GE 114- ETHICS

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 GE 114- ETHICS

Fe Monique M. Tagaytay
Janette D. Butlig
Elisa Mae O. Gura
Francis N. Reginio

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 GE 114- ETHICS

Welcome Message

Welcome to GE 114: Ethics!!!

This course will be a journey of discovery and learning for you in making moral
decisions by using dominant frameworks and applying a seven- step moral reasoning
model to analyze and solve moral dilemmas. This course pack is designed for you to go
through the course week by week until the end of the semester. It supplies you with
discussions, required reading from reference materials, as well as learner activities that
you will have to submit. The modules also prompt you when it is time for you to check in
with your Course Professor so that you can stay on track with your learning.

As you begin this journey, bear in mind that you are not alone. If you encounter
problems, do not hesitate to contact your Course Professor for guidance.

Let our learning journey begin! Best of luck to you.

Faculty Information:

THIS BOX CAN BE LEFT EMPTY. THIS CAN BE FILLED-IN ONCE FACULTY
IN-CHARGED IS ALREADY IDENTIFIED WITH THE HELP DESK
INFORMATION BELOW.

Getting help

For academic concerns (College/Adviser - Contact details)

For administrative concerns (College Dean - Contact details)
For UVE concerns (KMD - Contact details)
For health and wellness concerns (UAGC, HSD and OSAS - Contact details)

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 GE 114- ETHICS

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CONTENTS PAGE

Cover page ………………………………… 1

Welcome Message ………………………………… 2

Table of Contents ………………………………… 3

USeP Vision, Mission and Goals ………………….. 4

USeP Graduate Attributes ………………………… 5

USeP Core Values ……………………………….... 5

Course Overview ………………………………… 6

Course Assessment ……………………………….. 7

Course Map ………………………………… 8

Module 1 Overview ………………………………… 9

The Lessons ………………………………… 12-34

Module 2 Overview ……………………………….. 35

Lessons in Module 2………………………………. 36-74

Module 3 Overview ……………………………….. 75

Lessons in Module 3………………………………. 76-101

Module 4 Overview ……………………………….. 102

Lessons in Module 4………………………………. 103-122

References ……………………………..

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 GE 114- ETHICS

UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHEASTERN PHILIPPINES

VISION

Premier Research University in the ASEAN.

MISSION

USeP shall produce world-class graduates and relevant research and extension
through quality education and sustainable resource management.

GOALS

At the end of the plan period, the University of Southeastern Philippines (USeP)
aims to achieve five comprehensive and primary goals:

1. Recognized ASEAN Research University

2. ASEAN Competitive Graduates and Professionals
3. Vibrant Research Community
4. Proactive Research-based Economic Empowering
Extension Services
5. Capacity for Innovative Resource Generation

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INSTITUTIONAL GRADUATE ATTRIBUTES

LEADERSHIP SKILLS

Creates and inspires positive changes in the organization; exercises

responsibility with integrity and accountability in the practice of one’s profession
or vocation.

CRITICAL AND ANALYTICAL THINKING SKILLS

Demonstrates creativity, innovativeness, and intellectual curiosity in optimizing

available resources to develop new knowledge, methods, processes, systems,
and value-added technologies.

SERVICE ORIENTED

Demonstrates concern for others, practices professional ethics, honesty, and

exemplifies socio-cultural, environmental concern, and sustainability.

LIFELONG LEARNING

Demonstrates enthusiasm and passion for continuous personal and professional

development.

PROFESSIONAL COMPETENCE

Demonstrates proficiency and flexibility in the area of specialization and in

conveying information in accordance with global standards.

CORE VALUES OF THE UNIVERSITY

UNITY
STEWARDSHIP
EXCELLENCE
PROFESSIONALISM

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THE COURSE OVERVIEW

(NOTE: all the necessary information below can be found in the syllabus. Just
copy them and paste it here!)

COURSE TITLE : GE 114 Ethics

CREDIT : 3 units
SEMESTER : First Semester 2020
TIME FRAME : One Semester

COURSE DESCRIPTION
Ethics deals with principles of ethical behavior in modern society at the level of the person,
society, and in interaction with the environment and the other shared resources. Morality pertains to
the standards of right and wrong that an individual originally picks up from the community. This
course also teaches students to make moral decisions by using dominant moral frameworks and
applying a seven-step moral reasoning model to analyze and solve moral dilemmas.

COURSE OUTCOMES

On the completion of the course, student is expected to be able to do the following:

Course Outcomes Graduate Outcomes Aligned to

CO1 Work effectively in multi-disciplinary and multi-cultural groups Interpret the human experiences
from various perspectives

CO2 Apply sound moral decision making skills when confronted with Reflect critically on shred concerns
various issues and make decision based on moral
norms and imperatives

CO3 Effectively respond to various issues on moral dilemmas Manage one’s knowledge, skills, and
values for responsible and
productive living

CO4 Demonstrate professional, social and ethical responsibility, especially Advocate respect for human rights
in practicing intellectual property rights and sustainable development

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COURSE ASSESSMENT

Learning Evidence and Measurement Rubrics

As evidence of attaining the above learning outcomes, the student has to do and submit the following:

Learning Description and other Details Course Outcomes it

Evidence represents
LE1 Write-Up Dilemma Moral dilemma should be based CO1, CO2, CO3, CO4
on the experience of students

LE2 Case Analysis Students identify dilemmas in CO2, CO3, CO4

cases submitted by their
classmates

LE3 Reflection Paper A critical piece of academic CO1, CO2, CO3, CO4
writing on certain topics

Learning Evidence: LE 1 Write Up Dilemma

Area to Assess Beyond Expectation Expected Satisfactory Acceptable Unacceptable
(5) (4) (3) (2) (1)
Interesting content and Some interesting Few interesting content, Conventional ideas or Cursory; gives the
Content presentation, ideas are content, points are points not sustained and cliches ; little supporting impression of writing
well-conceived and sustained and fully not fully developed. details are included. just to complete the
developed with sufficient developed. assignment.
examples.

