silvered glass plate, two mirrors M 1 and M2 with the detector.
Light from a monochromatic laser source after passing through the lens L falls
on the half silvered glass plate called as beam splitter, which is inclined at an
angle 450 to the path of light. Light falling on it is partly reflected towards
mirror M1 and partly transmitted towards M2.The beam going towards M1 is
reflected back normally and is transmitted through the glass plate to fall on the
detector. Similarly the light got transmitted through the glass plate is reflected
back by the mirror M2 and again strikes on glass plate to get reflected and reach
the detector. The mirrors M1 and M2 are adjusted to get circular fringes as
shown in Fig-4. The mirror M2 is kept fixed and the mirror M1 is moved by the
micrometer screw attached to it. The number of circular fringes crossed the field
of view is counted and the corresponding distance moved on linear scale is
noted.
If λ= Wavelength of the laser source of light.
x = the distance through which the micrometer screw moved

n = No of fringes that crossed the centre of the field of view or the no of

fringes that collapse in the centre. Then

Fig-3: Schematic diagram

As shown in the Fig-3 M2' is the image of the mirror M 2 on the glass plate and
S1, S2 are the images of the S' on the same glass plate. We have replaced the real
source S by its image S'. Here P, P' and P'' are three points on S', S 1 and S2
respectively. If the separation between M1 and M2' is d then the separation
between S1 and S2 is 2d. These two images of the sources serve as two virtual
coherent sources. The rays coming from these sources S1and S2 and making an
angle θ with the central line interfere with each other with a path difference
2dCosθ. Depending on the value of the path difference a particular fringe will
be dark or bright.

For 2dCos θ = n λ, we get a maxima and for 2d Cos θ= (2n +1) λ/2, we
get a minima where n is the order of the bright or dark fringes and λ is the wave
length of the light used.

By moving the mirror M2 through a distance x and counting the number of

bright fringes m that merge at the centre of the circular fringe pattern, the
value of the wave length can be calculated .

We have 2dCos θ = n λ --------------------------------- (1)

After moving the mirror through x,
2(d+x) Cosθ = (n+m) λ------------------------ (2)
Subtracting eqn (1) from eqn (2) we got,
2xCosθ =m λ ------------------------------------ (3)
For all the rays passing through the centre, θ = 0.
So eqn (3) becomes as, 2x =m λ
Or λ= 2x/m
In the present set up the actual distance moved by the mirror is 1/10th of the
distance moved by the micrometer screw head. So λ=2x/10m. From this the
value of λ can be calculated.

Fig-4: Interference Pattern obtained from Michelson’s Interferometer

 Procedure

(i) Mount the laser source and switch it on for some time so that the
output light gets stabilized. Adjust the lens on the optical bench
and focus the laser light on the half-silvered mirror.
(ii) The resulting two beams of light are reflected by the two mirrors
and impinge on the screen. With the help of the adjusting screws
provided move the positions of the two images and make them
interfere to give circular fringes.
(iii) Now turn the micrometer screw to any initial position at which the
centre of the circles is dark and note down the reading. Again turn
the micrometer in the same direction and the no of fringes crossed
the centre of the field of view is counted.
(iv) The distance travelled on the micrometer scale is noted and from
this the value of d is calculated by dividing 10 to the fringe width.
(v) Finally calculate the wavelength of the source using the given
formula.
Observations

Table-1: Measurement of‘x’ for 50 fringes:

Sl. I.C.S.R No of Complete Pitch L.C. P.S.R Circular scale Total x=F/10
No. rotation(n) F.C.S.R reading
I A=Pitch*n Path diff.
F B=(I-F)*L.C.
A+B=F

4
5

10

Where I.C.S.R = Initial circular scale reading

F.C.S.R. = Final circular scale reading
Results and calculations
Calculation of Least count
Here 1 M.S.D. = 1mm = 2 rotations of circular scale
1 rotation of circular scale = 0.5mm = 50 divisions
So 1 division of circular scale = 0.01mm = L.C.
The wave length of the laser light is calculated using the formula,

Conclusions
Conclusion should incorporate
a. Interesting results you found in the experiment.
b. Lacunas /difficulties that you encountered.
c. Practical applications/implications of the experiment.
d. Any other issues.

Precautions
 (ii) One should not look directly to LASER light because it may
damage the eye.
(iii) One should carefully handle the interferorometer because slight
disturbance may disturb the fringe obtained.
(iv) After finishing the experiment the interferorometer should covered
properly.
References
1. Fundamentals of optics by F. Jenkins and H. White.
2. Optics by A. Ghatak.
3. Introduction to Optics by E. Hecht
4. Feynman Lectures.
Considerations
(iv) What is interference of light and what are the different ways in
which light interferes?
(v) What is an interferometer and what is the history of Michelson’s
interferometer?
(vi) Name different types of interferometers and their applications?
Calculation
Conclusion
Single Slit Diffraction
Date of experiment: Partner’s name:
Date of Lab. report submission:

Aim of the Experiment

To study the intensity distribution of Fraunhofer diffraction pattern

by a single slit and measure the width of the slit for a given wavelength of laser
light.

