1

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This module is exclusively made and designed, in good faith, for the
STUDENTS OF TARLAC STATE UNIVERSITY ONLY to address the flexible
learning scheme for A.Y. 2020-2021 as implemented by the Commission on
Higher Education brought by the COVID -19 pandemic. Furthermore, this is
particularly intended and strictly limited for EDUCATIONAL and NON-
COMMERCIAL purposes only. Many parts of the module were lifted or
adapted from different sources; for this, the designer claims no ownership. All
credits and rights remain and are reserved to the authors and owners. No
reproduction of any part of this module may be used, sold or distributed for
commercial purposes or be changed or edited for other business, work or
publication, whether in print or electronic copies.

3
FACULTY MEMBERS IN CHARGE

DR. ALOYSIUS T. MADRIAGA

Professor V

atmadriaga@tsu.edu.ph

DR. ALOYSIUS TRINIDAD A

MADRIAGA is a graduate of AB
Philosophy at St. Louis University,
Baguio City. He also finished his
Master of Public Administration (MPA)
and Doctor of Education major in
Educational Management (Ed. D) at
Tarlac State University (TSU). He is
also a License Professional Teacher.
His teaching of philosophy, specifically
Logic, Ethics, Social Philosophy, and
Philosophy of Man for the last for the
last 30 years obtained for him much
experience in the field of philosophy.
present, he is the dean of the AtArts and Social Science at TSU and
College of
at the same time still teach philosophy subjects for the general education
curriculum of the university. He is also a volunteer professor at the Our lady of
Peace College Seminary where I teach Logic, Aesthetics and Social Sciences
subjects. As a researcher, he has published articles land researches locally and
internationally. You can reach him at 0919—086-7905 for any concerns.

PROF. GHEROLD C. BENITEZ

Associate Professor V

Gherold Cortes Benitez is a graduate

of Bachelor of Arts in Philosophy
with academic distinction at Colegio
De San Juan de Letran, Manila; he
completed his academic requirements
for Masters in Philosophy at the
University of Santo Tomas, Manila; he
finished his Master in Public
Administration at Tarlac State
University, Tarlac City; and he earned
his Legum Baccalaureus (Bachelors of Law) in the same university. Sir
GB taught Philosophy and Humanities at the Our Lady of Peace College
Seminary, Tarlac City. He is, at present, an attached faculty member of
the Department of General Education, College of Arts and Social
Tarlac State University, while serving as Head of Office of the Student
Sciences,
Development Service Unit and concurrently the Head of Student Discipline
Unit. He has been teaching Philosophy for 20 years now. He was once the

4
National President of the Confederation of Faculty Associations of State
Universities and Colleges in the Philippines from FY 2014 – FY 2017.

PROF. RODEL P. MACASAQUIT

Asst. Professor, ELS Department
sir_mac85@yahoo.com
Mobile:09215478805

Sir Rodel P. Macasaquit is a graduate of the

degree, AB Philosophy, minor in English from
Our Lady of Peace College Seminary and MAEd-
English at the Angeles University Foundation,
Angeles City, Philippines. Currently, he’s taking
up his PhD- Curriculum and Instruction from the
same university. He is an Assistant Professor
and also the CASS College’ Student Discipline Coordinator and the Adviser of
the College of Arts and Social Sciences Student Council.

PROF. LOUIS ADONIS G. SILVESTRE

Asst. Prof. 2 –General Education Department

LOUIS ADONIS G. SILVESTRE,LPT, MDM-

PM is an pro-active faculty member of the
College of Arts and Social Sciences with a
Bachelor of Arts major in Philosophy degree.
For his professional growth, he undertook
Masters in Development Management major in
Public Management and Masters in Education
major in Communication Arts at Pangasinan
State University. In addition, he is on his way to
becoming Doctor of Philosophy major in
Development Education.
He is a board passer in the Licensure Examination for Professional Teacher,
has been engaged to in-campus and off-campus speaking engagements and
is active to Community Development Programs of the University. Currently, he
is the Director of the National Service Training Program of Tarlac State
University.

5
PHL 1b: ETHICS

Course Introduction and Expectation Setting

Hello, my student! Welcome to your course in Ethics. PLEASE MAKE SURE

TO READ ALL OF THE CONTENTS OF THIS MODULE FIRST IN ORDER
TO HAVE THE WHOLE PERSPECTIVE OF HOW THIS COURSE WILL GO
THROUGH.

This course provides an overview of Ethics as a general education course.

Through this class, you will be able to learn and hopefully practice the
principles of ethical behavior in modern society at the level of the person,
society and in interaction with the environment and others hared resources
.Given our transition to the new normal set-up in learning, please take note
that YOU NEED TO FOCUS ON STUDYING INDEPENDENTLY AND YOUR
LEARNING IS YOUR OWN RESPONSIBILITY. Rest assured that I, as your
Instructor, will provide as much assistance and considerations as probable,
through the course of this semester.

Course Description

This course discusses the context and principles of

ethical behavior in modern society at the level of the
person, society and in interaction with the environment
and other shared resources. This course also teaches
the students to make moral decisions by using dominant
moral frameworks and by applying a seven-step moral
PHL 1b ethics reasoning model to analyze and solve moral dilemmas.

This course is organized according to the three (3) main elements of moral
experience: a) agent including context- cultural, communal and environment;
b) the act and c) the reason or framework (for the act).

Course Outline

This course is structured to comprise learning blocks which we refer to as

chapters. There are five (5) chapters and eleven (11) modules designed. For
your better understanding of the chapters and modules, you can refer to this
overview:

Chapter I: Introduction : Key Concepts in Ethics

● Module 1: Ethics, and Its Key Concepts

Chapter II: The Moral Agent

● Module 2: Culture in Moral Behavior and Developing Virtue as a Habit

6
Chapter III: The Act

● Module 3: The Human Act and Act of Man

● Module 4: The Act as Knowingly Done
● Module 5: The Act as Wilfully Done
● Module 6: The Act as Freely Done
● Module 7: The Determinants of Morality

Chapter IV: Frameworks and Principles behind Our Moral Disposition

● Module 8 : Basic Theories as Frameworks in Ethics

Normative Ethics (Kantian Ethics and Utilitarianism)
● Module 9: Virtue Ethics and Justice as Fairness
● Module 10: Applied Ethics

Chapter V. Ethics through Thick and Thin, And Ethic and Religion

● Module 11: New Challenges to Ethics and the Role of Religion in

Ethics

As this semester has duration of eighteen (18) weeks, PLEASE REFER

TO THE OBTL SYLLABUS for the schedule of module topics and
instructions on requirements. Any adjustments on the schedule or changes
regarding the requirements will be communicated to you accordingly.

The requirements that you have to comply in order to evaluate your

completion of this course are the following:
Student Performance Evaluation
Lecture
Assignment/Output 25%
(Oral presentation, Reflective Writing, Online Quiz, Reflective
Essay etc.)
Quiz 25%
Attendance/Online Class Participation 10%
(Students response to teacher-posted comprehension
questions. Students reflection on class required readings.)
Term Exam 40%

Credit Grade = (Midterm Grade + Final Term Grade)/2

Guidelines on Requirements
For the Online Discussion Forum, please adhere to the following guidelines:
● Address in an informed and well considered manner the given
discussion topic or question. The discussion topic or question will be
found in the “Learning Activities” section of each module.
● Write clearly, following the conventions of written English or Filipino.
Use the language you are most comfortable with. Do not use
abbreviations and acronyms unless these are introduced in the
readings, and do not write in text speak.
● Do not post lengthy contributions, do not beat around the bush. Your
post should be short yet concise. When you agree or disagree on
something, please explain clearly why.

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 ● Respond to one or two posts by other co-learners in a courteous and
constructive way. Be polite or civil when arguing a point. Do not be
rude and do not make remarks that may be construed as a personal
attack. Refer to ideas/statements, not the person. Avoid jokes or
humorous statements in text that may be misunderstood by your
classmates, and ask only questions that sincerely interest you.

For all the Assignments/Outputs, please use the following format:

● Use 8.5 x 11 inches paper, 1-inch margins maximum.
● Choose Font Type Times New Roman, Calibri or Arial, size 11, 1.5 line
spacing.
● Use APA Format for references and citations.
● Choose Black ink only.

As TSU students, you should know that the university upholds the value of
integrity therefore, your commitment to academic integrity is fundamental in
completing this course. Cheating in any form will not tolerated by the university
and offenders will be dealt with accordingly. YOU NEED TO COMPLY TO
THIS HONOR CODE AS THE UNIVERSITY’S STANDARDS OF ACADEMIC
INTEGRITY.

● You commit that your outputs to requirements and answers to exams

must be your own work (except for those which required collaboration
as instructed and permitted by your Instructor.)
● You commit that you will not share any solutions or answers to
requirements and exams with anyone.
● You commit that you will not engage in any other activities that will
dishonestly improve your results or dishonestly improve or damage the
results of others.
● You commit that your work will not be in any form of plagiarism –
copying words, ideas, or any other materials from another source
without giving credit.

Reference: Coursera Honor Code (n. d.). Retrieved from

https://learner.coursera.help/hc/en-us/articles/209818863-Coursera-Honor-
Code

Your work shall be rated at the end of each term in accordance with the
Grading System documented in the Tarlac State University Student Manual.

1.0 – Excellent
1.25-1.5 – Very Good
1.75-2.0 – Good
2.25-2.5 – Satisfactory
3.75-3.0 – Passing
4.0 – Conditional Failure
5.0 – Failing
INC. – Incomplete

Class Management

This course will be delivered using two modalities: (1) Online Class and (2)
Self-learning Modules. You are assigned to either one of these modalities

8
based on the available and accessible resources that you have. Kindly take
note of the following reminders in the management of these class modalities.

1. Online Class
● Microsoft Teams will be used as the primary platform thus, you are
advised to download and install the aforementioned application. Go
to office.com and login using your @student.tsu.edu.ph account.
Choose Teams from the list of applications, from there your
enrolled subjects will appear. Scheduled class discussions through
video conferencing, will be hosted and posted here.
● FaceBook Messenger Group Chat will also be used as the
supplementary platform for communication. Ask your class
representative to add you in the Group Chat.
● Textbooks that you will be using as main references for this course
are uploaded in Microsoft Teams. PLEASE DO NOT UPLOAD OR
SHARE THESE REFERENCES TO ANY OTHER PLATFORMS. If
you want to purchase the hard copy of these textbooks, kindly
coordinate with your class representative.

2. Self-learning Modules
● TSU in partnership with your Local Government Unit (LGU) placed
a Distribution and Retrieval System of modules, references and
other documents hence, you are encouraged to check on this set-
up with your Barangay/LGU officials.
● Text messages will also be accommodated as the supplementary
platform for communication. Check on my contact information
below for reference.
● Textbooks that you will be using as main references for this course
are coordinated by your class representative and will be distributed
by your LGU. PLEASE COMMUNICATE TO THEM
ACCORDINGLY.

INSTRUCTIONS ON HOW TO USE THE SELF-LEARNING MODULE

The Self-learning Module is crafted for you, given your limited resources and
access to participate in the online class. This is designed as a remote, self-
study guide in going through the topics covered by this course.

The Self-learning Module is divided into seven (7) sections namely:

I. Introduction
II. Learning Objectives
III. Contents
IV. Synthesis/Generalization
V. Evaluation
VI. Assignment
VII. References

The Introduction section provides the theme, and coverage of topics which will
be discussed in the module. A Pre-Test is also included here to gauge your
initial familiarity with the topics which will be tested again after completing the
module.

9
The Learning Objectives section states the target knowledge, skill and ability
that you may acquire after completing the module. This support the desired
learning outcomes cited in the OBTL syllabus.

The Contents section contains (1) Preparatory Activity which serves as a

warm-up for the discussion of theories and concepts; (2) Developmental
Activity which contains narrative texts, tables and figures. The majority of the
discussion of theories and concepts covered in the module is located in this
section and (3) Closure Activity which summarizes what was learned and
checks for your understanding.

The Synthesis/Generalization section gives the key concepts discussed in the

module.

The Evaluation section comprises (1) Post-Test as a gauge of familiarity after

topics were now discussed and (2) Study Questions to further assess or
reflect on what your learnings are.

The Assignment section includes the learning activity/ies intended to assess

your learning of the module contents. These learning activities correspond to
the required Assignment/Output which will contribute to 25% of your computed
grades.

The References section lists all the books and other resource materials used
in the module.

Read the discussion thoroughly and try to understand them. If you have
queries or problems with the lessons, find time to communicate with your
professor. Answer the activities presented and please be honest in doing
them, it means do them alone and do not cheat.

The Self-Learning Module also uses icons in order for you to visually navigate
through its content better. Please take note that if a section of the module has
an icon, it means that YOU ARE REQUIRED TO DO THE INSTRUCTIONS
AS GIVEN in order to ensure optimal learning.

This icon means that you are presented with a new Unit or
Module.

This icon refers to the introduction that discusses the theme and
coverage of topics which will be discussed in the module.

This icon stands for the learning objects that states target knowledge,
skill and ability that you may acquire after completing the module.

This icon stands for the Pre-Test to gauge your initial familiarity with
the topics covered in the Module.

This icon corresponds to the Preparatory Activity which serves as a

warm-up for the discussion of theories and concepts.

This icon refers to the Developmental Activities which contain narrative

10
 texts, tables and figures or the majority of the discussion in the
Module.

This icon stands for the Closure Activity which summarizes what was
learned and checks for your understanding. You will input this in your
Learning Log.

This icon corresponds to the Post-Test/evaluation as a gauge of

familiarity after topics were now discussed.

This icon corresponds to the assignment/leaning activity/ies intended

to assess your learning of the module contents.

This icon refers to the generalization which is the simplification of

the content; hence, it contains key ideas for you to remember the
content.

This icon represents the references that consist of books, online open
access sites, and other resources in PDF that were used in preparing
the module. You may also use them for further reading if you can
access them.

11
Chapter 1 : INTRODUCTION: KEY CONCEPTS IN ETHICS

Module 1: Ethics, and Its Key Concepts

Introduction

This module is concerned with developing your understanding of Ethics

as one of the key areas under the division of practical philosophy. The
discussion, description and explanation in this module hope to equip you
students with ideas on the importance of ethics and the key concepts related to
the moral experience. Make use of this module to provide you with insights and
ideas to help you understand difficult and pressing experiences that need
proper discernment.