Logical progression of Logical Logical progression of Gaps in logic or no Disorganized; appears

Structure, Logic and ideas with well-executed progression with ideas but other lacks transitions. to have been written as
Transition transition. some little transitions. thoughts occurred to
executed the writer.
transition.
Grammatical Accuracy Appropriate level of Some level of Confined to simpler Errors frequently affect Message is largely
complexity in syntax with appropriate sentences or structures comprehensibility; or very comprehensible due to
very few errors, if any. complexity in with very few errors or basic types of errors inaccurate grammar,
syntax with few shows variety and (subject-verb agreement; which alters or
errors, if any. complexity in syntax with noun-adjective agreement) obscures it, or reader
errors that do not affect must know English to
comprehensibility. comprehend much of
the message.
Vocabulary/ Uses sufficient, Uses appropriate Usually uses appropriate Often uses inappropriate or Uses only elementary
Word Choice appropriate and varied vocabulary, vocabulary with some non-specific vocabulary; vocabulary; creates
vocabulary; English English language variety; some errors in lack of variety in word non-existent words
language influences influences usage that do not affect the choice; avoids use of from English or words
apparently; rich variety of apparently; some message; occasionally idioms – English influenced in English.
idioms. variety of idioms. appropriate use of idioms. word choice.
Punctuation, Spelling and Correct spelling Very few Some mechanic errors Frequent mechanical errors Incorrect spelling and
Presentation (including accents) and mechanical errors punctuation; no
punctuations, neat and accents; mechanical
correct format as errors in most
specified. sentences.

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Learning Evidence: LE2: Case Analysis

Area to Assess Beyond Expectation Expected Satisfactory Acceptable Unacceptable
(5) (4) (3) (2) (1)
Knowledge of issue is exceptionally accurate and is Issue is accurately Issue is Issue is Issue needs to use
explained clearly and effectively during explanation explained and uses explained with explained but more information
Knowledge/Understanding using details and little reliance on notes many details and various some accuracy needs more and details or
sources in presentation and details with details and examples. Heavy
with some reliance on some variety of more variety of reliance on notes
notes sources and less sources and during
reliance on less reliance on presentation
notes notes
Exceptional critical comments and analysis of Proficient critical Some critical Very few critical Lack of critical or
issue/interpretations/impact/effect using details, comments and analysis comments given comments analytical thought
Thinking/Inquiry insights, evidence from essay and comprehensive of issue/interpretation to issue and given to issue in comments and
thought. and impact using many effects, more and effects, little to no insight
details and evidence and details, insight more details, used.
some insights. and critical insight and
thought needed. critical thought
needed
Exceptional delivery and timing of information; Proficient delivery and Delivery and Just enough Poor delivery and
Communication exceptional discussion initiated and maintained to timing of information; timing of delivery and timing of
further student learning. proficient discussion information is timing of information;
started and maintained. enough and information; discussion needs
smoothly discussion less to be controlled
discussed; more controlled and and dynamic.
active interaction less dynamic
and discussion.

Learning Evidence: LE3 Reflection Paper

Area to Assess Beyond Expectation Expected Satisfactory
(1.0) (2.0) (3.0)
Understanding and Interpretation  Excellent understanding of language and  General understanding of  Inadequate understanding of terminology
reasoning. terminology and reasoning. and reasoning.
 Precise interpretation of text of text of  Roughly renders content and  Misinterpret ideas and assertions.
accurate rendering of content. meaning of text.  Lacks any apprehension of context and
 Apprehends entirely context and rationale  Partially grasps context and motivation
of ideas. intellectual motivation

Analysis and Argumentation  Thorough articulation of arguments  Main lines of arguments indicated.  No analysis of argumentation offered
 Logic of assertions fully clarified  An intuitive grasp of logical patterns.  No awareness of logical relations and
 Well-argued critical points  Certain critical argumentation structure.
attempted.  No argumentation attempted.
Claim Support and Use of Sources  Relevant facts/examples adduced.  Insufficient factual basis established.  No use of sources
 Various sources consulted and appraised.  Limited sources consulted  Sheer statements of agreement or
 Adequate applications identified and proper  Conclusions undeveloped or disagreement. Guesswork without
conclusions drawn. suggested by association. support
 Superficial or irrelevant conclusions or no
conclusions at all.
Style and Correctness  Penetrating insights and interesting  Scattered comments and remarks  Disorganized and shallow presentation
observations.  Excessive dependency on original  No conceptualization, no use of
 Outstanding articulation and autonomous wording (direct quotes and theoretical tools.
conceptualization of issues. paraphrasing)  Broken colloquial style-statements
 Clear and thoughtful exposition-  “Normal” flat style and exposition loosely connected.
sophisticated style.
Punctuation, Spelling and Presentation  Correct spelling (including accents) and  Very few mechanical errors  Some mechanical errors
punctuations, neat and correct format as

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specified.

Other Requirements and Assessment Activities (AA)

Aside from the final output, the student will be assessed at other times during the term by the following:

Assessment Activity Description and other Course Outcomes it

Details represents
AA1 Major Examination
Midterm and Final Exams CO1

AA2 Quizzes Short test after every topic

CO2
discusses

Grading System

The final grade in this course will be composed of the following items and their weights in the final grade computation:

Assessment
Grade Source (Score or Rubric Grade) Percentage of Final Grade
Item
AA1 Major Exam 20%
AA2 Quizzes & Learner Activities 30%
LE1 Write Up Dilemma 20%
LE2 Case Analysis 20%
LE3 Critical Reflection Paper on a Social Issue 10%

Passing Grade 3.0

Passing Grade conditions: Submission of complete requirements

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The Course Map

ETHICS

Module 1 Module 2: Module 3: Module 4:

Introduction to Ethics The Agent The Act Ethical Frameworks

 Lesson 1: Freedom  Lesson 1: Stages of  Lesson 1: Moral

 Lesson 1:
as Foundation for Moral Development Theories & Why They
Introduction to Ethics
Moral Acts are Important
 Lesson 2: Moral &  Lesson 2:
 Lesson 2: Culture & Requirements of  Lesson 2: Virtue Ethics
Non Moral Standards
Behaviour Ethics: Reason &
 Lesson 3: Moral Impartiality  Lesson 3:
 Lesson 3: Cultural Deomtological Ethics:
Experiences & Moral
Dilemmas
Relativism  Lesson 3: Feelings & Immanuel Kant
Reason
 Lesson 4: Filipino  Lesson 4: Justice as
Values & Universal  Lesson 4: The 7- Fairness: Promoting
Values Step Moral the Common Good
Reasoning Model
 Lesson 5: Globalization
 Lesson 5: Naturalistic and Its Ethical
Ethics Challenges

Outcome: An everyday ethicist who knows, understands and

demonstrates professional, social and ethical responsibility,
especially in practicing intellectual property rights and sustainable
development.