Apparatus Required

(i) Optical Bench.

(ii) Laser Light Source (He-Ne 1mW).
(iii) Focusing lenses and adjustable slit.
(iv) Photometer (Optical base plate) & Screen
(v) Digital Multi-meter with connecting wires.

Fig-1: Experimental setup

Theory
When a beam of monochromatic light passes close to the edge of opaque
obstacles or narrow slits it suffers deviation from its straight line path. This
phenomenon becomes more interesting when the dimension of the slit or
aperture is comparable to the wavelength of incident light. For such case, light
not only bends towards the region of geometrical shadow but also shows non-
uniform illumination outside the geometrical shadow with alternate variation of
intensity. This is called as diffraction of light. There are two types of diffraction
namely Fraunhofer type and Fresnel type. If the source of light and the screen
are effectively at infinite distances from the slit, the diffraction is called as
Fraunhofer diffraction which is usually achieved by the use of combination of
convex lenses. Fig-1 depicts the general experimental set up for single slit
diffraction.

Light

Fig-2: Schematic Diagram

Consider a beam of monochromatic light of wavelength ‘λ’ falls on the

narrow vertical slit MN of width ‘b’ normally as shown in Fig-2 so that a
number of alternate bright and dark fringes on both sides of central maximum
are observed. The resultant intensity of the transmitted light can be expressed as

where β =

Where, θ = angle of diffraction.

 Fig-3: Typical intensity distribution of diffraction Pattern

The diffraction pattern consists of a principal maximum for β = 0, where all

secondary wavelets arrive in phase, and several secondary maxima of
diminishing intensity with equally spaced points of zero intensity at β = mπ.
The positions of minima of a single slit diffraction pattern are,

m λ = b sin θ, m = ±1, ±2, ±3,......

If θ is small i.e. the slit to screen distance D is large compared to the distance xm
between two minima (on either side of mth order maximum), then

θm-1 = , θm+1 =

Now b θm-1= b = (m-1) λ for (m-1)th minima.--------------------(1)

b θm+1= b = (m+1) λ for (m+1)th minima.------------------------(2)

Now subtracting eqn(2) from eqn(1) we got,

 b = 2λ or λ=b

From the above formula width of the slit ‘b’ is calculated.

Procedure

(i) Mount the laser source and the screen on the opposite sides of the
optical bench. Connect the laser to input A.C. signal.
(ii) Put the slit perpendicular to the beam of light mounted on a vertical
stand in between the laser source and screen so that light coming from
the laser passes through it and falls on the screen.
(iii) To obtain a parallel beam of light from the laser source, place the
convex lenses (f= 20mm and f=100mm) in between the laser source and
slit. Adjust the height and positions of the convex lenses from the laser
and the slit so that bright and distinct fringes are obtained on the screen.
(iv) Remove the screen and place the photometer in this position so that
the fringes will fall on its surface. Connect the photometer to digital
multi-meter.
(v) Measure the vernier constants of the micrometer scale attached to
the photometer.
(vi) Two or three secondary maxima should be obtained on either side
of the central maximum on the photometer. Turn the circular scale
attached at the base of the cell in equal intervals and note the intensity of
the fringes using multi-meter, scanning the whole diffraction pattern
starting either from left end of the pattern to right end or vice versa.
(vii) Reach the other end of the fringe this way noting down the
sufficient readings (approx. 70) of the intensities in between. Repeat the
same procedure to take reading in reverse direction.
 (viii) Measure the distance ‘D’ i.e. the separation between the slit and the
photometer using the scale on optical bench.
(ix) Calculate angular deviation for all above positions and plot two
separate graphs in θ vs. intensity, one for left to right and other for right
to left observations. Calculate the slit width from the graph.
(x) Plot intensity distribution of the diffraction as a function of θ
parallel to the plane of the slit. Find the width of given slit from the plot
and compare this width with that measured by microscope.
Observations

Vernier constant of micrometer=............................