Test Yourself (place your answer on p. 84)

Instruction: Identify whether the following is a moral (M)or non-moral

(MS)standards

1. Thou shall not kill 4. Honor your father and

2. No trespassing your mother
3. Do not talk when your 5. No over speeding
mouth is full.

Learning Objectives

With the completion of this self-learning module, you should be able to:

1. Illustrate knowledge of what ethics is and its importance

2. Recall rules you have to follow and why you need to follow
them
3. Differentiate moral from non-moral standards
4. Recall a moral experience and detect the moral dilemma
present in it.
5. Define why only human beings are moral

Content

Preparatory Activity

Exercise (place your answer on p. 84)

List down a rule (one each) you find in your home, and in your school

12
and
assess why you need to follow them.

a. Home

b. School

Developmental Activities

A. Ethics: Its Definition And Importance

Have you experience a situation where it requires that you have to

choose on what to do and part of it is to decide which of the choices is right or
wrong? Can you recall an experience where you really felt bad and sad
because you hurt somebody because of your wrong action? Did you ever
wonder why people need to be good and avoid what is evil? Did it ever come
to your mind why we need to be pleasing in our action?

There are many people who ask why study ethics? Why be moral?
Webster’s dictionary has a number of definitions for moral including: - of or
relating to principles of right and wrong in behavior - conforming to a standard
of right behavior. This is an important question for a course on ethics - is being
moral important to you, why (or why not)? Most people think doing well in life is
associated with being “good”. (philonotes.com)

For example: do you think a person who gains money dishonestly is a

success? Is a politician who beats his wife and children a success? Is Mother
Theresa a success - she had very few of the things society commonly
associates with doing well. Most people like fairness, justice, truthfulness,
compassion in society. Ethics help give direction to societies and people who
think they cannot flourish without some form of morality. Morality is said to be
breaking down in society today - juvenile crime, drug abuse, alcoholism,
teenage pregnancies, crime rates - all seem to indicate that the moral fabric of
society is breaking down. Moral questions are at the heart of life’s vital issues -
including those affected by the actions above. “Morality is primarily concerned
with the questions of right and wrong, the ability to distinguish between the
two, and the justification of the distinction. (phlionotes.com)

Montemayor (1994) mentions in his introduction on his book Ethics:

The Philosophy of Life that Ethics is the philosophy of life and that it delves into
the deepest whys and wherefore of human existence, men’s actions, problems
and destiny.

He further mentions that to live well and happy, we must know what we
are living for. He says this is taught by Ethics that investigates the meaning
and purpose of human life. He mentions that according to Socrates the
unexamined life is not worth living for man.

Montemayor (1994) also states that Plato one of the greatest

philosophers of all times proclaimed Ethics as the supreme science, the
highest in the hierarchy of human values, as it is Ethics that is concerned with
the attainment of life’s greatest Good and Goal – Happiness.

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Definitions of Ethics

The book of Montemayor (1994) provides the following definitions of Ethics:

1. Ethics is the practical science of the morality of human

actions.
2. Ethics is the science of human acts with reference to right and
wrong
3. Ethics is the scientific inquiry into the principles of morality.
4. Ethics is the study of the rectitude of human conduct
5. Ethics is the human conduct from the standpoint of morality.
6. Ethics is the science which lays down the principles of right
living
7. Ethics is the practical science that guides us in our actions
that we may live rightly and well.
8. Ethics is normative and practical science, based on reason,
which studies human conduct and provides norm for its
natural integrity and honesty.
9. According to Socrates, ethics is the investigation of life.

Looking into these definitions we can say that they are similar to each
other. The definitions speak of the field of study of ethics as human conduct;
and of the investigation of such human conduct in terms of its morality. The
important terms that can be seen in them are:

1. Science-systematic study or a system of scientific

conclusions clearly demonstrated, derived from clearly
established principles and duly coordinated
2. Morality – the quality of human acts as right, wrong or
indifferent, moral immoral or amoral.
3. Human acts –acts done with knowledge, freedom and free
will or consent.

Importance Of Ethics

Montemayor (1994) proclaims that the importance of the study of ethics

follows immediately from the importance of ethics itself. His idea is manifested
in the following:

1. Ethics means right living and good moral character and it is in good
moral character that man finds his true worth and perfection. All the
great teachers of the ages maintain that the supreme purpose of
human living lies not in the acquisition of material good or bodily
pleasures, nor in the attainment of bodily perfections such as health
and strength; nor even in the development of intellectual skills but in the
development of the moral qualities which lift man far above brute
creation.

2. Education is the harmonious development of the whole man-of all

ma’s faculties: the moral, intellectual, and physical powers in
man. Now then highest of man’s power are his reason and will.
Hence, the primary objective of education is the moral

14
 development of the will

B. Rules And Its Importance To Social Beings (lifted from the book of
De Guzman, (2017) -Ethics: Principles of Ethical Behaviour in Modern
Society)

You find rules everywhere. But did you ever ask yourself why you need
to follow them? Try to recall an experience where you followed a rule and
assess what you did. Did you just follow it without asking yourself why you
need to follow it? Did you have any doubt about following it?

Rules refer to explicit or understood regulations or principles

governing conduct within a specific activity or sphere. Rules tell us what is or is
not allowed in a particular context or situation. In many ways, rules serve as a
foundation for any healthy society. Without rules, society would like fall into
anarchy.

Rules benefit social beings in various manners:

1. Rules protect social beings by regulating behaviour.

Rules build boundaries that place limits on behaviour. Rules
are usually coupled with means to impose consequences on
those who violate them. One of the reasons people follow
accepted rules is to avoid negative consequences.
2. Rules help to guarantee each person certain right and
freedom. Rules form frameworks for society. Nations are generally
nations of laws and the governing principles are outlined in what is
called constitution. Because the majority has agreed to follow and
consent to be governed by such a constitution, the freedoms
outlined exist.
3. Rules produce a sense of justice among social beings. Rules
are needed in order to keep the strong from dominating the weak
that is to prevent exploitation and domination. Without rules,
schemes in which those with the power control the system, would
take over. In effect, rules generate a stable system that provides
justice, in which even the richest and the most powerful have
limitations on what they can do. If they transgress rules such as
laws and ordinances and take advantage of people, there are
consequences both socially and criminally.
4. Rules are essential for a healthy economic system. Without
rules regulating business, power would centralize around
monopolies and threaten the strength and competitiveness of the
system. Rules are needed to ensure product safety, employee’s
safety and product quality. Copyright and patents help protect
people’s intellectual property. Rules and regulations also keep the
banking system stable so as to avoid depression and the like.

In short, society could not soundly functions without rules and

regulations. Rules are necessary to protect the greater good. Even the freest
societies ought to have rules in order to avoid exploitations and tyranny while

15
upholding the common good.

C. Moral Standards versus Non-moral Standards (lifted from the book

of De Guzman, (2017) -Ethics: Principles of Ethical Behaviour in
Modern Society)

Do you know the meaning of standards? Have you been in a situation

where you were chosen because you met the standards or you were
disregarded because you did not meet the standards? But are you aware that
there are different kinds of standards and the kind is dependent on their
implication or effect on people and situations? Why do you think there is the
need to distinguish moral standards from non-moral ones?

It is important to note that different societies have different moral beliefs

and that our beliefs are deeply influenced by our own culture and context. For
this reason, some values do have moral implications, while others don’t. Let us
consider, for example, the wearing of hijab. For sure, in traditional Muslim
communities, the wearing of hijab is the most appropriate act that women have
to do in terms of dressing up. In fact, for some Muslims, showing parts of the
woman’s body, such as the face and legs, is despicable. However, in many
parts of the world, especially in Western societies, most people don’t mind if
women barely cover their bodies. As a matter of fact, the Hollywood canon of
beauty glorifies a sexy and slim body and the wearing of extremely daring
dress. The point here is that people in the West may have pitied the Muslim
women who wear hijab, while some Muslims may find women who dress up
daringly despicable.

Again, this clearly shows that different cultures have different moral
standards. What is a matter of moral indifference, that is, a matter of taste
(hence, non-moral value) in one culture may be a matter of moral significance
in another.

Now, the danger here is that one culture may impose its own cultural
standard on others, which may result in a clash in cultural values and beliefs.
When this happens, as we may already know, violence and crime may ensue,
such as religious violence and ethnic cleansing.

This is where the importance of understanding the difference between

moral standards (that is, of what is a moral issue) and non-moral ones (that is,
of what is a non-moral issue―thus, a matter of taste) comes in. This issue may
be too obvious and insignificant for some people, but understanding the
difference between the two may have far-reaching implications. For one, once
we have distinguished moral standards from non-moral ones, of course,
through the aid of the principles and theories in ethics, we will be able to
identify fundamental ethical values that may guide our actions. Indeed, once
we know that particular values and beliefs are non-moral, we will be able to
avoid running the risk of falling into the pit of cultural reductionism (that is,
taking complex cultural issues as simple and homogenous ones) and the
unnecessary imposition of one’s own cultural standard on others. The point
here is that if such standards are non-moral (that is, a matter of taste), then we
don’t have the right to impose them on others. But if such standards are moral
ones, such as not killing or harming people, then we may have the right to
force others to act accordingly. In this way, we may be able to find a common
moral ground, such as agreeing not to steal, lie, cheat, kill, harm, and deceive

16
our fellow human beings.

Now, what are moral standards, and how do they differ from non-moral
ones?

Moral Standards and their Characteristics

Moral standards are norms that individuals or groups have about the
kinds of actions believed to be morally right or wrong, as well as the values
placed on what we believed to be morally good or morally bad. Moral
standards normally promote “the good”, that is, the welfare and well-being of
humans as well as animals and the environment. Moral standards, therefore,
prescribe what humans ought to do in terms of rights and obligations.

According to some scholars, moral standards are the sum of combined

norms and values. In other words, norms plus values equal moral standards.
On the one hand, norms are understood as general rules about our actions or
behaviors. For example, we may say “We are always under the obligation to
fulfil our promises” or “It is always believed that killing innocent people is
absolutely wrong”. On the other hand, values are understood as enduring
beliefs or statements about what is good and desirable or not. For example, we
may say “Helping the poor is good” or “Cheating during exams is bad”.

According to many scholars, moral standards have the following

characteristics, namely:

1) Moral standards deal with matters we think can seriously injure or benefit
humans, animals, and the environment, such as child abuse, rape, and
murder;

2) Moral standards are not established or changed by the decisions of

authoritative individuals or bodies. Indeed, moral standards rest on the
adequacy of the reasons that are taken to support and justify them. For sure,
we don’t need a law to back up our moral conviction that killing innocent
people is absolutely wrong;

3) Moral standards are overriding, that is, they take precedence over other
standards and considerations, especially of self-interest;

4) Moral standards are based on impartial considerations. Hence, moral

standards are fair and just;

and 5) moral standards are associated with special emotions (such as guilt and
shame) and vocabulary (such as right, wrong, good, and bad).

Non-moral Standards

Non-moral standards refer to standards by which we judge what is

good or bad and right or wrong in a non-moral way. Examples of non-moral
standards are standards of etiquette by which we judge manners as good or
bad, standards we call the law by which we judge something as legal or illegal,
and standards of aesthetics by which we judge art as good or rubbish. Hence,
we should not confuse morality with etiquette, law, and aesthetics or even with
religion.

As we can see, non-moral standards are matters of taste or

17
preference. Hence, a scrupulous observance of these types of standards does
not make one a moral person. Violation of said standards also does not pose
any threat to human well-being.

Finally, as a way of distinguishing moral standards from non-moral

ones, if a moral standard says “Do not harm innocent people” or “Don’t
steal”, a non-moral standard says “Don’t text while driving” or “Don’t talk while
the mouth is full”.

D. Dilemma and Moral Dilemma (lifted from the book of De Guzman,

(2017) -Ethics: Principles of Ethical Behaviour in Modern Society)

Do you have any idea of what a dilemma is? Have you ever
encountered a situation where you need to choose between two alternatives,
yet choosing any could lead to a negative consequence on what you did not
choose? What did you do? How did you feel?

The term dilemma refers to a situation in which a tough decision has to

be made between two or more options, especially more or less equally
undesirable ones. Not all dilemmas are moral dilemmas.

Also called ‘ethical dilemmas’, moral dilemmas are situation in which a

difficult choice has to be made between two courses of action, either of which
entails transgressing a moral principle. At the very least, a moral dilemma
involves conflicts between moral requirements.

What is common to moral dilemmas is conflict. In each ethical dilemma,

an agent regards himself as having moral reasons to do each of two actions,
but doing both actions seems to be ethically not possible.

The key features of a moral dilemma are these: a.) the agent is
required to do each of two (or more) actions; b.) the agent can do each of the
actions; but the agent cannot do both (or all ) of the actions. In a moral
dilemma, the agent thus seems condemned to moral failure no matter what he
does, he will do something wrong, or fail to do something that he ought to do.

Some ethicists propose that when one of the conflicting moral

requirements overrides the other, the case is not a ‘genuine moral dilemma’.
Thus in addition to the features mentioned above, in order to have a genuine
moral dilemma, some add that it must also the case that c) neither of the
conflicting moral requirements is overridden.

Three Levels of Moral Dilemma

Moral Dilemmas can be categorized according to these levels:

1. Personal Dilemmas. Personal Dilemmas are those experienced

and resolved on the personal level. Since many ethical decisions
are personally made, many if not most of moral dilemmas fall
under, or boil down to this level. If a person makes conflicting
promises, he faces a moral conflict. When an individual has to
choose between the life of a child who is about to be delivered
and the child’s mother, he faces an ethical dilemma.

18
 2. Organizational Dilemma. Organizational moral dilemmas refer to
ethical cases encountered and resolves by social organization.
This category includes moral dilemmas in business, medical
fields and public sector.

A medical institution which believes that human life should not be

deliberately shortened and that unpreventable pain should not be tolerated
encountered a conflict in resolving whether to withdraw life support from a
dying patient. This is common moral dilemma faced by healthcare
organizations.

Administrative bodies in business are confronted with situations in

which several courses of action are possible but none of them provide a totally
successful outcome to those affected by the decision or actions taken. Moral
dilemmas in business involve issues about corporate practices, policies,
business behaviors, and the conducts and relationships of individuals in the
organizations.