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Module 1
INTRODUCTION TO ETHICS
Module Overview

The study of Ethics is an enriching experience, as it has direct application

to your personal life and professional life as well. As in any new journey poses its
own challenges as you move into unfamiliar territory and discover new things. In
this module you begin this journey by first familiarizing yourself with how this
course will be managed throughout the semester and gain a formal introduction
into Ethics as a field of study.

Module Outcomes

By the end of this module, we hope to achieve the following objectives:

 Understand what is expected of you in this course and as a student of

Ethics;
 Explain the importance of ethical conduct and rules;
 Differentiate between moral and non- moral standards;
 Recognize and recall a moral experience;
 Detect moral dilemmas at Individual, Organizational and Structural levels.

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Lesson 1
Introduction to Ethics
Learning Outcomes

By the end of this lesson you should be able to:

o Discuss what is ethics and morality;

o Explain the importance of rules to civilized society;
o Attribute the study of ethics as an important aspect in living a good life.

Time Frame: 1 Week

Introduction

We live in a world of rules. We have rules for everything that directs us to

behave in a particular way. In this lesson we will get our first glimpse into the
study of Ethics and morality by clarifying first why rules are important to civilized
society and how this course can helps us in our professional and personal lives.

Activity (Let’s Get Started!)

Recall five (5) rules that you have to follow at home. These rules should be
the most strictly enforced by your parents.

 Why do you need to follow them in spite of the fact that they limit you on
things you want to do?

Analysis (Let’s Think About it!)

Now think about the questions below:

 What do you think would happen if all these rules we follow not followed?

 How do you imagine a world without rules would be?

 Why must we follow rules even if they are constricting or prohibitive?

 Why are rules important in a functioning society?

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Abstraction (Let’s Explore!)

Defining Ethics and Morality

You would have probably heard the terms ethics and morality. The term
ethics finds its etymological root from the Greek word “ethos” which means
“character” or “custom”. The Greeks also had the term “ethikos” which refers to
“customary or habitual character”. The Roman statesman and philosopher
Marcus Tullius Cicero is credited with ascribing the Latin equivalent of the term
“ethikos’ to the word “mos” which means “one’s disposition”. The term “mos” also
happens to be the root of the word ”mores” which also refers to custom or habit.
From these terms eventually evolved “moralis” and “moralitas” which refer to
“proper manner, behaviour, and character of a person in society”. From this we
can derive a basic understanding of what ethics and morality are. Both pertain to
the habitual or customary disposition towards proper behaviour and
distinguishing between right and wrong, good and bad. Often these terms are
used interchangeably with a few distinctions depending on where the settings in
which the terms are used such as in the academe, legal, religious or
philosophical discourses. Distinctions are often made in terms of looking at
morality from a “personal or normative” perspective and ethics as being the
actual standards of what is good/ bad, right/ wrong, acceptable/ unacceptable, or
praiseworthy/ punishment worthy behaviour in a particular social setting.
Essentially both Ethics and morality flow from each other.

The terms ethics and morality form the heart and soul of Moral Philosophy.
Moral Philosophy is the branch of Philosophy that deals with the study of right
and wrong. It does this by first, asking and clarifying concepts and beliefs on
morality; second, providing frameworks that prescribe what we “ought to do” and
what we “ought to not do”; and lastly, applying all these in more practical terms
like how people should live their lives in relation to others and to examine issues
affecting society. The brilliant Greek philosopher Aristotle said that ethics and
morality are necessary in attaining “eudaimonia”, which is a Greek word that
loosely translates to “happiness” although if the word meant so much deeper than
just the surface meaning of the word. If the term were to be applied to a plant, a
good plant would be healthy, fruit bearing and growing. Being in a state of
“eudaimonia” would mean that the plant is not only free from illness but growing
very well, or it is not only bearing fruit but it grows many, many fruits that are of
exceptional quality. So, “eudaimonia” is a state of not just existing but of
“flourishing” or “thriving” in one’s day-to-day life. Today Aristotle’s words are
interpreted as ethics and morality to be requirements in doing well and living well
as part of society.

The study of Ethics teaches us various steps and frameworks in deciding

on human acts. However, it is worth stressing that theoretical knowledge and
practice are two very different things. Therefore, the study of Ethics is the first
step towards internalizing the desire to live a moral life by first knowing what
ethics we need to abide by. The study of Ethics is a lifelong process for all of us
as we continue to develop in terms of our moral judgments. It entails a process of
continually examining and reflecting on what we value and believe vis-à-vis the

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relationships that we have with others and the society and environment in which
we live. Also, making the jump from theory to moral life choices and actions is not
something that can be achieved by force or coercion. It is made by willful choice
and is done as a course of habit. As Aristotle points out, excellence of character
is not a result of a singular act but by consistency in actions. By this we see that
Ethics equates to theory or knowledge and morality is its practice.

Ethics and Civilized Society

Human societies have come a long way in terms of going from “uncivilized
to “civilized” but throughout history one thing is apparent. For humans to live
together in relative harmony, groups of people agree to common goals and
behaviour that are enforced through systems or “rules”. A rule is “an accepted
principle or instruction that states the way things are or should be done, and tells
you what you are allowed or are not allowed to do.1

We live in a world of rules. In fact, we have rules for everything: home,

school, church, organizations, sports, cities, nations and the global society. We
could say that rules are prohibitive because they control us in one way or another
but at the end of the day these rules are meant to ensure order, promote safety,
protect lives and property and ensure harmonious societies. Ultimately rules are
meant to ensure the human good. When rules are enforced and the societies to
which they apply do not agree because the rules are unreasonable, or deprive
people of their rights, conflict surely follows. Rules and moral standards form the
collective ethics to which societies abide.