Wave length of the laser light = ........................... nm

Distance of the slit from the photometer = ........................cm

Table-1: Intensity distribution of single slit pattern(x0 corresponds to position of

central maximum)

Sl. Position θlr =(x-x0)/D Photo Position θrl =(x-x0)/D Photo

No. (x cm) current/voltage (x cm) current/voltage
(mA/V) (mA/V)
[Left to right] [Right to left]
Sl. Position θlr =(x-x0)/D Photo Position θrl =(x-x0)/D Photo
No. (x cm) current/voltage (x cm) current/voltage
(mA/V) (mA/V)
[Left to right] [Right to left]

Sl. Position θlr =(x-x0)/D Photo Position θrl =(x-x0)/D Photo

No. (x cm) current/voltage (x cm) current/voltage
(mA/V) (mA/V)
[Left to right] [Right to left]

Sl. Position θlr =(x-x0)/D Photo Position θrl =(x-x0)/D Photo

No. (x cm) current/voltage (x cm) current/voltage
(mA/V) (mA/V)
[Left to right] [Right to left]
Conclusions

Conclusion should incorporate

(xiii) Interesting results you found in the experiment.
(xiv) Lacunas /difficulties that you encountered.
(xv) Practical applications/implications of the experiment.
 (xvi) Any other issues.
Precautions
(i) One should not look directly to LASER light because it may
damage the eye.
(ii) The optical bench should be levelled properly.
References
1. Fundamentals of optics by F. Jenkins and H. White.
2. Optics by A. Ghatak.
3. Introduction to Optics by E. Hecht
4. Feynman Lecturers.
Considerations
(i) What is diffraction of light?
(ii) How diffraction is different from interference?
(iii) Name different types of diffraction and their properties.
(iv) What will happen to the intensity distribution if the width of the
slit is increased or decreased?
(v) What is the difference between single slit and double slit
diffraction pattern?
Calculation
Conclusion
Graph
 DISPERSIVE POWER OF GRATING
Date of experiment: Partner’s name:
Date of Lab. report submission:

Aim of the Experiment

To determine the wave length of the prominent lines of a mercury source by a
plane transmission diffraction grating and to calculate the resolving power and
dispersive power.
Apparatus Required
(i) Spectrometer
(ii) Plane transmission diffraction grating
(iii) Mercury lamp
 (iv) Spirit level

Fig-1: Experimental Setup of grating spectrometer

Theory
Fig-1 shows the complete experimental set up consisting of source and the
spectrometer mounted with grating. A diffraction grating is an optically plane
glass plate with a number of equidistant, parallel, straight lines ruled on its
surface shown as in Fig-2. These lines act as slits of width comparable to the
wavelength of visible light. So a diffraction grating consists of ‘n’ number of
slits where the value of n can be changed according to the requirement. In
laboratory we use replicas of it by depositing a thin film of gelatine on the
original grating. By removing it we paste it on an ordinary glass plate to have
the ordinary grating.
 When a parallel beam of light from the Mercury source is incident
normally on the plane transmission diffraction grating, it gets diffracted through
an angle θ from their normal path. Depending on the wavelength, lights of
different colour are focused at different points on the screen making the
prominent lines at different angles of dispersion. From the Fig-3 it is seen that
the path difference between any consecutive rays is given by (a+b) Sinθ.
The point P will be bright if this path difference is an even multiple of λ/2
i.e. (a+b) sin θ =2nλ/2
Or (a+b) sinθ = n λ
where a is the width of the transparent line and b is the width of the opaque line
of the grating as shown in Fig-2, n is the order of the maximum intensity and
θ is the angle of diffraction or the angle of dispersion for a particular wave
length λ. The value “(a+b)” is a constant for a particular grating and is called
the grating constant or grating element. For example, a grating with 15000 lines
per inch the value of (a+b) is 2.54/15000 cm.
Hence knowing (a+b), n and θ the value of λ can be calculated
 Fig-2: Typical grating

Fig-3: Diffraction through grating

Dispersive Power of Grating

Dispersive power of the grating is given by dθ/dλ
We have (a+b) sinθ=nλ
Differentiating both the sides we obtain,

dθ/dλ= or dθ/dλ=

where n is the order of the fringes, N is the number of lines per inch of the
grating and θ is the angle of dispersion for the particular order and particular
colour.
Thus after knowing n, N and θ the dispersive power of the grating dθ/dλ can be
calculated.

Resolving Power (R.P.) of Grating

The Resolving power of grating is defined as the ratio of the wave length of any
spectral line to the difference of wave length between this line and a
neighbouring line such that the two lines appear to be just resolved. Thus the
resolving power of the grating is given by
R.P =λ/dλ
As per Rayleigh’s criteria, the two lines will be exactly resolved if the principal
maxima of one line falls on the secondary minima of the other line on either
side of its principal maxima. The direction of the nth primary maximum for a
wave length λ is given by (a+b) sin θ=nλ. Similarly the direction of the primary
maximum for the wave length λ+dλ is given by
(a+b) sin (θ+dθ) = n (λ+dλ).
The two lines will be just resolved, if the angle of diffraction (θ+dθ) also
corresponds to the direction of the secondary minimum after the nth primary
maximum for wave length λ. This is possible if the extra path difference
introduced is λ/N, where N is the number of lines per inch of the grating. So we