In a public sector, government leaders and employees have a moral

duty to act in a manner that is fair and unbiased, that is loyal to the public by
putting public interest, accountability and transparency. In fulfilling these
responsibilities, public officials may encounter foreseeable moral dilemmas.
These dilemmas include whether or not to favour family, friends, or campaign
contributors over other constituents; favoring the agenda of one’s political party
over a policy one believes to be good for the community; dealing with
conflicting public duties inherent in serving both as a council member and as a
member of an agency or commission; resigning from organizations in which
membership may give rise to future conflicts; becoming a whistle blower even
if it means potentially derailing a policy objective one is pursuing; and
accepting gifts if it is legally permitted but creates the appearance of
impropriety.

3. Structural Dilemmas. Structural moral dilemmas refer to cases

involving network of institutions and operative theoretical
paradigms. As they usually encompass multi-sectoral institutions
and organizations, they may be larger in scope and extent than
organizational dilemmas.
Case in point is the prices of medicine in the Philippines which are
higher compared to other countries in Asia and in countries of similar economic
status. Factors affecting medicine prices include cost of research, presence of
competition in the market, government regulations, and patent protection.
Institutions concerned may want to lower the costs of medicine, thereby
benefiting the Filipino public, but such a move may ruin the interests of the
involved researchers, inventors or discoverers, and pharmaceutical companies
which own the patent of the medicines or healthcare technologies.

E. Only human beings can be Ethical (lifted from the book of De

Guzman, (2017) -Ethics: Principles of Ethical Behaviour in Modern
Society)

19
 Oftentimes we experience something that test our being and often also
we wonder whether we deserve to be the highest form of animal. If we commit
something, we often hear “animal ka”. But we are as Aristotle say “rational
animasl”. We are animals minus the rationality.

Another basic tenet in ethics is the belief that only human beings can
truly be ethical. Most philosophies hold that unlike animals, human beings
possess some traits that make it possible for them to be moral.

Only human beings are rational, autonomous, and self-conscious. The

qualities of rationality, autonomy, and self-consciousness are believed to
confer a full and equal moral status to those that possess them as these
beings are the only ones capable of achieving certain moral values.

Closure Activities (place your answer on p. 84)

1. Write in one sentence the important learning you got from this
module.

2. Write in the space below one word that best describe what you
feel right now on finishing this module.

3. Write in one sentence what you think these learning can

contribute in developing your moral behaviour.

Synthesis/Generalization

1. As ethics is defined as the science of the morality of

human act, it provides as with set of rules or principles
needed so we can be guided in our actions in society.
2. Rules are important to social beings as they protect the
greater good avoiding exploitations and tyranny in society.
Society could function soundly without rules and regulations.
3. Not all rules are moral rules and not all standards are moral
standards as moral standards are equated by some ethicists
to moral values and moral principles.
4. Moral Dilemmas are situations in which a difficult choice has
to be made between two courses of actions, either which
entails transgressing a moral principles. They involve
conflicts between moral requirements and they can happen
in the personal, organizational or structural level.
5. Only human beings can be ethical as only human beings are
rational, autonomous, and self-conscious, can act morally
and immorally, and are part of the moral community.

Evaluation

20
 Knowledge Check

(place your answer on page 85)

A. Answer the following meaningfully:

According to Socrates, “The unexamined life is not worth living for man”.
Explain this in connection with the definition by Socrates that ethics is the
investigation of life.

B. Instruction: Identify whether the following is a moral (M)or non-moral

(MS)standards

1. Thou shall not kill 4. Honor your father

2. No trespassing and your mother
3. Do not talk when your 5. No over speeding
mouth is full.

Assignment (place your answers on pp. 86-87)

1. Ask somebody to relay a difficult experience where he/she has to

choice between two pressing outcome or result. Make a reflection
essay about his/her story.
2. Write an essay on your thoughts about Ethics and its importance
to Today’s Society.

References:

Agapay, R. B.(1995, 2008) Ethics and the Filipino: A Manual on Morals for
Students and Educators,
2ns ed. Manila: National Bookstore, Inc.

Ardales, V. B.(1987) Introductory Text to Philosophy. Quezon City: Great

Books Trading, Inc.

Babor, E. R. (1999) Ethics: The Philosophical Discipline of Action, 1 st ed.

Manila, Philippines, Rex
Book Store.

Cruz, C. C. (1995) Contemporary Ethics. Manila: National Bookstore, Inc.

De Guzman J.M et al. (2017). Ethics: Principles of Ethical Behavior in Modern

Society. Malabon City: Mutya Publishing House, inc.

Dela Torre, J. (1993) Ethics: The man’s Tool for the Development of Sound
Professional and Civil Life. Manila: Educational Publishing House,
Inc. `

Dy Jr., M B. (1986) Philosophy of Man: Selected Readings. Manila: Goodwill

Trading Co. Inc.

21
Glen, Paul J. (1965) Ethics, A Class Manual in Moral Philosophy, (reprint)
Manila: National Bookstore.
____________. (1994) Contemporary Social Philosophy. Manila: Goodwill
Trading Co. Inc.

Montemayor, F. M.(1994) Ethics: The Philosophy of Life. Manila, Philippines:

National Book Store

____________.(1995) Introduction to Philosophy Through the Philosophy of

Man. 2nd ed. Manila: National Book Store, Inc.

Panizo, A., O.P. (1964) Ethics or Moral Philosophy. Manila: UST Textbook
Series

Robles, G. S. (1994) Everyday Ethics. Manila: Educational Publishing House,

Inc.

http://philonotes.com/index.php/2018/05/13/ethics/

22
Chapter 2: THE AGENT

Module 2: Culture in Moral Behavior and Developing Virtue as a

Habit

Introduction

This module is concerned with developing your understanding of Ethics on

the aspect of the moral agent. The discussion, description and explanation in
this module hope to equip you students with ideas on the role of culture in
developing your moral character. As man belongs to home and communities,
social relationships are build that create ways of life. In one way or the other,
people living together influence each towards creating beliefs, practices and
character which to them are necessary for their lives together. Make e of this
module r to provide you with insights and ideas to help you understand the role
of culture in moral behavior and in developing virtue as a habit.

Test Yourself (place your answer on p. 88)

Instruction: Identify whether the following is a is an expression of

(GC)good character or bad character (BC).

1. Helping somebody to steal 4. Writing libelous articles

2. Telling bad stories
3. Giving good remarks for an 5. Fighting for what is right
enemy

Learning Objectives

With the completion of this self-learning module, you should be able to:

1. Articulate what culture means and attribute facets of your

personal behavior to culture
2. Recognize and appreciate the differences of moral
behavior in different culture.
3. Evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of cultural
relativism
4. Analyze crucial qualities of the Filipino moral identity in
your moral experiences
5. Identify universal values and explain why universal
values are necessary for human survival
6. Recall defining moments in your moral formation and the
relationship between individual act and moral character
you find in your moral formation

23
 Content

Preparatory Activity

Exercise (place your answer on p. 88)

1. List down a practice in your home you find worth having and emulating
and explain why?

2. List down an attitude in school which you find bad and wrong and why
explain why?

Developmental Activities (most discussions here are lifted from the

book of De Guzman, (2017) -Ethics: Principles of Ethical Behaviour in
Modern Society)

Culture in Moral Behavior

To understand the role of culture in moral behavior, it is important to

first of all have an understanding of what culture is and its necessary
relationships with man. It is commonly said that culture is all around us.
Practically, culture appears to be an actual part of our social life as well as our
personality.

The term culture is so complex that it not easy to define. In one sense,
culture is used to denote that which is related to the arts and humanities. But in
broader sense, culture denotes the practices, beliefs, and perceptions of a
given society. The following are other definitions of the term culture:

1. Culture refers to the cumulative deposit of knowledge, experience,

beliefs, values, attitudes, meanings, hierarchies, religions, notion of
time, roles, spatial relations, concepts of the universe, and material
objects and possessions acquired by a group of people in the
course of generations through individual and group striving.
2. Culture consists of patterns, explicit and implicit, of and for
behaviour acquired and transmitted by symbols, constituting the
distinctive achievement of human groups, including their
embodiments in artefacts, the essential core of culture consists of
traditional ideas and especially their attached values, culture
systems may, on the one hand, be considered as products of action
on the other hand as conditioning influence upon further action.
3. Culture is the sum total of the learned behaviour of a group of
people that are generally considered to be the tradition of that
people and are transmitted from generation to generation
4. Culture in its broadest sense is cultivated behaviour; that is the
totality of a person’s learned, accumulated experience which is
socially transmitted, or more briefly, behaviour through social
learning.
5. Culture is symbolic communication.
Some of its symbols include a group’s skills, knowledge, attitudes,
values, and motives. The meanings of the symbols are learned and
deliberately perpetuated in a society through its institutions.

24
 Defined broadly therefore, culture includes all the things individuals
learn while growing up among particular group: attitudes, standards of morality,
rules of etiquette, perceptions of reality, language, notions about the proper
way to live, beliefs about how females and males should interact, ideas about
how the world works and so forth. We call this cultural knowledge.

Culture’s Role in Moral Behavior

Based on the definitions of culture above, it is not hard to

pinpoint the role of culture in one’s moral behavior. A culture is a ‘way of life’ of
a group of people, and this so called way of life actually includes moral values
and behaviors, along with knowledge, beliefs, symbols that they accept,
‘generally without thinking about them, and that they are passed along by
communication and imitation from one generation to the next.

Culture is learned as children grow up in society and discover how their

parents and others around them interpret the world. In our society, we learn to
evaluate what is (morally) good and bad and to judge when an unusual action
is appropriate or inappropriate (Manebog & Pena, 2016).

Many aspects of morality are taught. People learn moral and aspects of
right or wrong from transmitters of culture: respective parents, teachers, novels,
films, and television. Observing or watching them, pole develop a set of what is
right and wrong and what is acceptable and what is not.

Even experientially, it is improbable, if not impossible, to live in a society

without being affected by its culture. It follows too that it is hard to grow up in a
particular culture without being impacted by how it views morality or what is
ethically right or wrong. Social learning is the process by which individuals
acquire knowledge from others to which they belong as a normal part of
childhood. The process by which infants and children socially learn the culture
including morality, of those around them is called enculturation or socialization.

Moral Standards as Social Convention and the Social Conditioning

Theory

Among the popular notions which attempt to give account for basic
concepts in Ethics, such as the existence of moral rules, the senses of moral
obligation, and the moral accountability, are the so called social conventions
and social conditioning theories. These views are upshot of the fact that we can
learn from morality culturally or through socialization.

Theories Explained. The things we regard as moral laws (moral

standards or rules) some purport are nothing but just social conventions. By
convention, they mean those things agreed upon by people like through their
authorities. Convention also refer to the usual or customary ways through
which things are done within a group.

Since it is observed that morality is something that is handed down to

us primarily by education or socialization, either through parents and elders or
though teachers, some believe that moral standards are merely a human
invention., like those other inventions we learn from school or home.
Essentially, to theorize that moral law is a social convention is to say that it is
something which human beings had just made up for themselves and might
have been different had they liked.

25
 However, just because something is learned at home or school does
not necessarily mean that it is a social convention. Mathematical operations,
geographical facts and scientific laws are also taught in those institutions, yet
they are never considered as mere human fabrications. Meaning, whether or
not people know and like them, they are as they are.

The philosopher C.S. Lewis offers two reasons for saying that morality
belongs to the same class as mathematics:

1. Although there differences between the moral ideas of one time or

another country and those of another, the difference are not really
very great.
2. We affirm that the morality of one people is better or worse than that
of another which means that there is a moral standard or rule by
which we measure both moralities and that standard is real.
Culture Relativism in Ethics

Cultural Relativism is the most famous and dominant form of moral

relativism. Moral Relativism fundamentally believes that no act is good or bad
objectively. It also submits that different moral principles apply to different
persons or group of individuals.
Cultural Relativism defines ‘moral’ as what is ‘socially approved’ by the
majority in a particular culture. It maintains that an act is ethical in a culture that
approves of it, but immoral in one that disapproves of it.
Cultural relativists claim the following:
1. Different societies have different moral codes.
2. The moral code of a society determines what is right or wrong within
that society.
3. There are no moral truths that hold for all people at all times.
4. The moral code of our own society has no special status; it is but one
among many.
5. It is arrogant for us to judge other cultures. We should always be
tolerant of them
It is concluded that morality differs in every society as concepts of right
and wrong vary from culture to culture.
Cultural relativism: an analysis
1. Valuable lessons from ethical relativism
In proposing that there’s no independent standard in Ethics, moral
relativism does encourage tolerance. Without a doubt, tolerance is necessary
for people of different cultural origins to co-exist and live peacefully in a society.
The theory also teaches us to be open minded, thereby being more
open to discovering truth. Cultural relativism warns against being judgmental as
it reminds us that some of our beliefs and practices are mere conventional, and
thus not absolutely and exclusively correct.