Why Study Ethics?

“We need to study ethics so that we will understand that

we must determine the matters of right and wrong and
explore the obligation we to respond to and apply this
knowledge to our life.”
- Jack H. Williams

We can just as easily say that we study Ethics because it is something that
is required in order to get an academic degree but if we look at the bigger picture,
our motivations for being close students of Ethics should focus more on the
benefits that result from it. From the discussion in the previous sections some of
these benefits are already apparent. It can is also clear that Ethics is not only a
theoretical body of knowledge but a lifelong practice that develops as a person
goes through life.

1
RULE | definition in the Cambridge English dictionary. (n.d.). Cambridge Dictionary | English Dictionary, Translations &
Thesaurus. https://dictionary.cambridge.org/us/dictionary/english/rule

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Let us examine a few of these big picture benefits that we get from
studying Ethics.

 Understanding how to determine the “right thing to do” is critical in making

wise decisions since all our actions have consequences to others and
ourselves. Knowing the right thing to do would most probably lead to us
doing the right thing rather than doing the wrong thing. As Aristotle so
famously put it, “there is no evil, only ignorance”.

 In whatever profession you go or whatever life you choose to lead, moral

questions will inevitably arise. This is the reason why there are codes of
professional ethics, business ethics, medical ethics, bioethics and so on.
All professions require certain behaviour from practitioners to ensure
productivity in their respective fields.

 The study of Ethics allows us to be more critical of issues we are

confronted with. Everyday we are confronted with experiences that confirm
or challenge what we believe in and value. Some of these issues are
matters that we need to act upon or speak up on. Knowing what is good
allows us to properly confront these issues with a rational mind, keep our
emotional reaction in check and act with conviction.

 The study of Ethics also allows us to act with stewardship. We have all
heard that saying that “no man is an island”. No person can live his life in a
vacuum that does not involve anything or anyone else. Knowing what is
good allows us to properly examine the potential consequences and
outcomes. Our actions therefore have purpose and direction not only for
our individual lives but also in contribution to a bigger society and the
environment.

 The study of Ethics is essential in maintaining social harmony. Wherever

you go, it is important to know and understand the similarities and
differences in the ethics in various situations. What is acceptable in one
culture may not be so in another so studying Ethics widens our
perspectives with regard to these boundaries and allows us to adjust
accordingly when needed.

Now that you have finished the discussion, try applying your learning by
answering the Learner Activity on the next page.

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Application (Let’s Do It!)

Learner Worksheet 1
Student Name: ______________________________ Score: ____________

Course/ Year/ Section: _______________________________

In the matrix below are some rules from institutions. Briefly describe these
rules and their importance by filling out the matrix below.

Rule Description of Specified Importance

Behavior

“No ID, No Entry” Policy of

the University

Anti- Jaywalking Ordinance

of the City of Davao

Enhance Community
Quarantine during the
COVID Pandemic

Anti- Bomb Joke Policy in

Public Places such as
airports, bus terminals,
ports, malls, concerts, and
movie houses

Submitting Your Work. If you do not have Internet Connectivity, neatly detach this page
from your module and submit via University Drop Box or by courier/ mail together with
your other Learner Activity Worksheets once you reach the prescribed Learning
Checkpoint. If you have Internet connectivity, you may answer directly on the online
version of this worksheet through the University Virtual Environment.

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Closure
Well done! You have just finished Lesson 1 of this module.

If you have questions or need to make clarifications take note of them in

the space provided below to ask your Course Professor through direct messaging
or through the University Virtual Environment (UVE).

Notes from this Lesson

Now that you have completed Lesson 1, let us move on to the next lesson
in this module. In the next lesson we will go into a deeper study of rules and
standards that govern human ethics.

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Lesson 2
Moral & Non- Moral Standards
Learning Outcomes

Now let us move on to a closer examination of rules or standards we

discussed in the previously. By the end of this lesson you should be able to:

o Differentiate between moral and non moral standards;

o Explain the importance of moral and non-moral standards.
o Discuss how particular rules in life differ from moral standards.

Time Frame: 1 Week

Introduction

In the previous lesson we already discussed how these rules shape our
behaviour and bring about social harmony. While all these rules are important,
not all rules are equal; there are moral and non- moral rules of behaviour. Moral
standards or principles are different from other rules in life because of their
overriding nature. In this lesson we will examine the characteristics of moral
standards and differentiate them from all the other rules that we follow.
Activity
In one social experiment, researchers had an old
man walk slowly on a very busy city street to see
how people would behave around him. The
researchers observed some people would walk
around him in their hurry to get to where they
needed to go. Several individuals on the other
hand slowed their pace to walk with him and ask
him if he required assistance, which he politely
declined. After walking a few more feet, the old
man started to buckle and fall on the street
looking pale and dazed from exertion. People
immediately rushed to his aid to help him and to
call paramedics. When asked why they did it,
people had different responses from “because he
was a weak old guy” to “I just had to help him, he
needed my help.” What would you do if you were
in this situation and why?
________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

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Analysis
 People in the social experiment acted automatically, without being told
what to do. Why do you think they acted this way?
___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

 What are your motivations for your actions? Discuss.

___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

Abstraction
Moral Standards
Humans have a built in “moral compass” or sense of right and wrong.
Moral standards differ from other rules in life. This intrinsic guide has been
observed even in young children who have not been taught of concepts of good
or bad. The inner guide develops as a child matures and develops as he/ she
lives in a world of different rules, norms and customs. As we develop and mature
we learn that some rules hold larger consequence as compared to others and are
not dependent on external authority or individual or organizational interests-
these codes of right and wrong that have no reference to specific behaviours or
beliefs are known as Moral Standards2.