have (a+b) sin (θ+dθ) = nλ +

Hence n (λ+dλ) = nλ + or λ/dλ=Nn

This measures the resolving power of the grating

Procedure
(a) Adjustment of the Spectrometer:
(i) Level the spectrometer properly with the help of a spirit level by
levelling the collimator, telescope and prism table etc.
(ii) Switch on the mercury source and focus the image of the slit in the
telescope. With the help of a prism adjust the spectrometer for
parallel rays by Schuster’s method as described in Appendix-I.
(b) Adjustment of grating for normal incidence:
 (iii) Mount the grating on the prism table in such a way that the rays
falling on the grating is normal to it.
(iv) For this the collimator and the telescope are brought in one line and
the image of the slit is focused on the telescope. The corresponding
vernier scale readings are noted.
(v) Rotate the telescope at angle 900 and after that mounts the grating
on the prism table so that the reflected image of the slit is seen on
the telescope (Fig-4). Take the readings.
(vi) Turn the prism table through an angle 450 or 1350 from this
position away from the collimator. This is the position where the
grating is normal to the incidence ray.

(c) Measurement of diffraction angles:

(vii) In the position of normal incidence the image of the slit is adjusted
to have a bright and sharp image.
(viii) By rotating the telescope, observe the primary maxima for
different line spectrum (in different colours) on both the sides of
the central point in different orders (Fig-5).
(ix) Rotate the telescope to extreme right end and select one of the
prominent line spectra of the 2nd order spectrum and focus it so that
the line is seen on the vertical cross wire of the eye piece. Then
note the readings of the two vernier scales. In the same order note
down the reading of the vernier for other lines (i.e. colour).
(x) Rotate the telescope from extreme right to left and note down the
readings of the two verniers for all the spectral lines starting
from 2nd order to -2nd order i.e. from extreme right to extreme
left.
(xi) The difference of these two pair of readings which is twice of the
angle of dispersion is calculated. This reading is repeated twice to
get the mean value of the angle of dispersion θ.

Fig-4: Normal incidence of grating

 Fig-5: Spectrum by diffraction grating

Observations
Table-1: Table for angle of normal incidence
Vernier constant Direct reading of the telescope Telescope Reading of the prism table when Prism table is
of the without grating is rotated the angle of incidence is 450 rotated 450 or 1350
spectrometer 900 and set and set at angle
at angle
Main scale Vernier M+V Main Vernier M+V
(M) scale (V) scale (M) scale (V)
Table-2: Determination of the angle of diffraction for Violet lines.
No of Colour V Readings for the diffracted images with the Difference Mean
order
(Verner) telescope at the (2θ) (2θ)=
(a+b)/2
Left position Right position

MSR VSR TOTAL MEAN MSR VSR TOTAL MEAN

(M) (V) (M+V) (M) (V) M+V

1st a1 a2 a=a1-a2

V b=b1-b2
2nd b1 b2
I

L 1st a1 a2 a=a1-a2

2 E

2nd b1 b2
b=b1-b2
Table-3: Determination of the angle of diffraction for Blue lines.
No of Colour V Readings for the diffracted images with the Difference Mean
order
(Verner) telescope at the (2θ) (2θ)=
(a+b)/2
Left position Right position

MSR VSR TOTAL MEAN MSR VSR TOTAL MEAN

(M) (V) (M+V) (M) (V) M+V

1st a1 a2 a=a1-a2

B b=b1-b2
2nd b1 b2
L

E 1st a1 a2 a=a1-a2

2nd b1 b2
b=b1-b2
 Table-4: Determination of the angle of diffraction for Yellow lines.
No of Colour V Readings for the diffracted images with the Difference Mean
order
(Verner) telescope at the (2θ) (2θ)=
(a+b)/2
Left position Right position

MSR VSR TOTAL MEAN MSR VSR TOTAL MEAN

(M) (V) (M+V) (M) (V) M+V

1st a1 a2 a=a1-a2

Y b=b1-b2
2nd b1 b2
E

L 1st a1 a2 a=a1-a2

2 O

2nd b1 b2
b=b1-b2

As per the formula λ= , the value of the wave length for different colour can

be determined by putting the value of the corresponding θ and n.

Table-5: Determination of the dispersive power and resolving power of the grating

Colour of No of Angle of No. of lines Resolving Dispersive

the line order Diffraction (θ) per cm of power of power of
the grating the grating the grating
Colour Grating Angle of Angle of Wavelength 𝛌 Wavelength 𝛌 𝛌 mean
of Light constant diffraction(1st diffraction(2nd (a+b) sinθ (a+b) sinθ
(a+b)=1/N order) order) (1st order) (2nd order)

Blue

Violet

Yellow

Percentage of Error

We have λ= .The percent of error =100

Or =100

dθ can be taken as the vernier constant and θ is the concerned angle of

dispersion.