26
 2. The theory’s ethical faults
Cultural relativism discourages analytical thinking and independent
decision-making in Ethics as it requires unsuspecting compliance and
subscription to social norms. The theory teaches that to be ethical, folkways
and cultural norms should be followed uncritically.
Cultural Relativism is inconsistent in promoting tolerance while
teaching that no culture is morally superior or more progressive than others.
The theory is practicable only if people do not belong to more than
one institution.
Moral relativism is fundamentality self-defeating.
3. Rachels’ evaluation of cultural relativism
Philosophy professor James Rachels (1941-2003) made a compelling
assessment of Cultural Relativism.
The Cultural Differences Argument
Rachels explained that cultural relativists’ approach is to argue from
facts about the differences between cultural outlooks to a conclusion about the
status of morality.
Thus we are invited to accept reasoning like these:
The Greeks believed it was wrong to eat the dead, whereas the
Callatians (an Indian Tribe) believed it was right to eat the dead.
Therefore eating dead is neither objectively wrong. It is merely a matter
of opinion, which varies from culture to culture.
The Eskimos see nothing wrong with infanticide, whereas we believe
infanticide is immoral. Therefore, infanticide is neither objectively right
nor objectively wrong. It is merely a matter of opinion, which varies from
culture to culture.
Different cultures have different moral codes. Therefore, there is no
objective “truth” in morality. Right and wrong are only matters of opinion, and
opinions vary from culture to culture.
Rachels call these cultural differences argument. It is nonetheless
unsound because its conclusion does not follow from its premise.
Against cultural differences argument, this counter-argument could be
submitted:
People in some societies (e.g. Primitive Tribes) believe that the Earth is
flat, whereas Europeans hold that truth that the Earth is spherical. This
argument is obviously unsound because some societies might simply
be wrong in their beliefs
Cultural Relativism goes wrong in drawing a conclusion about an issue
from the mere fact that people disagree about it.
The Disagreements among Cultures
There are many factors, Rachel further explains, which work together to

27
produce the customs of a society. Since the difference in customs may be
because of some other aspects of social life, then it’s wrong to conclude that
there is a disagreement about values and morality just because customs differ.
Therefore there may be less ethical disagreements that there appears to be
(1997, p. 27).
The Case of Eskimos and Callatians
In sociology and Anthropology, the Eskimos are popular for killing
normal infants, especially girls. This makes them appear to possess
significantly different values from ours.
It is not that Eskimos have less affection for their children or less
respect for human life. An Eskimo will always protect its babies if conditions
permit. But they live in a harsh environment where food is in short supply that
“life is hard, and the margin of safety is small” (1999, p. 28).
In Eskimo’s very special case, Infanticide is thus a recognition that
drastic measures are sometimes needed to ensure the family’s survival.
The Bad Consequences of Cultural relativism
If we took cultural relativism seriously, we would be necessitated to
deal with the following corollaries enumerated by Rachels (1999, pp.25-27)
1. We could no longer say that the customs of other societies are
morally inferior to our own
2. We could decide whether actions are right or wrong just by consulting
standards of our society.
3. The idea of moral progress is called to doubt.
ASIAN AND FILIPINO UNDERSTANDING OF MORAL BEHAVIOUR
Because culture has an impact on morality, people from different
cultures appear to have seemingly, but not essentially different sets of ethics.
This is particularly apparent in ethics of groups of people from the Eastern or
Asian Culture as compared to those from Western culture
The Difference Between Western and Eastern Ethics
Western Ethics Eastern Ethics

Focus Finding the Truth Protocol and Respect

Basis Rational Thought Religious Teachings
Emphasis Logic, Cause, and Effect Respect Towards
Family
Roots in Athens, Rome and Judeo Hinduism, Buddhism,
Christianity Confucianism and
Taoism
Approach Rational Holistic and Cultural
Conflict and Good must triumph over Evil Good and Bad, Light
Harmony and Dark all exist in
equilibrium

Filipino Moral Character: Strength and Weakness

28
 Filipino cultural morality, especially that which concerns social ethics,
centers on ideally having a ‘smooth interpersonal relationship’ (SIR) with
others. The definition of SIR in Philippine culture is principally supported by and
anchored on at least six basic Filipino values.
Six Basic Filipino Values

1. Pakikisama is having and maintaining good public relation.

2. Hiya is described as a feeling of lowliness, shame or embarrassment,
and inhibition of shyness which is experienced as somewhat
distressing.
3. Amor propio has been characterized as the high degree of sensitivity
that makes a person intolerant to criticism and causes him to have an
easily wounded pride.
4. Utang na loob is likewise a fundamental aspects of upholding group
harmony and relationships that demand the balancing of obligation and
depts.
5. Filipino hospitality refers to the innate ability and trait of Filipinos to be
courteous and entertaining to their guest.
6. Respects for Elders. Filipinos are not only respectful to elders, but also
have unique ways of expressing this respect.

These Filipino social values are important to maintain harmony in

Filipino relationships in social institutions such as family, school and
community.

Universal Values

By Universal values, we mean those values generally shared by

cultures. The existence of the so-called universal values is a strong proof that
cultural relativism is wrong. If certain values exist both in Western and Eastern
cultures (including Filipino culture) despite the distance, then cultural
relativism’s claim that culture’s moralities radically differ from each other is
mistaken.

Going back to the contention that Eskimos are also protective of their
children, Rachel submits the following sound argument (1999, p.29) Human
infants are helpless and cannot survive if they are not given extensive care for
a period of years. Therefore, if a group did not care for its young, the young
would not survive and the older members of the group would not be replaced.
After a while, the group would die out. Therefore, any cultural group that
continues to exist must care for its young infants that are not cared for must be
the exceptions rather than the rule.

The same argument could be used to reasonably show that other

values must be generally shared by many cultures. Given value on 1) truth
telling, for instance is indispensable in the existence of a society, for without it
there would be no reason to pay attention to what anyone communicates with
anyone.

Rachels also mentions of the case of 2) valuing or respecting life which

necessitates the prohibition of murder. In a society where no one thought there

29
was anything wrong with killing at will, everyone would have to be constantly on
guard.

A. Developing Virtue as A Habit

1. Moral Character and Virtues

The term “character” is derived from the Greek word “charakter”, which
was initially used as a mark impressed upon a coin. It means a distinct mark or
qualities by which one thing was distinguished from others. At the beginning of
Book II of the Nicomachean Ethics, the Greek philosopher Aristotle tells us that
there are two distinct of human excellences:
1. Excellences of Thought
2. Excellences of Character
Excellences of Character

Excellences of character is often translated as ‘moral virtue(s)’ or ‘moral

excellence(s)’. ‘Ethikos’ (ethical) is the adjective cognate with ‘ethos’
(character). So when we speak of ‘virtue’ or excellence of moral character, the
highlight is on the blend of qualities that make a person the sort of ethically
admirable individual that he/she is.
Moral Character

Moral character refers to the existence or lack of virtues such as

integrity, courage, fortitude, honesty, and loyalty. If one lacks virtue, he/she
may have any moral vices, or he/she may be marked by a condition
somewhere in between virtue and vice. Moral character means that you're a
good person and a good citizen with a sound moral compass. Moreover,
philosophers usually think that moral character traits, unlike other personality or
psychological traits have an irreducibly evaluative dimension; that is, they
involve a normative judgment. The agent is morally responsible for having the
moral character trait itself or for the outcome of that trait. Hence, a certain
moral character trait is a trait for which the agent is morally responsible.

The Circular Relations of acts and character

There are some ACTS THAT BUILD character and moral character
itself. But not all acts helps to build moral character. A person’s actions
determine his/her moral character, but moral character itself generates acts
that help in developing either virtue or vice. Habitual practice of moral and
intellectual excellences, or ‘virtues.’

For Aristotle, the function of human being consists in activities which

manifest the best states of his rational aspects, that is , the virtues. To
determine regularity and reliability, what individual acts are appropriate and
reasonable in certain situations. It is not easy to define in rules which acts
deserve moral praise and blame, and that, these matters require the judgment
of the victorious person, that is , someone with good moral character
Moral Characters as Dispositions
The moral characters that constitute a person’s moral character are

30
characteristically understood as behavioral and affective dispositions. Generally
speaking dispositions are particular kinds or characteristics that objects can
possess. Among human beings, moral character traits-either virtue or vices are
also considered as dispositions. Moral character traits are those dispositions of
character for which it is suitable top hold agents morally responsible. A moral
character which a person is deserving of a positive reactive attitude such as
praise or gratitude is a virtue. On the other hand, a vice is amoral character trait
for which the agent is deserving of a negative reactive attitude such as
resentment or blame.

Six Stages of Moral Development

The American psychologist Lawrence Kohlberg is best known for his
theory of stages of moral development. In Heinz dilemma, Kohlberg found a
pattern in how people justified whether or not they would steal the drug as
people age. By analyzing the answers from various children, Kohlberg
discovered that the reasons tend to change as the children got older.

Kohlberg’s Theory consist of 3 levels and 6 stages of Moral

Development

Level Age Range Stage

Level 1: Pre- Pre – school children, Stage 1: Obedience and

Conventional Elementary, Some HS Punishment Orientation
Morality students
Stage2: Individualism
and
Exchange
Level 2: Seen in a few older Stage 3: Good Interpersonal
Conventional Elementary and many Relationships
Morality high school students
Level 2: Seen in a few older Stage 3: Good
Conventional Elementary and many
Morality high school students Interpersonal
Relationships
Stage 4: Maintaining
Social
Order
Level 3: Rarely seen before Stage 5:
Post - college (Stage 6 is Social Contract and
Conventional extremely rare even in Individual rights
Morality adults)
Stage 6:
Universal
Principles

Six Stages of Moral Development

Level 1 – Pre-Conventional Morality
• Stage 1. Obedience and Punishment Orientation

31
 • Stage 2. Individualism and Exchange
Level 2 – Conventional Morality
• Stage 3. Good Interpersonal Relationships
• Stage 4. Maintaining the Social Order
Level 3 – Post- Conventional Morality
• Stage 5. Social Contract and Individual Rights
• Stage 6. Universal Principles

Closure Activities (place your answer on p. 89)

1. Write in one sentence the important learning you got from this module.

2. Write in the space below one word that best describe what you feel right
now on finishing this module.

3. Write in one sentence what you think these learning can contribute in
developing your moral behaviour.

Synthesis/Generalization

1. As Culture includes all the things individuals learn while

growing up among particular group: attitudes, standards
of morality, rules of etiquette, perceptions of reality,
language, notions about the proper way to live, beliefs
about how females and males should interact, ideas
about how the world works and so forth, it is without
doubt that culture has role in the development of man’s
moral behaviour.
2. Moral law is not a social convention; it is not something
which human beings had just made up for themselves
and might have been different had they liked. Whether or
not people know and like them, they are as they are.
3. Cultural relativism has both positive lessons and bad
consequences to provide. Let us make ourselves the
judge of its worth.
4. Eastern, Western, and Filipino cultures provide different
perspectives about ethics and morality. Nevertheless all
of them contribute in making man become better
equipped to face moral issues and problems.
5. Universal values are present in society. They help create
peaceful and harmonious communities and societies.
6. The moral character that man projects are dependent on
his acts. Good moral character elicits virtuous actions;
bad moral character elicits vicious actions. Virtuous
actions make a good character and vicious actions make
a bad character
7. Kohlberg believes that man’s moral development has to
undergo stages.

32
Evaluation

Knowledge Check (place your answer on page 89)

A. Instruction: Identify whether the following is an expression of (GC)good

character or bad character (BC).

1. Helping somebody to steal 4. Writing libelous articles

2. Telling bad stories
3. Giving good remarks for an 5. Fighting for what is right
enemy

B. True or False. Write T if the statement is true and F if false.

______1. A certain moral character trait is a trait for which the agent is morally
responsible.
______2. A moral character trait for which a person is deserving of a positive
reactive attitude,, such as praise or gratitude is a vice.
______3. Moral character traits are those dispositions of character for which it
is suitable to hold agents morally responsible.
______4. In the process of moral development, there is the circular relation
between acts that build character and moral character itself.
______5. In stage 1 of Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development, children are
disposed to be egotistic or self-serving.

Assignment (place your answers on pp.89-90)

1. Cite a person who has influenced your character and explain why?

2. Cite a cultural belief that you find in your community and make a
reflection paper on its meaning, its influence on your behaviour and the
behaviour of other people in your community and whether you endorse
or not to other communities.

References:
Agapay, R. B.(1995, 2008) Ethics and the Filipino: A Manual on Morals for
Students and Educators,
2ns ed. Manila: National Bookstore, Inc.

Ardales, V. B.(1987) Introductory Text to Philosophy. Quezon City: Great

Books Trading, Inc.

Babor, E. R. (1999) Ethics: The Philosophical Discipline of Action, 1st ed.

Manila, Philippines, Rex
Book Store.

Cruz, C. C. (1995) Contemporary Ethics. Manila: National Bookstore, Inc.

De Guzman J.M et al. (2017). Ethics: Principles of Ethical Behavior in Modern

Society. Malabon City: Mutya Publishing House, inc.

33
Dela Torre, J. (1993) Ethics: The man’s Tool for the Development of Sound
Professional and Civil Life. Manila: Educational Publishing House,
Inc. `

Dy Jr., M B. (1986) Philosophy of Man: Selected Readings. Manila: Goodwill

Trading Co. Inc.

Glen, Paul J. (1965) Ethics, A Class Manual in Moral Philosophy, (reprint)

Manila: National Bookstore.
____________. (1994) Contemporary Social Philosophy. Manila: Goodwill
Trading Co. Inc.

Montemayor, F. M.(1994) Ethics: The Philosophy of Life. Manila, Philippines:

National Book Store

____________.(1995) Introduction to Philosophy Through the Philosophy of

Man. 2nd ed. Manila: National Book Store, Inc.

Panizo, A., O.P. (1964) Ethics or Moral Philosophy. Manila: UST Textbook
Series

Robles, G. S. (1994) Everyday Ethics. Manila: Educational Publishing House,

Inc.

http://philonotes.com/index.php/2018/05/13/ethics/

Chapter 2: THE AGENT

34
 Module 3: The Human Act

Introduction

As Ethics is defined as the practical science of the morality of human

actions, it is imperative to have a clear understanding of the act, the human actions.
Human actions may either be moral, immoral or amoral depending on the
circumstances that surround them. This module is dedicated for you to get
acquainted with the act, the human act. It is hoped that the discussion, description
and explanation in this module will further help in your journey to the understanding
of ethics. Make use of this module to provide you with insights and ideas to help
you understand the object of study in ethic, the human act.

Test Yourself (place your answer on p. 91)

Instruction: Identify whether the following is a Deliberate (D) or Instinctive

(I)

1. Breathing 4. Writing
2. Reading

3. Dreaming 5. Cooking
Learning Objectives

With the completion of this self-learning module, you should be able to:

1. Describe the difference between human act and act of man.

2. Illustrate knowledge of the essential attributes of human act.
3. Differentiate elicited from commanded acts

Content

Preparatory Activity

Exercise (place your answer on p. 91)

1. List down 5 actions that men consciously do.

2. List down 5 actions that men unconsciously do

Developmental Activities

Human Act versus Act of Man (Some discussions are lifted from
Agapay”s book Ethics and the Filipino)

35
 Ethics deals with the study of man and particularly with his actions. But not
every act which proceeds from man is a human act, as used and understood in
ethics. By human act acts in ethics, we mean:

• The free voluntary acts of man

• The acts with knowledge and consent
• Acts which are proper to man as man; because, of all animals, he alone has
knowledge and freedom of will.
• Acts which, we are conscious are under our control and for which we are
responsible.
• Human acts are those which man is master, which he has the power of
doing or doing as he pleases.

Acts therefore, in order to be truly human, must be done willfully, knowingly

and freely. Without will or consent, knowledge and freedom, there can be no human
act properly so called. Only human acts have moral significance. When one shoots
and kills another by a revolver, the act is morally wrong, but the moral evil is not in
the action of the revolver but in the act of the one who pulled the trigger that
released the bullet.

The biological or physiological functions or processes which occur in man’s

body, such as the circulation of the blood, the growth of hair and nails, the opening
and closing of the valves of the hear, breathing, etc., are not human acts and have
no moral bearing or significance. They are instinctive and are not within the control
of man. They are called acts of man. As such, they are not wilfully done, knowingly
done and freely. Examples of acts under this category: acts of person asleep or
under hypnosis, reflex actions where the will has no time to intervene and acts
performed under serious physical violence such as hostage obliged to do an evil
action.