Different societies might have different rules that govern their behaviour
but there moral standards are held in common by all societies regardless of their
varying beliefs. Moral standards are upheld regardless of culture or beliefs and
are believed to be universal. There are several characteristics which moral
standards have that set them apart from other rules in life. These characteristics
form the human moral compass in doing what is right and acting instinctually
upon these principles.

In the succeeding matrix, let us take a look at these specific

characteristics. Take note that other rules in life have some but not all of these
characteristics. Moral Standards also form the foundation for the formulation of
other rules of life.

2
Stanford University (14 March 2011). "The Definition of Morality". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Stanford
University. Retrieved 02 July 2020

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Characteristics of Moral Standards

Reasonability Moral standards appeal directly to the intellect and reason,

common sense and experience. Right actions entail that feelings
and emotions are guided by proper reasoning and sound
judgement.

Impartiality Moral standards are neutral, fair and unbiased in determining

right of wrong. Moral standards also do not favor the interests of
any specific groups of people regardless of their gender, status,
financial circumstances or their cultural, social, political and
religious affiliations.
Prescriptivity Moral standards should clearly allow us to determine “what we
ought to do” and “what we ought not to do”

Overridingness Moral standards have a predominant authority in such a way

that they have the ability to override other kinds of principles;
and take precedence over other norms and rules.

Autonomous from Moral standards are able to stay independent from the influence
Arbitrary Authority of any form of authority. Moral standards are not dependent on
“who is in power” or “who is giving the orders”. When it comes to
moral standards, “the rule of numbers” does not apply.
Something is right or wrong regardless of how the majority
decides, does and says. “A wrong thing is wrong, even when
eveyone else is doing it and a right thing is right even when you
are alone is doing it’. This is one reason why standing alone in
fighting for what is right proves difficult because humans have
the tendency to give in to the external pressure that is brought
about by people in authority and the rule of majority.
Publicity Moral rules and principles are known to and upheld by society
because they are publicly held to be the moral rules and
principles that serve as clear guidelines to human actions. A
person cannot do the right thing if he does not know what to do,
so before action can be performed, we must first know what
needs to be done. Moral standards would not be performed if
they are not known to the public.

Practicability Moral rules should be “doable” and not be beyong what can be
done by human beings. Other synonyms to this characteristic
include performable, actionable and realistic. If a standard was
not workable, it would lose its meaning and would be
unachievable and become a burden for people.
Universalizability A moral rule or principle must be applicable to everyone, without
exception given the same situation and context. This also
echoes the famous Golden Rule “Do not do unto otherswhat you
don’t want others to do unto you.”

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Non- Moral Standards

On the other hand, there are norms that are relative to particular a society,
social class, or a social group in reference to their own culture, religion, and
beliefs. Some behaviour may be deemed appropriate for one social group but
deemed inappropriate in another. Standards of behaviour that vary from social
group to social group depending on their own shared values, beliefs and/ or goals
are referred to as non-moral standards. Let’s discuss these standards in more
detail in the succeeding section.
Etiquette is a set of conventional rules on behaviour and manner in polite
society. It usually comes in an ethical code that outlines what is expected and
accepted social behaviour in line with norms of politeness and proper
demeanour. As discussed previously, etiquette differs from culture to culture. In
some countries like Africa, the Middle East and Asia for example, using the
hands for eating is considered proper. This is not practiced in Western Countries
where etiquette dictates the use of eating utensils as proper. In the European
social circles of the 18th century, etiquette was given extreme importance and
was made symbolically identified with members of the educated and well-
mannered members of the aristocracy.

Today, etiquette is
identified with good
upbringing and social
breeding. Learning,
knowing and
practicing the rules of
social etiquette has
become an integral
part of human
education.
The practice of proper
etiquette can prove to
be challenging in
multicultural societies
since etiquette can
vary not only among
large social groups
such as nationalities,
but also across
smaller ethnic groups
and tribes.

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Also, notions about proper etiquette are more rooted in some cultures
compared to others that the observance of proper behaviour forms a large portion
of the esteem they give to an individual.
Policy. Another type of non- moral standard is the policy, which is a
statement that is adopted and implemented as a matter of procedure or protocol
by a group of people in order to assist in managing daily activities, operations,
decision-making and governance. Policies can also be understood as political,
managerial, financial, and administrative mechanisms arranged to reach explicit
goals. Institutions and organizations intentionally craft and adopt policies
systematically as appropriate to their specific needs and goals. While some
organizations may have similar policies, there are always variations to policies
that are specific to the institution or organization to which they apply. Examples of
policy include Presidential executive orders, corporate privacy policies, and
parliamentary rules of order are all examples of policy.

Law. If policies are enforced within institutions and organizations, the Law
or laws is a system of rules that society through governments and its agencies
create, develop and implement within their jurisdictions in order to regulate
behaviour and aid in governance. Unlike policies, which serve more as guides,
laws can compel or prohibit behaviour and impose sanctions and punishments for
non- compliance. Laws encompass many social matters and relationships such
as crime, business, commerce, and industry among many others. Old laws may
be amended to ensure their relevance, and duly elected representatives of the
people propose new laws to address behaviours that they think should be
regulated or legislated for the sake of the greater good.
Laws are promulgated to be followed by everyone regardless of their
stature and therefore become an instrument of justice by serving as an equalizer
for people in society. German legal scholar, Rudolf von Ihering attributed law to
social change, by saying that the law is a means of social control, which aims to
serve the purposes of society. According to him, well-written laws guaranteed
good living conditions for people assured by the State itself. One might argue that

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laws are coercive, because they control human behaviour however when laws
are crafted with the greater good in mind and implemented in proper consultation
with the public, it aids in cooperation in members of a society and helps in
resolving potential conflicts, bringing about order.