Conclusions

Conclusion should incorporate

(xvii) Interesting results you found in the experiment.

(xviii) Lacunas /difficulties that you encountered.
(xix) Practical applications/implications of the experiment.
(xx) Any other issues.

Precaution
(i) The spectrometer should be levelled properly.
 (ii) The spectral lines should be adjusted at the vertical cross wire of
the telescope
(iii) Care must be taken so that while taking observation the
source, the prism and the collimator should not be displaced.
(iv) The grating should be handled from the edge

References

1. Fundamentals of optics by F. Jenkins and H. White.

2. Optics by A. Ghatak.
3. Introduction to Optics by E. Hecht
4. Feynman Lectures.

Considerations

(i) What is a plane transmission diffraction grating and how

diffraction occurs?
(ii) How grating is made and what is a grating element?
(iii) What is the effect of increase in number of lines of the grating on
the diffraction pattern?
(iv) Define dispersive power and resolving power of an optical
instrument?
(v) How does angular dispersive power of the grating depends upon
1. Order of spectrum(n)
2. Grating element
3. Wavelength (λ)
(vi) What will happen if the rulings of the grating are not parallel and
the distance between two consecutive rulings is not a constant?
(vii) What are the uses of grating?
Calculation
Conclusion
 Malus’ Law
Date of experiment: Partner’s name:
Date of Lab. report submission:

Aim of the Experiment

To verify Malus’ Law of polarization of light.

Apparatus Required
(i) Optical bench.
(ii) Laser light source.
(iii) Polarizer with stem for mounting.
(iv) Photometer (Optical base plate).
(v) Digital multimeter with connecting wire.

Fig-1: Experimental setup

Theory
Figure-1 depicts the complete experimental set up for verification of Malus’ law
of polarization. When linearly polarized light passes through a Polaroid, the
intensity of the transmitted light varies with the angular position of the Polaroid
w.r.t. the angle of the plane of polarization of incident light. The emergent light
after falling on the photo detector, gives a photocurrent which is proportional to
the intensity of the emergent light.
Mathematically
I = I0 Cos2 θ

Fig-2(a): Fig-2(b)
Where, I is the photocurrent for the emergent light.
I0 is the photocurrent for the incident light
‘θ’ corresponds to the angle between the direction of polarization of the
incident light and the axis of the Polaroid.
This law can be illustrated in the form of amplitude of incident polarized light
(E0) and emergent light (E) as
E = E0 Cosθ
where E and E0 are the electric vector associated with the emergent and incident
light shown in Fig-2(a). So if we rotate the Polaroid in the clockwise manner, at
a particular angle the intensity of the emergent light will be maximum giving
highest value of photo current and if we continue in the same direction, finally
the intensity will decrease to almost zero illustrated. The graph between
 photocell current as a function of angular position θ of the plane of polarization
of the analyser is illustrated in Fig-2(b).

Procedure
(i) Place the set-up is in a dark room so that excess light except the
laser source may be avoided.
(ii) Adjusted the source of light, Polaroid and the photometer on the
optical bench so that the light after passing through the Polaroid
falls at the centre of the photometer.
(iii) Before the laser is switched on note down the effect of the
stray light on the photometer which will be finally deducted
from the observed values.
(iv) Switch on the laser source for 30 minutes and record the signal
from the digital multi-meter for each specific positions of the
Polaroid.
(v) Plot graph between the square of the cosine of the polarising
angle vs. the photocurrent (I) from 00 to 900 and back to 00.
(vi) Plot the graph between the differential current I'-I0 and θ.
Observations
Table-1: Table for current

Sl. No. Stray current θ Cos2θ Photocurrent I-IS(µA) Difference

Current
IS(µA) I(µA) =I'
I'-I0(µA)
 Difference
Sl. No. Stray current θ Cos2θ Photocurrent I-IS(µA) Current
IS(µA) I(µA) =I' I'-I0(µA)

Sl. No. Stray current θ Cos2θ Photocurrent I-IS(µA) Difference

 IS (µA) I(µA) =I' Current
I'-I0(µA)

Difference
2
Sl. No. Stray current θ Cos θ Photocurrent I-IS(µA) Current
IS(µA) I(µA) =I' I'-I0(µA)
Results and Calculations

Fig-3: Graph between Cos2θ and (I-Is)/(I0-Is)

Conclusions
Conclusion should incorporate

(xxi) Interesting results you found in the experiment.

(xxii) Lacunas /difficulties that you encountered.
(xxiii) Practical applications/implications of the experiment.
(xxiv) Any other issues.

Precautions
(ii) One should not look directly to LASER light because it may
damage the eye.
(iii) The optical bench should be levelled properly.
 (iv) One should carefully handle the polarizer because slight
disturbance may disturb the result obtained.