Human acts are either elicited or commanded acts. Elicited acts are those
performed by the will and are not bodily externalized. Paul Glenn enumerated the
following elicited acts:

• Wish is the tendency of the will towards something, whether this this be
realizable or not. The object of wishing may include the impossible, or that
which is remotely possible such as winning the sweepstakes.

36
 • Intention is the tendency of the will towards attainable but without
necessarily committing oneself to attain it. Such is our intention to study the
lesson, to attend a party, or to spend a vacation in Baguio
• Consent is the acceptance of the will of those needed to carry out the
intention. Thus a woman is said to show consent when she consciously
attract attention to herself.
• Election is the selection of the will of those means effective enough to carry
out the intention. A salesman shows election when he opts to visit a client
instead of just writing him a letter.
• Use is the command of the will to make use of those means elected to carry
out the intention. It is this act of the will which moves the salesman to dress
up and take a ride to see his client.
• Fruition is the enjoyment of the will derives from the attainment of the thing
he had desired earlier. The joy of the woman on being complimented for her
attractiveness, or the satisfaction of the salesman in closing a deal with his
client is fruition.

Commanded acts are those done either by man‘s mental or bodily powers
under the command of the will. Commanded acts are either internal or external
actions. Examples of internal actions are conscious reasoning, recalling
something, encouraging oneself, controlling aroused emotions and others.
Examples of external actions are walking, eating, dancing, laughing, listening,
reading and others. Some actions are combinations of internal and external actions
such as listening, studying, reading, driving a car, writing a letter or playing chess.

37
38
39
40
 Closure Activty (place your answer on p. 91)

4. Write in one sentence the important learning you got from this module.
5. Write in the space below one word that best describe what you feel right
now on finishing this module.
6. Write in one sentence what you think these learning can contribute in
developing your moral behaviour.

Synthesis/Generalization

1. An act to have moral significance must be a human act.

2. A human act is an act that is knowingly done, wilfully done and freely done.
3. An act is an involuntary and reflexive action; it is not knowingly done, wilfully
done and freely done
4. Elicited acts are acts performed by the will but not bodily externalized
5. Commanded acts are acts performed by the will and are bodily externalized.

Evaluation

Knowledge Check (place your answer on page 92)

A. Identify the following:

1. An instinctive action

2. An act performed and completed by the will but not

bodily externalized.

41
 3. Action which is knowing, free and willful.

4. The enjoyment of the will coming from the attainment

of something previously desires.

5. Acts done either by man’s mental or bodily powers

under the command of the will.

B. Instruction: Identify whether the following is a Deliberate (D) or Instinctive (I)

1. Breathing 4. Writing

2. Reading

3. Dreaming 5. Cooking

Assignment (Place your answer on coupon bond)

Make a research on the topic crime of passion. Read and understand what it Is
all about. Then write an essay describing what it is, why is it wrong, and what
is needed to prevent it.

References:

Agapay, R. B.(1995, 2008) Ethics and the Filipino: A Manual on Morals for
Students and Educators 2ns ed. Manila: National Bookstore, Inc.
Ardales, V. B.(1987) Introductory Text to Philosophy. Quezon City: Great Books
Trading, Inc.

Babor, E. R. (1999) Ethics: The Philosophical Discipline of Action, 1st ed. Manila,
Philippines, Rex Book Store.

Cruz, C. C. (1995) Contemporary Ethics. Manila: National Bookstore, Inc.

De Guzman J.M et al. (2017). Ethics: Principles of Ethical Behavior in Modern

Society. Malabon City: Mutya Publishing House, inc.

Dela Torre, J. (1993) Ethics: The man’s Tool for the Development of Sound
Professional and Civil Life. Manila: Educational Publishing House, Inc.

Dy Jr., M B. (1986) Philosophy of Man: Selected Readings. Manila: Goodwill

Trading Co. Inc.

Glen, Paul J. (1965) Ethics, A Class Manual in Moral Philosophy, (reprint) Manila:
National Bookstore.

____________. (1994) Contemporary Social Philosophy. Manila: Goodwill

Trading Co. Inc.

Montemayor, F. M.(1994) Ethics: The Philosophy of Life. Manila, Philippines:

National Book Store

____________.(1995) Introduction to Philosophy Through the Philosophy of Man.

2nd ed. Manila: National Book Store, Inc.

Panizo, A., O.P. (1964) Ethics or Moral Philosophy. Manila: UST Textbook Series

42
Robles, G. S. (1994) Everyday Ethics. Manila: Educational Publishing House, Inc.

http://philonotes.com/index.php/2018/05/13/ethics/`

43
Chapter 3 : THE ACT

Module 4: The Human Act as Knowingly Done

Introduction

This module is concerned with developing your understanding of what

human act as knowingly is, the modifier of knowledge and, reason and impartiality
as minimum requirement of morality. It is hoped that the discussion, description
and explanation in this module will further help in your journey to the
understanding of ethics, especially knowledge as an essential attribute of human
act. Make use of this module to provide you with insights and ideas to help you
understand knowledge as an essential attribute of a human act.

Test Yourself (place your answer on page 93)

Instruction: Identify whether the following is knowingly done (K) or not

knowingly done (WK)

1. Praying 4. Biking
2. Breathing
3. Snoring. 5. Seeing something

Learning Objectives

With the completion of this self-learning module, you should be able to:

1. Describe knowledge as an essential attribute of human act.

2. Cite and explain the principles related to ignorance as a modifier of
knowledge.
3. Interpret what it means by saying reason and impartiality are the
minimum requirements of mortality.

Content

Preparatory Activities

Exercise (place your answer on page 93)

1. List down 3 actions you do which is reasonable (with

good reason).

2. List down 3 actions you do which is unreasonable

(without good reason).

44
 Developmental Activities

Acts as knowingly Done

Another essential attribute for human act is knowledge. It means that you
should be sure that you know what you are doing. To will something, one has to
know beforehand. Man cannot choose or act unless he know which is a better
good. When a person chooses to act according to what he knows, he acts freely.
What can make man know what he is doing is his reason. . But the intellect does
not always determine the will.

Modifier Of Knowledge: Ignorance

We are familiar with the saying, “Ignorance of the law excuses no one”. This
implies that one should not act in the state of ignorance and the one who has done
wrong may n0ot claim ignorance as a defense.

Ignorance is the absence of knowledge which a person ought to possess. A

lawyer is expected to know his law, the doctor his medicine; and the manager, his
business operations. In the realm of morals, every one of age and reason is
expected to know at least the general norms of good behavior.

Ignorance is either vincible or invincible. Vincible ignorance can easily be

reminded through ordinary diligences and reasonable efforts. The ignorance of a
visitor regarding a particular address in a certain place is vincible, since he can
easily ask for information from a policeman or pedestrian.

Invincible ignorance is the type which a person without being aware of it,
or having awareness of it, lacks the means to rectify it. The ignorance regarding
missing persons or objects is often invincible. Thus a cook might be unaware that
the food he is cooking is contaminated.

Under the category of vincible ignorance is affected. This is the type which
a person keeps by positive efforts in order to escape responsibility. It is affected
ignorance when an employee refuses to read a memo precisely so that he may be
exempted from its requirements.

Principles:
1. Invicble ignorance renders an involuntary, A person cannot be held
morally liable if he is not aware of his state of ignorance. A waiter
who is not aware that the food he is serving has been poisoned
cannot be held for murder.

2. Vincible ignorance does not destroy but lessens the voluntariness

and the corresponding accountability over the act. A person who
becomes aware of the state of ignorance he is in has the moral
obligation to rectify it by exercising reasonable diligence in seeking
the needed information. To act with vincble ignorance is to act
imprudently. A waiter who suspects that the food he is serving has
been laced with poison has the moral obligation to ascertain the fact
or at least forewarn the guests about the suspicion.

45
 3. Affected ignorance though it decreases voluntariness, increases the
accountability over the resultant act. Insofar as affected ignorance
interferes with the intellect, it decreases voluntariness. But insofar as
it willed to persist, it increases accountability. Certainly, refusing to
rectify ignorance implies malice. And the malice is greater when
ignorance is used as an excuse for not doing the right thing. Thus a
child who refuses to be guided by his parents has only himself to
blame for his wrongdoing.

Reason and Impartiality

Reason plays a vital role in Ethics as moral truths are truths of reason; a
moral judgment is true if it is espoused by a better reason than the alternatives. If
someone tells us that a certain action is immoral, we may ask why it is so and if
there is no reasonable answer, we may discard the proposition as absurd.

46
Impartiality
It involves the idea that each individual’s interests and point of view are
equally important. It is a principle of justice holding that decisions ought to be
based on objective criteria, rather than on the basis of bias, prejudice or preferring
the benefit to one person over another for improper reason.

47
48
49
 Closure Activities (place your answer on page 93)

1. Write in three (3) sentences the important learning you got from this
module.

2. Write in the space below one word that best describe what you feel
right now on finishing this module.
3. Write in one sentence what you think these learning can contribute in
developing your moral behaviour.

Synthesis/Generalization

A knowingly done act can be disturbed the by the presence of

ignorance. A knowingly done action must be product of reason and
impartiality, must be backed up with valid arguments and executed
without prejudice, selfishness and bias.

Evaluation

Knowledge Check (place your answer on page 94)

I. Answer briefly: “Ignorance of the law excuses no one”

I. True or False. Write T if the statement is true; F if false.

50
______1. Humans have not only feelings but also reason, and reason plays a vital
role in Ethics.
______2. Morality commends what it commends, regardless of our feelings,
attitude opinions, and desires.
______3. The principle of impartiality assumes that every person, generally
speaking, is equally important; that is, no one is seen as intrinsically more
significant than anyone else.
______4. When two opposing alternatives are offered, the consequences of one
are the mirror image of the other.
______5. It must be realized that one common element to moral impartiality is that
there are no easy and painless solutions to them.

Assignment

“Same Sex Marriage: Good or Bad for our Society?”

1. Read and understand the short blog below

2. Write a comment (maximum of three sentences) stating your
stand and brief reason concerning the debate topic. Use
reason and impartiality in composing your comment. Post in
your FB.
3. Ask at least three friends (preferably adults) to write a
comment on your post.
4. Screen your post and its conversation thread and send to
your professor.

References:

Agapay, R. B.(1995, 2008) Ethics and the Filipino: A Manual on Morals for
Students and Educators,
2ns ed. Manila: National Bookstore, Inc.

Ardales, V. B.(1987) Introductory Text to Philosophy. Quezon City: Great Books

Trading, Inc.

Babor, E. R. (1999) Ethics: The Philosophical Discipline of Action, 1 st ed. Manila,

Philippines, Rex
Book Store.

Cruz, C. C. (1995) Contemporary Ethics. Manila: National Bookstore, Inc.

De Guzman J.M et al. (2017). Ethics: Principles of Ethical Behavior in Modern

Society. Malabon City: Mutya Publishing House, inc.

Dela Torre, J. (1993) Ethics: The man’s Tool for the Development of Sound
Professional and Civil Life. Manila: Educational Publishing House, Inc. `

Dy Jr., M B. (1986) Philosophy of Man: Selected Readings. Manila: Goodwill

Trading Co. Inc.

Glen, Paul J. (1965) Ethics, A Class Manual in Moral Philosophy, (reprint) Manila:
National Bookstore.

51
____________. (1994) Contemporary Social Philosophy. Manila: Goodwill
Trading Co. Inc.

Montemayor, F. M.(1994) Ethics: The Philosophy of Life. Manila, Philippines:

National Book Store

____________.(1995) Introduction to Philosophy Through the Philosophy of Man.

2nd ed. Manila: National Book Store, Inc.

Panizo, A., O.P. (1964) Ethics or Moral Philosophy. Manila: UST Textbook Series

Robles, G. S. (1994) Everyday Ethics. Manila: Educational Publishing House, Inc.

http://philonotes.com/index.php/2018/05/13/ethics/

Same Sex Marriage: Good or Bad for our Society?

THE ISSUE cannot be ignored, as legislators and voters around the country
grapple with whether and how to recognize same-sex relationships.

Traditionally in this country, marriage has been defined as a religious and

legal commitment between a man and woman, as well as the ultimate
expression of love.

On the other side, gay marriage, also known as same-sex marriage, is

marriage between two persons of the same sex. Homosexual relationships
are increasingly gaining acceptance in other countries, but still banned in the
Philippines. A same-sex marriage opponent argues that marriage between a
woman and a man is the fundamental, cross-cultural institution for insuring
that children have loving, committed mothers and fathers while on the other
side, a same-sex marriage advocate argues that recognizing same-sex
unions would be good not only for gay people, but also for society at large,
since society has an interest in supporting stable, loving relationships for all
its members. The question here is, “Is it already a fascinating time for social
revolution? Or is it still needed for us to nurture the traditional family values
essential to our society?”

Possible reasons for same sex marriage:

1. Homosexuality is an accepted lifestyle nowadays with most evidence
strongly supporting biological causation.

52
2. It doesn't hurt society or anyone in particular. Therefore, denying these
marriages is a form of minority discrimination.
3. Legalizing same sex marriage will be a big help for orphanages since
same sex partners cannot pro-create which would probably brought them to
adopting orphans.
4. The only thing that should matter in marriage is love.
5. The same financial benefits that apply to man-woman marriages apply
to same-sex marriages.

Refer these to your siblings/children/younger friends:

53
Chapter 3 : THE ACT

Module 5: The Human Act As Willfully Done

Introduction

This module is concerned with developing your understanding of what

human act as willfully done is, the modifier of free will, and feelings and moral
decision making. It is hoped that the discussion, description and explanation in this
module will further help in your journey to the understanding of ethics, especially
will as an essential attribute of human act and the role of feelings in making moral
decision. Make use of this module to provide you with insights and ideas to help you
understand free will as an essential attribute of a human act and the role of feelings
in moral decision making.