Commandment. Another standard for behaviour is the commandment,

which is a strict rule for behaviour as an imposition of the will or law of God or
Divine being. For Christians the Ten Commandments are a set of biblical
principles relating to ethics and worship, given by God Himself to the Prophet
Moses. Other religions also have commandments for their believers to follow
which guide them in their behaviour. Unlike etiquette, policy, and law wherein not
abiding by the prescribed behaviour leads to social stigma, organizational
sanction or punishment, not following a commandment has more far reaching
consequences. Since commandments are believed to be the edict of the Divine,
punishments vary depending on the belief of the social group concerned. For
Christians for example, the concept of eternal damnation is primarily believed to
be the consequence of not keeping with God’s Commandments. The reward of
heaven, on the other hand is the Christian reward for keeping God’s
Commandments.

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Application (Let’s Do It!)

Learner Worksheet 2
Student Name: ______________________________ Score: ____________

Course/ Year/ Section: _______________________________

Using the characteristics of moral standards, look for an article or news

that deals with a particular contemporary ethical issue. Attach/ paste your chosen
article or news at the back of this paper. Discuss why the issue is an ethical one.
What moral standards and non-moral standards does it call upon or challenge?
Write your discussion in the space below.

Submitting Your Work. If you do not have Internet Connectivity, neatly detach this page
from your module and submit via University Drop Box or by courier/ mail together with
your other Learner Activity Worksheets once you reach the prescribed Learning
Checkpoint. If you have Internet connectivity, you may answer directly on the online
version of this worksheet through the University Virtual Environment.

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Closure
Well done! You have just finished Lesson 2 of this module.

If you have questions or need to make clarifications take note of them in

the space provided below to ask your Course Professor through direct messaging
or through the University Virtual Environment (UVE).

Notes from this Lesson

Now that you have completed Lesson 2, let us move on to the next lesson
in this module. In the next lesson we will discuss human experiences and the
situations wherein our moral principles are engaged and necessitate
discernment.

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Lesson 3
Moral Experiences & Moral Dilemmas
Learning Outcomes

Now let us move on to examine human experiences in light of our previous

lessons. By the end of this lesson you should be able to:

o Recognize and detect moral experiences and moral dilemmas;

o Identify the three levels of moral dilemmas;
o Evaluate your own moral experiences and moral dilemmas you have
gone through.

Time Frame: 1 Week

Introduction

As discussed in the first module of this course, we have been able to gain
an appreciation of ethics as a practical course that is grounded in human action.
Human experience lies at the heart of the practicality of ethics in everyday lives.
However, we also realize that the right and wrong, good and bad are not always
as clearly delineated, as we would like them to be. All of us have found ourselves
in situations where our moral principles are affirmed or challenged and
sometimes come in conflict with one another.

Activity
Read the given scenario below and reflect on the guide question that follows.
Santino and Iñigo are brothers. One night they are walking home.
Iñigo tells him that he will pull a prank. He then picks up a rock and
throws it into the glass window of a convenience store, shattering
the glass. The owner of the store corners the brothers and
interrogates them on who threw the rock at his store window. Iñigo
denies having done anything and tells the storeowner that he saw a
man running away from the store. The police arrive to investigate
the act of vandalism and survey the property damage telling the
brothers that they are likely suspects and can be taken to the station
for further questioning.
Santino finds himself torn between his loyalty to his brother and
telling the storeowner and the police the truth of what really
happened. If he tells the truth only his brother will be liable for the
damage but if he keeps quiet to protect his brother they are both
likely to be held accountable.

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If you were in Santino’s situation what would you do? Discuss how you will
go about this situation if you find yourself in it as well as your motivations in
discussing your course of action.
________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

Analysis
o How do you deal with experiences wherein your moral values are
challenged? What do you usually do when deciding what to do in these
situations?
o How do you decide on your course of action when all the options for your
course of action all have negative results or force you to violate your own
moral values?
Abstraction
Moral Experiences and Moral Dilemmas
As we go through our everyday tasks we are often faced with choices on
what and how to do things, knowing that our actions have consequences to
others and ourselves. Oftentimes our actions call our morals into question. These
are moral experiences.

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Moral experiences are situations wherein human beings are actively

engaged in examining, evaluating and eventually applying their moral values.
Moral experiences can happen even while we are going through the simplest of
tasks where a person is confronted with a choice on doing right or wrong or even
when we choose what opinion to hold with regard to a particular issue. There will
even be instances wherein the situations we find ourselves in do not have a
moral course of action immediately apparent to us. Whenever you find yourself in
a situation where a difficult choice has to be made and the choices available are
equally good or equally undesirable, you are experiencing what is known as a
moral dilemma.
Moral dilemmas are situations where there are two or more moral choices
that can possibly be pursued, with all options having their own moral reasons to
be chosen as a course of action and only one course of action can be ultimately
chosen. This often leads to conflicting feelings and thoughts on what to do.
Overcoming a moral dilemma entails deep reflection and discernment and
weighing of our own personal values in an effort to determine what is ultimately
important before making a choice to be acted upon. Oftentimes, moral dilemmas
cause conflicting feelings and thoughts because there are moral reasons for
taking a specific cause of action and our moral compass instinctually tells us to
do the least amount of harm and doing the most amount of good.

Levels of Moral Dilemmas

Moral Dilemmas can confront us individually or collectively at various

societal levels. Let us discuss these levels one at a time.

A personal moral dilemma is a moral conflict that is centered around an

individual, whether with himself/ herself or with another person or group of
people. At this level, the moral dilemma stems from the role of an individual and
its direct impact on their own lives. Decisions required in this situation usually
have bearing on the individuals own life choices and their direct implications on
their own future and their relationships with others. Santino’s experience can be
considered as a personal moral dilemma because he is conflicted as to whether
to maintain his loyalty to his brother in spite of the fact that his brother is clearly in
the wrong and having to deal with authorities and possibly get into trouble with
the law. He will now have to decide if his loyalty to his brother is more valuable to
him than upholding the law.

An organizational dilemma is a moral conflict when an organization has to

make difficult moral decisions that have direct implications on some of its
members or on the organization as a whole. This often stems from the role of the
organization in greater society and relationship with other stakeholders and not
just its own members. Moral dilemmas at the organizational level can also
manifest in its decision making process, its practices, and its structures. The
onset of the COVID 19 global pandemic has forced many organizations to make
difficult choices like having to decide on laying off their employees, which
translates to the loss of livelihood, or risk the existence of the organization in the
midst of the economic crises that has arisen from the global pandemic. Many
employees have decried the loss of their jobs and its profound impact on their

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ability to care for their own families. Other organizations have had to decide on
closure altogether, which means a loss for the greater economy.