References

1. Fundamentals of optics by F. Jenkins and H. White.

2. Optics by A. Ghatak.
3. Introduction to Optics by E. Hecht
4. Feynman Lectures.

Considerations

(i) What is polarization of light and how the light gets polarized?
(ii) What is plane of polarization and plane of vibration?
(iii)What is Brewster’s law and what are polarizer and analyzer?
(iv) How circularly, elliptically and linearly polarized light are
produced and what are their properties?

Calculation
Conclusion
Graph
 Young’s Modulus
Date of experiment: Partner’s name:
Date of Lab. report submission:
Aim of the Experiment

To determine the Young’s Modulus (YM) of the given material through

uniform and non-uniform bending by pin-microscope (PM) method.

Apparatus Required

(vi) Knife Edges.

(vii) Slotted weights.
(viii) Material Bar.
(ix) Pin & Microscope
(x) X-Y translation stage.

Fig-1(a): Experimental setup for determination of YM through non-uniform

bending by PM method.
Fig-1(b): Experimental setup for determination of YM through uniform bending
by PM method.

Theory

The modulus of elasticity or Young’s modulus is a mechanical property of solid material that
describes its stiffness. Stiffness is defined as the rigidity of an object to which it
resists deformation in application of an external force. Every material undergoes
elastic deformation by the application of external load which is a temporary
deformation of the physical shape of the material and it returns to its original
shape after removal of the load. This is called elastic deformation of materials.
With the application of force F through the load, the inter-atomic distance (a)
increases by δa and the material gets stretched. After removal of the force the
inter-atomic force is attractive and the material regains its original shape. If we
apply a force large enough so that some of the inter-atomic bond breaks and the
material does not return to its original shape. This is called plastic deformation.
Further increase in force leads to breaking of materials. A stiff material needs
more force to be deformed as compared to a soft material and an infinite force
would be needed to deform a perfectly rigid material with an infinitesimal value
of Young's modulus.
Let us consider a bar shaped material of length L and cross section A to which a
longitudinal force F is applied. Upon deformation, the material stretches by δL.
If we go on increasing the strength of this force and measure δL, the relation
between F/A and δL/L can be represented graphically as shown in Figure-2a.
The quantity F/A is called tensile stress and δL/L is called the tensile strain. In
Figure-2a, the point E is the elastic limit or the yield point of the material
within which the stress is proportional to strain and the material regains its
original shape after removal of the external force. Beyond this point the linear
relationship between stress and strain does not hold and the material becomes
plastic up to the point P. Beyond the point P the material breaks. The ratio
between stress to strain in the elastic region is defined as Young’s modulus of
the material. It is also dependent upon temperature and pressure.

Figure-2a: Graph between stress and strain for a solid material.

Let us consider a rectangular beam of length L, breadth b and thickness d
supported by two knife edges and at the middle a weight is hung (Figure-2b).
The weight at the beam gives a downward force W=Mg. Since the beam is static
this force is balanced by the normal reactions of magnitude W/2 at the knife
edges. The centre of the beam does not suffer any deflection and we can
consider the entire beam as two cantilevers supported at one end and loaded at
the other. This is shown in Figure-2c. Now let us denote the length of the
cantilever is L/2=L1 and weight W/2=W1. Now the cantilever suffers a
depression of z at the point C and needs to be calculated.

Figure-2b: Schematic diagram of the beam loaded with weight W in non-

uniform bending.

Figure-2c: Forces acting on the cantilever.

 Now consider an infinitesimal section of the rectangular bar MNOP bent
in the form of a circular arc of radius R. A section perpendicular to the plane of
bending is shown in Figure-2d. As per the figure the layers of the material of
the bar in the lower half will be compressed while those in upper half will be
expanded. But, the middle layer remains unchanged in length is called as neutral
plane and passes through the centre of gravity. In the figure XY is the neutral
layer and the two ends of the layer are at an angle ϕ. Now XY=Rϕ. As per the
figure the upper layer of the neutral layer i.e. PQ is at a distance k from it which
expands as the bar bends. If we draw a line parallel to MN at the point Y, it will
intersect PQ layer at the point S. From geometry, the extension of this layer
corresponding to the neutral layer is SQ.

Figure-2d: An infinitesimal section of the cantilever showing the neutral layer.