Test Yourself (place your answer on page 97)

Instruction: Identify whether the following is willfully done (W) or not

willfully done (NW)

1. Crying 4. Driving
2. Smelling
3. Dreaming 5. Sleepwalking

Learning Objectives

With the completion of this self-learning module, you should be able to:

4. Describe free will as an essential attribute of human act.

5. Cite and explain the principles related to passions and habits as
modifiers of knowledge.
6. Capture and analyse their feelings in personal moral experience

Content

Preparatory Activities(place your answer on page 97)

Exercise

3. List down 3 actions that express positive emotions

4. List down 3 actions that express negative emotions

Developmental Activities

54
Acts as Willfully Done

One essential attribute of an act to be truly human is the willingness to do the

act; you like doing it, you love doing it and your mind, your heart, your soul and your
whole self is with. Whether it be elicited or commanded, the willingness should be
present to be truly human and to have moral significance. By moral significance, we
mean such act can be judged as moral or right as it conforms to the norms of
morality, immoral or wrong as it does not conform with the norms of morality or,
amoral or indifferent as it cannot be determined as to whether it conforms or not to
the norms of morality.

Modifiers of the Will : Passions and Habits

As the moral significance of a human act is very important, it good to know

that there are instances when the presence or absence of such essential attribute can
make a difference in the determination of its moral distinction as to whether moral
immoral or amoral. Let us look into tow modifiers of the will which can have
important effect in the moral distinction

Passion or concupiscence

Passion or concupiscence, are either tendencies towards desirable objects or

tendencies away from undesirable or harmful things. The former are called positive
emotions; the latter negative emotions. Passions are psychic responses. As such they
are neither mortal nor immoral. However, man is bound to regulate his emotions and
submit them to the control of reason.

Passions are either antecedent or consequent. Antecedent passions are those

that precede an act. It may happen that a person is emotionally aroused to
perform an act. Antecedent passions predisposed a person to act. Thus, love may
induce one to make numerous and lengthy phone calls to his sweetheart or to plot
the murder of a rival.

Principle: Antecedent passions do not always destroy voluntariness but they

diminish accountability for the resultant act. Antecedent passions weaken the will

55
power of a person without however, completely obstructing his freedom. Thus the so
called “crimes of passion” are voluntary. But in so far as passions interfere with the
freedom of the will one’s accountability is diminished.

Consequent passions are those intentionally aroused and kept. Consequent

passions therefore are said to be voluntary in cause, the result of the will playing the
strings of emotions. Thus a young man may deliberately arouse himself sexually by
reading pornographic magazines. Or a victim of injustice may intentionally nurse his
resentment towards his tormentor. The young man who commits lasciviousness after
arousing himself sexually and the fellow who commits vengeance due to his
cultivated resentment are both morally accountable.

Principle: Consequent passion do not lessen voluntariness, it may even increase

accountability. This is because consequent passions are direct results of the will
which fully consent to them instead of subordinating them to its control.

Habit

Habit as defined by Glenn “is a lasting readiness and faculty, born of

frequently repeated acts, for acting in a certain manner. Habits are acquired
inclinations towards something to be done. They assume the role of a second nature,
moving one who has them to perform acts with relative ease.

The word habit forming that we use to refer to certain experiences shows how
easy it is for one to acquire a habit. It also implies that a habit is not easy to overcome
or alter. It requires a strong willed person to correct a habit successfully within a
limited period of time. Thus alcoholics and smokers find it almost impossible to
reform

Principle: Action doe by force of habit are voluntary in cause, unless a reasonable
effort is made to counteract the habitual inclination, Habits are either good or bad,.
We speak here of bad habits which lead to immoral acts.

Habits are voluntary in cause because they are the result of previously willed
acts done repeatedly as a matter of fact. Thus every activity emanating form habit is
said to partaker of the voluntariness of those previous acts. Therefore for as long as
the habit is not corrected, evil actions done by force of habit are voluntary and
accountable. When a person decides to fight his habit, and for as long as the effort
towards this purpose continues, actions resulting from such habit may be regarded as
acts of man and not accountable. The reason as pointed out by Glenn is that the
cause of such habit is no longer expressly desired.

Feelings and Moral Decision-Making

Feelings As Instinctive Response to Moral Dilemmas

Ethics is also a matter of emotion; moral judgments at their best should be

emotional; feelings are deemed as instinctive and trained response to moral
dilemmas. Ethical judgments are highly emotional as people emotionally express
strong approval or disapproval of different acts. Being good involves both thinking
and feeling.

56
Feelings as obstacles to Making the Right Decisions

Feelings/Emotions can become obstacles or impediments to becoming ethical.

Especially when feeling’s roles in ethics are misinterpreted or exaggerated.

Ethical Subjectivism

Ethical subjectivism is a meta-ethical theory, It holds that the truth or falsity of

ethical propositions is dependent on the feelings, attitude, or standards of a person
or group of persons. It denies that there is objectivity in morality. Moral judgments
are not about objective facts, but are simply about our personal feelings. Subjectivists
hold that there is no such thing as objective right or real wrong.

• Controversial Ethical topic: Abortion

First group: Abortion is immoral!
Second group: Abortion must be tolerated
Third group: No moral stance is objectively right and wrong, your
moral opinions are merely based on your feelings!

• Homosexuality is wrong!
He is not stating a fact about homosexuality, he is just reporting his
feelings towards it.

Analyzing Ethical Subjectivism

• Positive side:

We are to identify our moral principles by simply following our own feelings,
not by what society dictates

Problem 1:
• It provides a weak foundation when dealing with acts like rape,
bullying, and slavery
• We cannot say that these acts are morally incorrect, we can only
express our negative feelings towards it
• We believe and claim that our stance represents the “truth”

Problem 2:
• Implies that each of us is infallible in expressing our feelings about
moral issues
• We can be wrong in our moral evaluation
• Counter-argument: “If Ethical Subjectivism is correct, then each of us
is infallible in our moral judgments as long as we are speaking
sincerely. But we are not infallible – we may be mistaken, even when
we are speaking sincerely. Therefore, Ethical Subjectivism cannot be
correct”.

Problem 3:
• Subjectivism cannot account for the fact of disagreement in ethics
• Counter-argument: “When A says “X is morally acceptable” and B says

57
 “X is morally unacceptable”, they are disagreeing. But if Ethical
subjectivism is correct, there would be no disagreement between A
and B. Therefore, Ethical Subjectivism cannot be correct.”

Emotivism

Emotivism is an improved version of Subjectivism; actually the most popular

form of non-cognitivism, the meta-ethical theory that claims that ethical sentences
do not convey authentic propositions. It based on Logical Positivism that states that
all truth claims must be empirically verifiable. It denies moral truth and knowledge,
because of the absence of scientific or empirical evidence. Moral judgments
according to Emotivism are not statements of fact but are mere expressions of he
emotions of the speaker, especially since they are usually feelings based.

• Purposes of Language

Statement To convey Information

“Marcos was a President once.”
“Jose Rizal wrote Noli me Tangere”

Command To influence conduct

“Close the door!”

Expression

Express the speaker’s attitude

“Yes Lord!”

Reporting vs. Expressing an Attitude

“I like Marcos.”
^I am reporting the fact that I have a positive attitude towards him.
“Hurrah for Marcos!”
^I am expressing an attitude, but not reporting that I have it.

• Two purposes of Ethical Utterances

1. As a command
“Stealing is immoral”
“Don’t steal!”

2. To express (not report) a speaker’s attitude

“Fair play is good”
“Hurrah for fair play!”
“I approve of fair play”

Subjectivism vs. Emotivism

Subjectivism
= “I disapprove of hazing.”
Seen as a statement of fact about the speaker.
Can be true or false.

58
Emotivism
≠ “I disapprove of hazing.”
=“Do not participate in hazing.”
Does not state a fact about the speaker at all.

Evaluating Emotivism: Faults

1. It suggests that in ethical disputes, we can only appeal to emotion, not
reason. This situation can bring about anarchy.
2. It is against deliberate discussions about ethical differences.
3. It fails to distinguish moral judgements from expressions of personal
preferences.
4. Personal taste, does not require to be supported by reason. Moral
statements require backing by reasons. In the absence of sensible
rationale, they are merely capricious and ignorable.
5. The theory reduced morality to mere matters of feelings without
reasons. The fact is moral truths are truths of reasons

Feelings Can Help in Making the Right Decisions

There are situations in which our feelings and likings are relevant to the
rightness of our decisions and actions. Christian Philosophy of love is basically a
string of liking, desire, or emotion. Moral compasses are strongly influenced by the
fleeting forces of disgust, fondness, or fear. Emotions like our love for family and
friends play crucial part in giving meaning to life. Feelings should not be removed in
the sphere of morality. There are times when feelings are relevant to the rightness of
decisions and actions. Ethics-without-feeling goes against Christian philosophy’s
emphasis on love, in which we should serve God with a joyful heart or feeling.
Sometimes, rational thinking is not the only proper way to make an ethical decision.
Nonetheless, feelings and emotions involved in moral thinking should be
anchored on careful deliberations. It ought to mesh with an emotional instinctive
reaction that provides a motivation to act ethically and correct injustices.

Six ways to Control Your emotions and Make Better Decisions

1. Pause and assess the situation. This simple act can save you
headaches down the road. Give your brain enough time to evaluate
the current situation so you can make the right choice.
2. Don't always rely on your gut. Intuition, more commonly known as
“gut feeling”, is one of our most basic instincts. It helps us identify cues in
the environment so we avoid danger and survive. But avoid trusting this
human sense when it comes to games of chance (i.e. circumstances that
rely on a 50/50 probability). The best examples would be gambling and
the stock market. So when can you rely on your gut? When there are skills
or experience involved.
3. Put it in writing. You’re not going to feel better right away – however,
keeping notes about your day is a tried-and-tested form of therapy. It’s
free, it gives you some alone time, and you can review your thoughts later
for more clarity.
4. Narrow your options. Narrowing your selection will not only save

59
 you a lot of stress, science says you’ll be happier with the choice
you’ve made, too!
5. Ask the majority. One of the best tricks to choosing the right
decision – especially if it involves big risks – is to ask for a second
opinion.
6. Avoid burnout. Feeling stressed, confused, or anxious? Get some
rest. Not only will you feel refreshed after waking up, your mind
will be clearer to pick a better option.

Closure Activities (place your answer on page 99)

1. Write in one the important learning you got from this module.
2. Write in the space below one word that best describe what you feel
right now on finishing this module.
3. Write in one sentence what you think these learnings has contributed
in developing your moral behaviour.

Synthesis/Generalization

A wilfully done action can be altered by the presence of passion and

habit. Feelings are instinctive responses to moral dilemmas. Yet as
responses they may either be obstacles or helps in making moral
decisions; that is why there is a need to be on guard against the
improper use of feelings in moral decisions.

Evaluation

Knowledge Check (place your answer on page 97)

Answer briefly
1. Why you are not justified in doing wrong because of passions?

2. Why are we accountable for actions done out habits?

Identify the following:

___________1. They are seen as also necessary in ethical judgment as they are even
deemed by some as instinctive and trained response to moral dilemmas.
___________2. They are either tendencies towards desirable objects or tendencies
away from undesirable or harmful things.
___________3. A lasting readiness and faculty, born of frequently repeated acts, for
acting in a certain manner.
___________4. They hold that there is no such thing as objective right or real wrong.
___________5. This claims that any legitimate truth claim must be empirically
verifiable.

60
 Assignment

5. Read and understand the 10 suggestions on getting away with

anger
6. In the FB, post a comment using this template. (Among the
ten given ways, the best way to get away from anger is….
because …….) Use the hash tags #Moral Courage #CoolKaLang
7. Ask at least three friends (preferably those who are angry at
you) to write a comment on your post.
8. Screen your post and its conversation thread and send to
your professor.

References:

Agapay, R. B.(1995, 2008) Ethics and the Filipino: A Manual on Morals for Students
and Educators,
2ns ed. Manila: National Bookstore, Inc.

Ardales, V. B.(1987) Introductory Text to Philosophy. Quezon City: Great Books

Trading, Inc.

Babor, E. R. (1999) Ethics: The Philosophical Discipline of Action, 1st ed. Manila,
Philippines, Rex
Book Store.

Cruz, C. C. (1995) Contemporary Ethics. Manila: National Bookstore, Inc.

De Guzman J.M et al. (2017). Ethics: Principles of Ethical Behavior in Modern

Society. Malabon City: Mutya Publishing House, inc.

Dela Torre, J. (1993) Ethics: The man’s Tool for the Development of Sound
Professional and Civil Life. Manila: Educational Publishing House, Inc. `

Dy Jr., M B. (1986) Philosophy of Man: Selected Readings. Manila: Goodwill Trading

Co. Inc.

Glen, Paul J. (1965) Ethics, A Class Manual in Moral Philosophy, (reprint) Manila:
National Bookstore.
____________. (1994) Contemporary Social Philosophy. Manila: Goodwill Trading
Co. Inc.

Montemayor, F. M.(1994) Ethics: The Philosophy of Life. Manila, Philippines:

National Book Store

____________.(1995) Introduction to Philosophy Through the Philosophy of Man. 2nd

ed. Manila: National Book Store, Inc.

Panizo, A., O.P. (1964) Ethics or Moral Philosophy. Manila: UST Textbook Series

Robles, G. S. (1994) Everyday Ethics. Manila: Educational Publishing House, Inc.

61
Chapter 3: THE ACT

Module 6: The Human Act As Freely Done

Introduction

This module is concerned with developing your understanding of what

human act as freely done is, freedom as foundation of morality the modifier of
freedom, and the role of moral courage in becoming ethical. It is hoped that the
discussion, description and explanation in this module will further help in your
journey to the understanding of ethics, especially freedom as an essential attribute of
human act, freedom as the minimum requirement of morality and the role of moral
courage in ethics. Make use of this module to provide you with insights and ideas to
help you understand freedom as an essential attribute of a human act, freedom as
foundation of morality the modifier of freedom, and the role of moral courage in
becoming ethical.

Test Yourself (place your answer on p. 100)

Instruction: Identify whether the following is freely done (F) or not freely
done (NF)

1. Driving a car happily 4. Tortured

2. Being raped
_____ 3. Sharing Experiences _______ 5. Writing a letter for a friend

Learning Objectives

With the completion of this self-learning module, you should be able to:

7. Describe freedom as an essential attribute of human act.

8. Cite and explain the principles related to fear and violence as modifiers
of freedom.
9. Exhibit knowledge of the role or freedom and moral courage in morality.

Content

Preparatory Activities (place your answer p.100)

Exercise

5. List down 3 actions that express courage.

6. List down 3 actions that express cowardice

62
 Developmental Activities

Act as Freely Done

Freedoms as a Foundation of Morality

One of the reasons animals cannot be truly ethical is that they are not really
autonomous or free. Likewise, a robot no matter how beneficial its functions may be
cannot be said to be moral, for it has no freedom or choice but to work according to
what is commanded based on its built-in program.