A structural moral dilemma is a moral conflict that comes about when

leaders or people who hold high positions in society have to make difficult
decisions that have systemic or societal implications. These decisions could
affect people of a particular demographics or geographical locations such as an
entire state, region, city or country or such decisions can affect the entire
humanity. Governments often face this type of dilemma when laws and
governmental agreements with other nations alter people’s way of life. When
making decisions, governments are faced with deciding for the majority and
having to sacrifice some minority. Deciding for the good of their constituents must
be done carefully because of the far-reaching implications of such decisions.
Structural moral dilemmas not only affect people from different walks of life but
across boundaries and generations as well.

The levels at which moral dilemmas also show the interconnectedness of

things and how ethical decision-making impacts various levels of society, each
affecting the other.

Structural Moral
Dilemma

Organizational
Moral Dilemma

Personal Moral
Dilemma

As seen in the figure above, the levels of moral dilemmas also show how
the ability to act ethically has far reaching effects. Imagine a person unable to
deal with ethical decision-making on a personal level being placed in a key
position in an organization or in a leadership position in government. If a person
is unable to choose ethically on moral experiences arising in their personal life,
how can he/ she be expected to decide at an organizational or structural level
where the implications of decision-making affects a greater number of people? In
the same manner, people who make critical moral decisions at a personal level
can be trusted to make ethical decisions at an organizational and structural level.
This means that the practice of ethics starts with the individual. Ethical individuals
make for ethical organizations and ethical societies.

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Application

Learner Worksheet 3
Student Name: ______________________________ Score: ____________

Course/ Year/ Section: _______________________________

Relate one specific moral experience/ moral dilemma that happened to

you recently. Narrate the events and what moral conflict you went through.
Evaluate the experience based on your learning in this module. Discuss how you
dealt with the experience and your resulting actions. How do you feel about the
experience now? Would you do it differently or would you still choose to act in the
same way? Why or why not? Write your discussion below. You may also use the
back of this paper if the space is not enough.

Submitting Your Work. If you do not have Internet Connectivity, neatly detach this page
from your module and submit via University Drop Box or by courier/ mail together with
your other Learner Activity Worksheets once you reach the prescribed Learning
Checkpoint. If you have Internet connectivity, you may answer directly on the online
version of this worksheet through the University Virtual Environment.

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Closure
Well done! You have just finished the last lesson for this module.

If you have questions or need to make clarifications take note of them in

the space provided below to ask your Course Professor through direct messaging
or through the University Virtual Environment (UVE).

Notes from this Lesson

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Module Summary
In this module we took our first steps towards becoming everyday
ethicists. Let us now summarize some of the highlights of this module.

o Ethics and Morality pertain to the knowledge and practice of “proper

manner, behaviour, and character of a person in society”. Both pertain to
the habitual or customary disposition towards proper behaviour and
distinguishing between right and wrong, good and bad, acceptable/
unacceptable, or praiseworthy/ punishment worthy behaviour in a
particular social setting. Essentially both Ethics and morality flow from
each other, forming the heart and soul of Moral Philosophy, which is the
branch of Philosophy that deals with the study of right and wrong.

o The study of Ethics teaches us various steps and frameworks in deciding

on human acts. Therefore, the study of Ethics is the first step towards
internalizing the desire to live a moral life by first knowing what ethics we
need to abide by in a world that depends on such rules for order and
harmony.

o Moral Standards form the human moral compass comprised of values and
principles and codes of right and wrong that have no reference to specific
behaviours or beliefs. They stand apart from non- moral standards or other
rules in life, which are specific to cultures and societal settings. Non- moral
standards include etiquette, policies, laws and commandments, which all
spring from specific needs or goals and are mutually agreed upon by
people who share particular social relationships.

o Human Experience is the central concern of the study of Ethics because

knowledge without action renders its study useless. Human beings will
encounter moral experiences countless times during the course of their
lives wherein moral values are affirmed or challenged in the interest of
taking proper actions. There will also be situations wherein a human
person will experience a moral dilemma wherein he/ she is confronted with
a situation that forces them to make tough moral choices.

Now that you have completed all the lessons in this module, it is time to
assess your learning and move on to the next module.

Check your work and prepare for submission and assessment. The
succeeding page will give you instructions on completing your requirements for
this module.

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Learning Checkpoint
Module Assessment

Now that you have completed the first module, it is time to submit your
learning output and take the module assessment. A checklist is provided for you
below.

☐ Learning Worksheets 1-3

o For students with no Internet Connectivity use the University

Drop Box/ Courier/ Mail for submission. Neatly detach only the
Learner Worksheets from this module.

o Answer the Learning Activities through the University Virtual

Environment (UVE) platform.

☐ Module Assessment

o For students with no Internet Connectivity, contact your Course

Professor to make arrangements on taking the Module
Assessment (Quiz).

o Take the quiz on the University Virtual Environment (UVE)

platform.

END OF MODULE 1
If you have completed all the items on the checklist,
you may move on to the next module.

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Module 2
THE AGENT
Module Overview

In studying Ethics we must first understand that any action, whether moral
or immoral begins with the Human Person as the moral agent. Why do we do the
things we do? Why are we more prone to decide on things in a certain way?
Every person is the result of specific traits brought about by their upbringing,
education, age, gender, culture and so many other factors, which are both unique
to an individual and common in various societal contexts. So, in order to better
understand moral decision making, we first look at the dynamic that is happening
within the moral agent.

Module Outcomes

By the end of this module, we hope to achieve the following objectives:

 Explain why only human beings can be ethical;

 Articulate what culture means to attribute facets of personal behavior to

culture;

 Recognize and appreciate differences in moral behavior of different

cultures;

 Evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of cultural relativism:

 Analyze crucial qualities of the Filipino moral identity in their own

experiences to evaluate elements that need to be changed:

 Identify universal values and explain why universal values are necessary
for human survival.