SQ= PQ-PS
= PQ-XY
= (R+k) ϕ - Rϕ
=kϕ
The strain developed in the extended layer will be equal to the ratio of original
length XY to the extension SQ.
So strain (s) = k/R
The stress produced in the material due to this expansion can be calculated
using Hook’s law. Consider a region of k to k + dk near to the layer PQ. Now
the stress produced in that layer will be the ratio of the force dFr produced in the
material to the area bdk. So we get

where Y is the Young’s modulus of the material. The moment of this force
about the neutral layer will be

To calculate the total moment developed about the neutral axis in the cantilever
near to the point X, we need to integrate above for all possible values of k,
hence,

It is clear that the entire cantilever do not form like the part of an arc. At different parts of the beam,
it will have different curvature and hence different radius of curvature. Hence, we must write

where x is length measured along the beam, it has a values 0 and L1 at the point
of suspension of the beam and at the loading end respectively. If we consider
the depression at different point in the beam to be y, then y=0 at the point O and
y=d at the point C. We have dy/dx = 0 at C. So we can write the radius of
curvature of the beam R(x) as

Putting this value in the above eqn. we got,

M(x) gives the internal bending moment of the beam at the position x and this
should be same as the external bending moment provided by the weight and the
normal reaction. Clearly from the Figure-2c the bending moment at A because
of the weight W1 at C would be (neglecting the weight of the rod) W1 (L1 − x),
hence,

We have already stated the boundary conditions for this differential equation.
Solving this we may get the value of z at x = L, y = z,

But, in the above case we have only chosen the half of the beam. Hence, the
depression z produced in the entire beam loaded at the middle, in terms of W
and L, will be

In the experiment, we can measure the dimensions of the beam (i.e L, b, d) and
the depression for different applied weight W. Hence we can invert the above
equation to estimate the Young’s modulus from the experiment as

This is the working formula for this experiment for non-uniform bending.

For uniform bending (Figure-2e) equal weights Mg is suspended at both the

ends of the material bar at an equal distance p from each knife edges. So
elevation at the midpoint is given by z where
So the Young’s modulus can be written as,

Figure-2e: Schematic diagram of the beam loaded with weight W in uniform

bending.

Procedure

Non-uniform bending by PM method

(i) Place the bar is symmetrically on two knife edges. Fix the distance
between the knife edges. The weight hanger is suspended from the centre.

(ii)Fix the pin vertically at the midpoint of the bar with its pointed end
upwards. Load and unload the bar a number of times so as to bring it into
the elastic mood.
(iii) Arrange the microscope in front of the pin and focus the tip of the pin.
Coincide the intersecting point of horizontal a n d v e r t i c a l cross
wire of the microscope with the tip of the pin with dead load or zero
load.
(iv) Record the readings on the vertical scale and vernier of the microscope.
Now load ‘M’ kg to the weight hanger.
 (v) Adjust the microscope again so that the intersecting point of its
horizontal cross wire coincides with the tip of the pin. Record the
microscope reading again.
(vi) Determine the mean depression ‘z’ of the midpoint of the bar for a given
mass from these readings. Measure the breadth ‘b’ and thickness ‘d’
of the bar using vernier callipers and screw gauge respectively. Calculate
the Young’s modulus of the given material of the bar using the given
equation.

Uniform bending by PM method

(i) Place the bar is symmetrically on two knife edges. Suspend the two weight

hangers at the extreme points and at equal distance from the knife
edges.

(ii) Load and then unload the bar with weights a number of times so as to

bring it into the elastic mood. Fix a pin vertically at the centre of the bar.
Place the microscope in front of the pin and focus the crosswire at the tip
of the pin.
(iii) Coincide the intersecting point of the horizontal and vertical cross
wire of the microscope with the tip of the pin with dead load or zero load
alone. Record the readings on the vertical scale and vernier of the
microscope.
(iv) Load ‘M’ kg to the weight hanger and adjust the microscope so that its

horizontal cross wire coincides with the tip of the pin.

(v) Measure the length of the bar ‘l’ between the knife edges, breadth ‘b’ and

the distance of the load ‘p’ from the knife edge.

(vi) Determine the mean elevation ‘z’ of the midpoint of the bar for a given

mass from these readings. Calculate the Young's modulus of the given
material of the bar using the given equation.
Observations
Vernier constant of micrometer=...........................

No Distance Load Telescope reading Depression Mean L3/z Mean

of of the (M) Loading Unloading Mean for load Z in in L3/z
Obs. knife in Kg 4m (z) in cm cm3 cm3
edges cm
(L)

2
3

Table-1: Non-uniform bending

No Distance Load Telescope reading Elevation Mean L3/z Mean

of of the (M) Loading Unloading Mean for load Z in in L3/z
Obs. knife in Kg 4m (z) in cm cm3 cm3
edges cm
(L)