Basically, morality is a question of choice. Morality, practically is choosing

ethical codes, values or standards to guide us in our daily lives. Philosophically,
choosing is impossible without freedom.

Morality requires and allows choice, which means, the right to choose even
differently from our fellows. In their daily lives, people make the choice to give to
charities, donate time and money to schools, mentor children, open businesses, or
protest against animal cruelty.

Everyone who wishes to function morally, and rationally in a society has to

make choices virtually every minute of the day. Practically, the sum of our choices
can be said to define our specific morality. Applicably, using the government or
one’s culture to coerce people to behave in a certain way is not morality but the
antithesis of morality. This principle in ethics applies even when the motive is pure.

63
The Modifier Of Freedom: Fear and Violence

Fear

Fear is the mind of a person who is confronted by an impending danger or

harm himself or loved ones. Distinction is made however between an act done with
fear and act done out or because of fear.

Certain actions which by nature are dangerous or risky are done with fear with
varying degree of fear. Climbing a cliff, flying an airplane through a storm, diving for
pearls, or arresting a notorious killer are examples of acts performed with fear. In
these cases, fear is a normal response to danger. Such actions are voluntary because
the doer is in full control of his faculties and acts in spite of his fear.

Fear is an instinct for self-preservation. We even fear new experiences or

situations such as embarking on a long journey, being left alone in a strange place, or
being asked to speak before a group of people. But doing something out of fear or
because of it is entirely different. Here, fear becomes a positive force compelling a
person to act without careful deliberation

The child reads his book out of fear of the mother; the employee volunteers to
work overtime out fear of being fired by the boss; a friend stops smoking out of fear
of contracting cancer. These examples show actions done because of fear. Fear
modifies the freedom of the doer, inducing him to act in a certain predetermined
manner often without his full consent.

Principles:
1. Acts done with fear are voluntary. A person acting with of fear is acting
in spite of his fear and is in full control of himself.
2. Acts done out of fear, however great is simply voluntary although is
conditionally voluntary. It is simply voluntary because the person

64
 remains in control of his faculties including that of moderating fear. It
is also conditionally involuntary because, if it were not for the presence
of something feared, the person would not act or would act in another
way.
3. Acts done because of intense fear or panic are involuntary. Panic
completely obscures the mind. In this mental state, a person is not
expected to think sensibly. Thus a person in a state of panic might
jump from the 12th floor of a building. Such is not considered suicide
since it is done involuntarily. Panic cause a person to lose complete
control of himself.

Intimidating or threatening a person with harm is an unjust act.

Legally speaking, actions done out of fear are invalid acts. Thus
contracts entered into out of fear are voidable, meaning they can later
on be annulled. It is grossly unfair to oblige a person to fulfil a contract
obtained by the forced of a threat.

Violence

Violence refers to any physical force exerted on a person by another free agent
for the purpose of compelling said person to act against his will. Bodily torture,
maltreatment, isolation and mutilation are examples of violence against person.

Principles:

1. External actions or commanded actions performed by a person

subjected to violence to which reasonable resistance has been offered
are involuntary and are not accountable. Active resistance should
always be offered to an unjust aggressor. However if resistance is
impossible, or if the there is a serious threat to one’s life, a person
confronted by violence can always offer intrinsic resistance by
withholding consent that his enough to save his moral integrity.
2. Elicited acts or those done by the ill alone are not subject to violence
and are therefore voluntary. The will insofar as it is a spiritual faculty is
not within the reach of violence. History carries the story of thousand
heroes who had suffered death instead of surrendering their will to
that of their tormentors. On the contrary, we consider them villains or
weakling those who succumbed and consented to the wishes of tyrants.
Burt we may not be too harsh on them, since every man has his own
limit of endurance. “Violence of force in any instance if bound with the
refined cruelty of present day methods of psychological torture, can
constitute a serious temptation and often also contribute towards a
notable diminution of inner freedom.

Moral Courage

We have learned that in morality, over reliance on feelings, to say the least is
disadvantageous in resolving moral dilemmas. We are thus advised to guide

65
emotions with reason if not tonally suppress them. But reason for many ethicists is
also not enough in carrying out moral decisions. Moral courage is also important.

The Importance of Will and Moral Courage

Moral Courage means doing the right thing even at the risk of inconvenience,
ridicule, loss of job or security or social status, etc. It requires that we rise above the
apathy, complacency, hatred, cynicism, and fear mongering in our political systems,
socioeconomic divisions and cultural/religious differences. Will refers to that
faculty of the mind which chooses at the moment of making decision, the
strongest desire from among the various desires present. Will does not refer
to any particular desire, but rather to the capacity to act decisively on one’s
desires. Moral courage demands us to make judgments about what behavior
or acts are supportive to our ethical ideologies or highest ideals, and which
ones are destructive. Moral courage and will require us to recognize our
responsibilities and be accountable to the consequences of our own actions.

66
 Closure Activities (place your answer on p. 100)

4. Write in one sentence the important learning you got from this
module.
5. Write in the space below one word that best describe what you feel
right now on finishing this module.
6. Write in one sentence what you think these learning can contribute in
developing your moral behaviour.

Synthesis/Generalization

A freely done act can be affected by the presence of fear and violence. Moral
Courage is important in the midst of fear and violence. Thus we need to develop will
and moral courage.

Evaluation

Knowledge Check (place your answer on p. 100)

Answer briefly
3. What actions may be justified because of violence? Give 2
4. Why are actions done out of fear accountable actions?
3. Enumerate the 5 Individuals who are outstanding examples of moral courage

67
 Assignment

Individual reflection on a most recent personal dilemma that tested my

courage: How did I decide and what did I actually do during my most important
experience in the past year?” Write a reflection paper about it

References:

Agapay, R. B.(1995, 2008) Ethics and the Filipino: A Manual on Morals for Students
and Educators,
2ns ed. Manila: National Bookstore, Inc.

Ardales, V. B.(1987) Introductory Text to Philosophy. Quezon City: Great Books

Trading, Inc.

Babor, E. R. (1999) Ethics: The Philosophical Discipline of Action, 1 st ed. Manila,

Philippines, Rex
Book Store.

Cruz, C. C. (1995) Contemporary Ethics. Manila: National Bookstore, Inc.

De Guzman J.M et al. (2017). Ethics: Principles of Ethical Behavior in Modern

Society. Malabon City: Mutya Publishing House, inc.

Dela Torre, J. (1993) Ethics: The man’s Tool for the Development of Sound
Professional and Civil Life. Manila: Educational Publishing House, Inc. `

Dy Jr., M B. (1986) Philosophy of Man: Selected Readings. Manila: Goodwill Trading

Co. Inc.

Glen, Paul J. (1965) Ethics, A Class Manual in Moral Philosophy, (reprint) Manila:
National Bookstore.
____________. (1994) Contemporary Social Philosophy. Manila: Goodwill Trading
Co. Inc.

Montemayor, F. M.(1994) Ethics: The Philosophy of Life. Manila, Philippines:

National Book Store

____________.(1995) Introduction to Philosophy Through the Philosophy of Man. 2nd

ed. Manila: National Book Store, Inc.

Panizo, A., O.P. (1964) Ethics or Moral Philosophy. Manila: UST Textbook Series

Robles, G. S. (1994) Everyday Ethics. Manila: Educational Publishing House, Inc.

http://philonotes.com/index.php/2018/05/13/ethics/

68
Chapter 3 THE ACT

Module 7: The Human Act : Its Determinants of Morality

Introduction

This module is concerned with developing your understanding of the

determinants of morality. It is hoped that the discussion, description and explanation
in this module will further help in your journey to the understanding of ethics,
especially the determinants of morality which is important in helping to develop
responsible moral agent. Make use of this module to provide you with insights and
ideas to help you understand the determinants of the morality of the human act.

Test Yourself (place your answer on page 102)

Read the following statement and write A if agree and D and if you disagree:
________ 1. Man in his right reason is capable of knowing whether his action is
right or wrong.
________2. The age of the person is important in determining the
accountability of the person who did the act.
________3. How the crime was committed has something with the gravity of
the offense.
_______4. The status of the person is important in determine the morality of
his action.
_______5. The intention of the doer of the act has a bearing in his
accountability of his action.

Learning Objectives

With the completion of this self-learning module, you should be able to:

10. Cite and describe the determinants of the morality of human act.
11. Interpret properly the principles of the determinants of morality.

Content

Preparatory Activities

Exercise (place your answer on p. 102)

Enumerate 3 human actions which you consider as immoral and cite your
reason why.

69
 Developmental Activities

Determinants of the Morality of Human acts

Morality consists in the conformity and non-conformity of an act with the

norm. But how does an act relate to the norm? How do we know that a given act is
morally objectionable or not Human acts relate to the norm under the following
aspects: a) the object in itself, that is the deed or act itself, b) .in its motive, and in its
circumstance. These are referred to as the object, the end and the circumstances.
These three aspects are called determinants of morality because they determine how
An act is rendered good, bad or indifferent on the basis of its relation with the norm.

1. The Object or The Act Itself

To consider an act in itself is to regard its nature. An act of course is not simply
a mental or bodily activity requiring an expenditure of energy. An act is a physical
tendency towards a definite result. This result is identified as the end of the act as
distinguished from the end of the agent or the end of the doer of the act.

70
 In the physical sense, some actions are because they produce such evil as pain,
hunger, or death. In the moral sense, actions are bad because they disturb the
harmony within the acting person. They are unfit to the natural and spiritual
tendencies of the human soul. Moral evils also produce physical harm and damage of
oneself and others. But they are moral evils because what they destroy is the innate
goodness, the image of God in our human nature. Thus we say that all moral evils are
that those that go against the natural law.

71
72
73
74
 2. The Motive or end of the Act.

a. End of the act- is the natural termination or completion of an act. It

determines whether an act is intrinsically or extrinsically good or evil. An act that is
intrinsically good is any act which is consistent with the natural tendencies of human
nature. And an act that is Intrinsically Evil is
-acts which are contrary to reason. Extrinsically Good or Evil actions are those which
are neutral or indifferent to the norm of morality; actions that are either good or bad,
not on account of their nature, but because of factors or circumstances concomitant
to them.

b. End of the Doer or agent is the purpose or motive which the doer wishes to
accomplish by his actions. Without a motive, an act is accidental or involuntary. “The
END does not justify the MEANS” BUT “The MEANS will always justify the END”.

75
Motive and Action: the correlation between motive and act is defined in the following
principle(Glenn: 111-113)

1. An evil act which is done on account of an evil motive is grievously wrong.

2. A good action done on account of an evil motive becomes evil itself.

3. A good action done on account of a good purpose acquires an additional

merit.

76
 4. An evil action done on account of a good motive does not become good
in itself.

5. An indifferent act may either become good or bad depending on the motive.

3. Circumstances of the Act

Circumstances of the act re the historical elements surrounding the

commission of an act, such as the status of the doer, the place, the time, or the
intensity of an act. The circumstances are hinted by the interrogative pronouns -
who, what, where, with whom, why, how and when.

The circumstances are hinted by the interrogative pronouns - who, what,

where, with whom, why, how and when.

6 Ws And H

1. WHO

77
 Refers either to the doer of the act or the recipient of the act. It has to do with
the age, status, relation, schooling, social standing, an economic situation of those
involved in an act. In this regard, we note the following:
(a) The moron, insane, senile and children below the age of reason are
incapable of
voluntary acts and are not morally accountable.
(b) Educated people have greater accountability than those with less or
without
education.
(c) People constituted in authority have accountability for the actions of those
under
them.
(d) The legal or blood relation of people involved in act may modify the nature
if such act.
2. WHAT

Refers to the act itself, or to the quality and quantity of the results of such act.

3. WHERE

78
 Refers to the place where the act is committed

4. WITH WHOM

Refers to the companion or accomplices in an act.

5. WHY

Refers to the motive of the doer.

6. HOW

79
 Refers to the manner the act is perpetrated.

7. WHEN

Refers to “the time of the act”

1. Circumstance may either increase or decrease the wrongfulness of

an evil act. e.g .The killing of innocent people in the case of
terrorists exploding a bomb in public places constitutes a serious
crime against humanity. On the other hand, killing a tyrant who has
long oppressed the assailant accepts a mitigating factor and,
therefore is less evil.

80
2. Circumstances also may either increase or decrease the merits of
good act.

3. Circumstances may alter the nature of the act.

4. Circumstances do not prove the guilt of the person.

Closure Activities (place your answer on p. 103

81
 7. Write in one sentence the important learning you got from this module.
8. Write in the space below one word that best describe what you feel
right now on finishing this module.
9. Write in one sentence what you think these learning can contribute in
developing your moral behaviour.

Synthesis/Generalization

The act in itself, the End of the act and the circumstances of the act form part of
the determinants of the morality of human act.

Evaluation

Knowledge Check (place your answer on p. 103)

Explain Briefly: The End Does not Justify the Means

Identify the following is true (T) or false (F):

___________. 1 An evil act which is done on account of evil motive is grievously
wrong.
___________ 2. A good act done on account of an evil motive remains good itself.
____________ 3. A bad action done on account of an good motive become good itself.
____________4. Circumstances do not alter the nature of the act.
___________ 5. Motive of the doer is a determinant of morality.

Assignment (place your answer on p. 103-104)

Make an essay on your agreement or disagreement on whether minors who

commit crimes should be prosecuted and tried in courts for their violations.

References:

Agapay, R. B.(1995, 2008) Ethics and the Filipino: A Manual on Morals for Students and
Educators,
2ns ed. Manila: National Bookstore, Inc.

Ardales, V. B.(1987) Introductory Text to Philosophy. Quezon City: Great Books

Trading, Inc.

Babor, E. R. (1999) Ethics: The Philosophical Discipline of Action, 1 st ed. Manila,

Philippines, Rex
Book Store.

Cruz, C. C. (1995) Contemporary Ethics. Manila: National Bookstore, Inc.

82
De Guzman J.M et al. (2017). Ethics: Principles of Ethical Behavior in Modern
Society. Malabon City: Mutya Publishing House, inc.

Dela Torre, J. (1993) Ethics: The man’s Tool for the Development of Sound Professional
and Civil Life. Manila: Educational Publishing House, Inc. `

Dy Jr., M B. (1986) Philosophy of Man: Selected Readings. Manila: Goodwill Trading

Co. Inc.

Glen, Paul J. (1965) Ethics, A Class Manual in Moral Philosophy, (reprint) Manila:
National Bookstore.
____________. (1994) Contemporary Social Philosophy. Manila: Goodwill Trading Co.
Inc.

Montemayor, F. M.(1994) Ethics: The Philosophy of Life. Manila, Philippines: National

Book Store

____________.(1995) Introduction to Philosophy Through the Philosophy of Man. 2nd

ed. Manila: National Book Store, Inc.

Panizo, A., O.P. (1964) Ethics or Moral Philosophy. Manila: UST Textbook Series

Robles, G. S. (1994) Everyday Ethics. Manila: Educational Publishing House, Inc.

http://philonotes.com/index.php/2018/05/13/ethics/

83
 APPENDIX

ANSWER SHEET

Module 1

Ethics, and Its Key Concepts

Test Yourself
Instruction: Identify whether the following is a moral (M)or non-moral
(MS)standards

1. Thou shall not kill 4. Honour your father

and your mother
2. No trespassing

_______ 3. Do not talk when _______ 5. No over speeding

your mouth is full.

Preparatory Activity

Exercise
List down a rule (one ach) you find in your home, and in your school and assess why
you need to follow them.
a. Home

b. School

Closure Activities

1. Write in one sentence the important learning you got from this module.

2. Write in the space below one word that best describe what you feel right

84
 now on finishing this module.

3. Write in one sentence what you think these learning can contribute in
developing your moral behaviour.

Evaluation

Knowledge Check

A. Answer the following meaningfully:

According to Socrates, “The unexamined life is not worth living for man”.
Explain this in connection with the definition by Socrates that ethics is the
investigation of life.

B. Instruction: Identify whether the following is a moral (M) or non-moral

(MS)standards
_____ 1. Thou shall not kill _____ 4. Honor your father and your
mother
_____ 2. No trespassing
_____ 3. Do not talk when your ______ 5. No over speeding
mouth is full.

Assignment

85
 1. Ask somebody to relay a difficult experience where he/she has to
choose
between two pressing outcome or result. Make a reflection essay about
his/her story.
2. Write an essay on your thoughts about Ethics and its importance to
Today’s Society.

86
87
 Module 2
Culture in Moral Behavior and Developing Virtue as a Habit
Test Yourself

Instruction: Identify whether the following is a is an expression of (GC)

good character or bad character (BC).

_______ 1. Helping somebody to steal _______ 4. Writing libelous article

_______ 2. Telling bad stories _______5. Fighting for what is

right

_______ 3. Giving good remarks for an

enemy.

Preparatory Activity

Exercise

3. List down a practice in your home you find worth having and emulating
and explain why?

4. List down an attitude in school which you find bad and wrong and why
explain why?

88
 Closure Activities

7. Write in one sentence the important learning you got from this module.

8. Write in the space below one word that best describe what you feel right
now on finishing this module.

9. Write in one sentence what you think these learning can contribute in
developing your moral behaviour.

Evaluation

Knowledge Check

A. Instruction: Identify whether the following is an expression of (GC)good

character or bad character (BC).

_______1. Helping somebody to steal _____4. Writing libelous

_______2. Telling bad stories articles
_______3. Giving good remarks for an _____5. Fighting for what is
enemy right

B. True or False. Write T if the statement is true and F if false.

______1. A certain moral character trait is a trait for which the agent is morally
responsible.
______2. A moral character trait for which a person is deserving of a positive
reactive attitude,, such as praise or gratitude is a vice.
______3. Moral character traits are those dispositions of character for which it
is suitable to hold agents morally responsible.
______4. In the process of moral development, there is the circular relation
between acts that build character and moral character itself.
______5. In stage 1 of Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development, children are
disposed to be egotistic or self-serving.

Assignment

3. Cite a person who has influenced your character and explain why?

89
4. Cite a cultural belief that you find in your community and write an essay
on its meaning, its influence on your behaviour and the behaviour of
other people in your community and whether you endorse or not to
other communities.

90
 Module 3
The Human Act and Act of Man
Test Yourself

Instruction: Identify whether the following is a Deliberate (D) or

Instinctive (I)

1. Breathing 4. Writing
_____ 2. Reading
_____ 3. Dreaming ______ 5. Cooking
_
Preparatory Activity

Exercise

1. List down 5 actions that men consciously do.

2. List down 5 actions that men unconsciously do

Closure Activity

1. Write in one sentence the important learning you got from this module.

2. Write in the space below one word that best describe what you feel right
now on finishing this module.

3. Write in one sentence what you think these learning can contribute in
developing your moral behaviour.

Evaluation

Knowledge Check

91
A. Identify the following:
1. An instinctive action
2. An act performed and completed by the will but not
bodily externalized.
3. Action which is knowing, free and willful.
4. The enjoyment of the will coming from the attainment
of something previously desires.
5. Acts done either by man’s mental or bodily powers
under the command of the will.
B. Instruction: Identify whether the following is a Deliberate (D) or Instinctive (I)
____ 1. Breathing ____ 4. Writing
____ 2. Reading
____ 3. Dreaming ____ 5. Cooking

Assignment

Make a research on the topic crime of passion. Read and understand what
it is all about. Then write an essay describing what it is, why is it wrong, What is
needed to prevent it.

92
 Module 4

The Act as Knowingly Done

Test Yourself

Instruction: Identify whether the following is knowingly done (K) or not knowingly
done (WK)

_____ 1. Praying _____ 4. Biking

_____ 2. Breathing
_____ 3. Snoring. ______ 5. Seeing something

Preparatory Activities

Exercise

7. List down 3 actions you do which is reasonable (with good

reason).

8. List down 3 actions you do which is unreasonable (without

good reason).

Closure Activities

10. Write in one sentence the important learning you got from this module.

11. Write in the space below one word that best describe what you feel right
now on finishing this module.

12. Write in one sentence what you think these learning can contribute in
developing your moral behaviour.

Evaluation

93
 Knowledge Check

A. Answer briefly: “Ignorance of the law excuses no one”. Write an essay on your
thought about this statement.

B. True or False. Write T if the statement is true; F if false.

______1. Humans have not only feelings but also reason, and reason plays a vital
role in Ethics.
______2. Morality commends what it commends, regardless of our feelings,
attitude opinions, and desires.
______3. The principle of impartiality assumes that every person, generally
speaking, is equally important; that is, no one is seen as intrinsically more
significant than anyone else.
______4. When two opposing alternatives are offered, the consequences of one
are the mirror image of the other.

94
______5. It must be realized that one common element to moral impartiality is that
there are no easy and painless solutions to them.

Assignment

“Same Sex Marriage: Good or Bad for our Society?”

9. Read and understand the short blog below

10. Write a comment (maximum of three sentences) stating your
stand and brief reason concerning the debate topic. Use
reason and impartiality in composing your comment. Post in
your FB.
11. Ask at least three friends (preferably adults) to write a
comment on your post.
12. Screen your post and its conversation thread and send to
your professor.

Same Sex Marriage: Good or Bad for our Society?

THE ISSUE cannot be ignored, as legislators and voters around the country
grapple with whether and how to recognize same-sex relationships.

Traditionally in this country, marriage has been defined as a religious and legal
commitment between a man and woman, as well as the ultimate expression of
love.

On the other side, gay marriage, also known as same-sex marriage, is

marriage between two persons of the same sex. Homosexual relationships are
increasingly gaining acceptance in other countries, but still banned in the
Philippines. A same-sex marriage opponent argues that marriage between a
woman and a man is the fundamental, cross-cultural institution for insuring that
children have loving, committed mothers and fathers while on the other side, a
same-sex marriage advocate argues that recognizing same-sex unions would be
good not only for gay people, but also for society at large, since society has an
interest in supporting stable, loving relationships for all its members. The question
here is, “Is it already a fascinating time for social revolution? Or is it still needed for
us to nurture the traditional family values essential to our society?”

Possible reasons for same sex marriage:

1. Homosexuality is an accepted lifestyle nowadays with most evidence strongly
supporting biological causation.
2. It doesn't hurt society or anyone in particular. Therefore, denying these

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marriages is a form of minority discrimination.
3. Legalizing same sex marriage will be a big help for orphanages since same
sex partners cannot pro-create which would probably brought them to adopting
orphans.
4. The only thing that should matter in marriage is love.
5. The same financial benefits that apply to man-woman marriages apply to
same-sex marriages.

Refer these to your siblings/children/younger friends:

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 Module 5

The Act as Wilfully Done

Test Yourself

Instruction: Identify whether the following is willfully done (W) or not

willfully done (NW)

_____ 1. Crying 4. Driving

_____
_____ 2. Smelling
_____ 3. Dreaming 5. Sleepwalking
______

Preparatory Activities

Exercise
1. List down 3 actions that express positive
emotions

2. List down 3 actions that express negative emotions

Closure Activities

1. Write in one sentence the important learning you got from this module.

2. Write in the space below one word that best describe what you feel right
now on finishing this module.

3. Write in one sentence what you think these learning can contribute in
developing your moral behaviour.

Evaluation

Knowledge Check

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A. Answer briefly
5. Why you are not justified in doing wrong because of passions?

6. Why are we accountable for actions done out habits?

B. Identify the following:

___________1. They are seen as also necessary in ethical judgment as they are even
deemed by some as instinctive and trained response to moral dilemmas.
___________2. They are either tendencies towards desirable objects or tendencies
away from undesirable or harmful things.
___________3. A lasting readiness and faculty, born of frequently repeated acts, for
acting in a certain manner.
___________4. They hold that there is no such thing as objective right or real wrong.
___________5. This claims that any legitimate truth claim must be empirically
verifiable.
Assignment

1. Read and understand the 10 suggestions on getting away with

anger
2. In the FB, post a comment using this template. (Among the
ten given ways, the best way to get away from anger is….
because …….) Use the hash tags #Moral Courage #CoolKaLang
3. Ask at least three friends (preferably those who are angry at
you) to write a comment on your post.
4. Screen your post and its conversation thread and send to your
professor.

10 Helpful Ways to Get Away from Anger

By Kenneth Calimag

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Anger is one of the natural human emotions. But excessive anger could be harmful
to our well-being and to those around us. This article will teach you 10 helpful ways
to get away from anger in the heat of the moment, and reduce the overall amount of
anger you feel in a day-to-day basis:

1. Go away from the situation.

If you got angry in a room or office, go out and get some fresh air or try to have a
walk.

2. Dink several cool (not icy) water to get rid your anger.
Especially in situations like this, cool water is still better than other drinks. Also
avoid taking sweet or fatty foods which increase blood pressure.

3. When fasting, engage in activities that give calmness.

Since the feeling of hunger may increase irritability, any food fasting should be
combined with exercises that provide calmness.

4. Think of something funny.

Try to imagine the best scene in your favorite comedy movie (like the Kug Fu
Hustle).

5. Take ten deep breaths.

When you already feel that you are angry, take a pause. Take ten, slow deep
breaths.

6. Surround yourself with optimistic people.

Hang out with friends who are positive thinker and have good sense of humor.

7. Don’t add to the hate in this world.

Always see beauty in the world. Count your blessings. Look at the positive side of
every phenomenon.

8. Don't contain your anger.

If somebody does or says something that makes you angry, then tell them in a nice
way. Holding back negative emotions will only cause them to come back and haunt
you later in life. (wikihow.com)

9. Remember that anger is natural.

While anger can feel overwhelming in the heat of the moment, remember that every
human being on earth experiences it from time to time. Accept that things can’t
always go your way. (nncc.org)

10. Properly deal with the people who have offended you.
If you are holding against anger toward a particular person, then consider talking to
him or her about it. You might be surprised to learn that this person has no idea that
they have offended you. (wikihow.com)

Anger management is necessary as it helps us not to be stressed out very much

and still have a good outlook in life despite unpleasant occurrences.

About the Contributor:

Kenneth L. Calimag, the contributor, is currently taking up Bachelor of Arts major in
Political Science. He graduated from Papandayan Elementary School and
Immaculate Heart of Mary Academy (Oriental Mindoro, Philippines). He likes
reading books and online surfing. Comments and feedback are welcomed through

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his e-mail and Facebook
account: calimag_kenneth@yahoo.com/facebook.com/kenneth.calimag.

Module 6

The Act as Freely Done

Test Yourself
Instruction: Identify whether the following is freely done (F) or not freely
done (NF)

1. Driving a car happily 4. Tortured

2. Being raped
_____ 3. Sharing Experiences _______ 5. Writing a letter for a friend

Preparatory Activities

Exercise

1. List down 3 actions that express courage.

2. List down 3 actions that express cowardice

Closure Activities

1. Write in one sentence the important learning you got from this module.

2. Write in the space below one word that best describe what you feel right
now on finishing this module.

3. Write in one sentence what you think these learning can contribute in
developing your moral behaviour.

Evaluation

Knowledge Check

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Answer briefly
1. What actions may be justified because of violence? Give 2

2. Why are actions done out of fear accountable actions?

3. Enumerate the 5 Individuals who are outstanding examples of moral courage.

Assignment

Individual reflection on a most recent personal dilemma that tested my

courage: How did I decide and what did I actually do during my most important
experience in the past year?” Write a reflection paper about it. Write your reflection
on a coupon bond.

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 Module 7

The Determinants of Morality

Test Yourself

Read the following statement and write A if agree and D and if you disagree:
________ 1. Man in his right reason is capable of knowing whether his action is right
or wrong.
________2. The age of the person is important in determining the accountability of
the person who did the act.
________3. How the crime was committed has something with the gravity of the
offense.
_______4. The status of the person is important in determine the morality of his
action.
_______5. The intention of the doer of the act has a bearing in his accountability of his
action.

Preparatory Activities

Exercise

Enumerate 3 human actions which you consider as immoral and cite your
reason why.

Closure Activities

1. Write in one sentence the important learning you got from this module.

2. Write in the space below one word that best describe what you feel right now
on finishing this module.

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 3. Write in one sentence what you think these learning can contribute in
developing your moral behaviour.

Evaluation

Knowledge Check

Explain Briefly: The End Does not Justify the Means

Identify the following is true (T) or false (F):

___________. 1 An evil act which is done on account of evil motive is grievously
wrong.
___________ 2. A good act done on account of an evil motive remains good itself.
____________ 3. A bad action done on account of an good motive become good itself.
____________4. Circumstances do not alter the nature of the act.
___________ 5. Motive of the doer is a determinant of morality.

Assignment

Make an essay on your agreement or disagreement on whether minors who

commit crimes should be prosecuted and tried in courts for their violations.

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