2
3

Table-2: Uniform bending

Calculation
Thickness of the material of the bar “d” = …………………mm

Breadth of the material of the bar “b” = ………………...cm

Mean value of l3/z = ………………..m

Load applied for depression “z” (=4M) = .……………....kg

Young's modulus of the material of the bar, Y = Mg(l3/z) /4bd3

Conclusions

Conclusion should incorporate

(xxv) Interesting results you found in the experiment.
(xxvi) Lacunas /difficulties that you encountered.
(xxvii) Practical applications/implications of the experiment.
(xxviii) Any other issues.
Precautions
(iii) Put the material bar carefully on knife edges.
(iv) Give sustainable weights to the material bar.
References
5. Classical mechanics, H. Goldstein
6. Feynman Lecturers.
 7. Mechanics of Materials, J. M. Gere and B.J. Goodno
Considerations
(vi) Stress, Strain & rigid bodies
(vii) Elasticity & plasticity
(viii) Yield point & Hook’s law.
Conclusion
 Appendix
Schuster’s method for focusing the spectrometer for parallel rays
Before using the spectrometer some careful adjustment should be performed
such as adjustment of the levelling screws in order to make the spectrometer
horizontal using the sprit level and to focus the spectrometer for parallel rays.
There are two ways for focusing the spectrometer for parallel rays.
A. Focus the telescope for a distant object
B. Schuster’s method
A. Turn the telescope to a distant object. Focus the telescope to a distant
object by varying the length of the tube of the telescope provided with the
screws until the object is seen clearly.
B. But it is not always possible to focus the telescope for distant object. In
that case Schuster’s method is the best method for setting the
spectrometer for parallel rays.
a. After levelling is completed, the slit of the collimator is illuminated
with light. Focus the eye piece of the telescope on the cross wires and
do not disturb this adjustment here after.
b. Adjust the width of the slit so that it is as narrow as possible. Place the
prism on the table at its centre with its refracting edge vertical and
grounded face roughly parallel to the length of the collimator.

c. Coincide the cross wire with unfocused image of the slit obtained.
Rotate the prism table such that one of the refracting edge of the
prism faces to the collimator making an angle 45°and the other faces
to the telescope.

d. Observe the refracted light through the telescope. On rotating the

prism table slightly left or right it will be found that the image of the
slit rotates along with the prism but it returns back after certain point
of rotation.

e. The position from which the image just returns back is known as the
position of minimum deviation of the prism. Keeping the prism in this
position, displace the telescope slightly in the direction away from the
direction of the incident ray.

f. For this position of the telescope we have two positions of the prism
where we can get the image of the slit i.e. for certain angle of
 deviation except the angle of minimum deviation, there are two angles
of incidence .

g. In one position the angle of incidence is more than that for the angle
of minimum deviation and in the other position it is smaller. In the
former position the refracting edge is closer to the telescope and in the
latter case it is farther from the telescope.

h. The former position is called the slanting position and the latter
position is called the normal position of the prism. Observe the image
of the slit in the slanting position of the prism.

i. Focus the telescope with its rack and pinion arrangement to get a thin
sharp image of the slit. Then turn the prism table to the normal
position and observe the slit again and focussing the collimator get a
fine thin image of the slit.

j. Repeat this process several times till you get a fine sharp thin image of
the slit in both the positions of the prism. Then we say that the
spectrometer is focussed for parallel rays.

Measurement of Least count

The least count of measuring instrument may be defined as the least possible
value of the physical quantity that can be measured by using the same
instrument. For example; the least count of a wall clock is 1 sec. This is
otherwise called as vernier constant.

a. Finding out the least count of a vernier calliper:

A vernier calliper consists of a long scale type steel rectangular bar

graduated in inches and cm on both sides. This is the main scale of the
calliper and over this scale one small scale slides which is called as
vernier scale. When the zero of main scale is matched with the zero of the
vernier scale, one can see that 10 vernier scale divisions (VSD) are equal
to 9 main scale divisions (MSD).
 So 1 VSD = 9/10 MSD
1 MSD – 1VSD = (1 – 9/10) MSD = 0.1 MSD = Least count
For an ordinary calliper, the MSD is 1 mm. So, the least count is 0.1 mm.

b. Finding out the least count of a Spectrometer:

In case of a spectrometer, there is a circular scale marked with 0 to 360 0.
Here each single division is one degree which is again divided into 2
divisions of half of a degree each. So the smallest division of the scale is
0.5 degree. Further,
60 VSD = 59 MSD, so 1 VSD = 59/60 MSD
So least count = 1 MSD – 1 VSD = (1- 59/60) MSD = 1/60 × 0.5 degree
= 0.5 minute.

c. Finding out the least count of a screw gauge:

A screw gauge consists of a circular scale by rotating which it moves

under a linear scale called pitch scale. The pitch of a screw gauge is
measured as the distance through which the screw moves on the linear
scale with one complete rotation of the circular scale.

This can be defined as

Pitch = ( )

The pitch of a screw gauge is usually 1 mm or 0.5 mm.

Now, the least count of the screw gauge is defined as the distance through
which the screw moves backward or forward when the cap is rotated
through one division of the circular scale. So this can be expressed as

Least count = ( ).