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Lesson 1
Freedom as the Foundation for Moral Acts
Learning Outcomes

By the end of this lesson you should be able to:

o Discuss why only human beings can be ethical;

o Explain why freedom is the foundation of any moral action;
o Understand freedom from various philosophical perspectives.

Time Frame: 1 Week

Introduction

“... elevating though man's privilege is, of being

capable of such an idea as freedom of choice - [those
who are accustomed only to physiological
explanations] are stirred up by the proud claims of
speculative reason, which feels its power so strongly
in other fields. They are stirred up just as if they were
allies, leagued in defense of the omnipotence of
theoretical reason and roused by a general call to
arms to resist the idea of freedom of choice and thus
at present, and perhaps for a long time to come
(though ultimately in vain), to attack the moral concept
of freedom and, if possible, render it suspect. (TL 6:
378/34-35).”

- Immanuel Kant

Activity (Let’s Get Started!)

Research on the differences between Human behaviour and animal

behaviour when choosing their partners or mates. Compare and contrast
between their behaviour in choosing their partners.
Analysis (Let’s Think About it!)
Now think about the questions below:
 What are the criteria or considerations used by humans and animals in
finding their partners or mates? Are they the same or different?

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Abstraction (Let’s Explore!)

Human Beings, Freedom, and Being Ethical

Both Humans and animals find mates differently. The next question is:
Why do they do it? This is where the fundamental difference lies. A human being
consciously chooses to pursue an action while animals are driven by instinct.

It may be apparent in your research that the there is a raging debate on

the difference between human and animal behaviour. While many may argue that
we cannot truly know the mind of animals, great thinkers like Immanuel Kant,
René Descartes, St. Thomas Aquinas, and Peter Carruthers among others assert
that human ethics is driven by rational behaviour and animal ethics is driven by
instinctual behaviour.

Note how animals choose their partners based on the availability of a mate
during mating season when their body functions compel them to mate. The urge
is so strong that it is impossible to ignore. Humans behave differently because we
are able to consciously choose when, where and whom sexual relations are done
with according to our upbringing and existing norms. In fact, humans can choose
to live a sexually active lifestyle, choose to abstain from sexual activities for a
period of time or choose to be sexually celibate all their lives. Animals choose
partners who are dominant or superior to others as evidenced through
competition and factors that are in line with reproductive success, which is
termed as kin selection. On the other hand, humans choose partners with extra
care and judgement, with long-term commitment, personality, emotional and
intellectual maturity as well as social and cultural compatibility in mind among
various factors; meaning criteria that go beyond ensuring reproductive success.
The key concept here is conscious choice. Humans have conscious choice tied
to their rationality. While it is true that humans have base instincts like animals,
we are not bound by them. We can choose to go against these urges. Animals
are bound to behave according to their instincts.

Another example in comparing rational and instinctual behaviour is

altruism, the belief in or practice of disinterested and selfless concern for the well
being of others. Animal scientists have been able to observe altruistic behavior in
the animal kingdom but do not tie this behavior to “belief” but instead attribute it to
preservation and continuity of the species or the fulfillment of basic needs and
urges. Humans, on the other hand, do selfless acts for reasons beyond this.
Similar to our example on choosing a partner, humans choose to do selfless acts
because of conscious beliefs and principles. Although the choices we make
usually conform to our personal beliefs and principles, we can also choose
whether to conform or not. Again, we have a choice. Even when we say we do
not want to choose, we are still making a choice. We have control over the
choices we make and we can choose what to do because we have rationality.
Only humans are capable of rational behavior.

Rational behavior is a decision making process where the person acts in

ways that best achieves his/ her needs in conformity to personal morals,

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principles, beliefs, preferences, and priorities. Being capable of rational behavior

gives us freedom to control our actions by consciously choosing how to act.
Freedom, or having free will means being able to choose and do things on our
own with or without the guidance or undue control of external forces or
influences.

Freedom as the Foundation of Moral Acts

In the previous section we talked about freedom. This begs the question,
“So are we really free?”

Many people would say no because they are subject to the control of
rules. To some extent this is a valid point, because if we were really free, we
should be free to do whatever we wanted. Thinking of freedom in terms of just
“being able to do whatever we want” is a very limited view of what freedom really
is. Imagine if you could in fact do whatever you wanted, and you kill a person just
because you felt like it, would it be acceptable if someone did the same to you or
a loved one just because he was free to do so?

All our actions stem from our freedom of choice. We can, in fact, choose to
kill whenever we want except we choose not to because we believe that killing is
bad. Freedom is the foundation of morality because it means choosing the good
instead of the bad, the right instead of the wrong, whenever me are choosing
what to do. One of the best metaphors to describe the dynamic of freedom and
morality comes from C.S. Lewis who is best known for his Chronicles of Narnia
novels and also a lay theologian, lecturer and essayist. Lewis observed that
many people viewed morality as something that took away human freedom and
saw moralists as “kill joys” intent on controlling others from doing what they really
wanted to do. To this, Lewis offers an analogy, which asks us to imagine each
human beings as boats on the sea travelling together. Imagine all these ships just
did what they want, without coordination with other ships. Each ship is capable of
sailing on its own and reaching its destination but without consciously sailing in
reference to others, the ship runs the risk of blocking one another’s path, delaying
them from reaching their ultimate destination. It also puts the ship in danger of
colliding with others; causing the ships to sustain damage or worse, sink and
never reach their destination. In contrast, if each ship consciously coordinated
with other ships, with common reference points and sailing behaviour, the
chances of smooth sailing and reaching the destination safely is increased
exponentially.

The analogy offered by Lewis offers us wonderful insight into how we use
our freedom and living morally. Freedom should be exercised morally with
thought of one’s self, others and our ultimate purpose.

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The analogy forces us to look at viewing freedom from three aspects,

namely:

Personal Aspect. A person uses his freedom towards seeking and

attaining virtue so that they make moral choices by habit. Virtue is thought or
behaviour that display high moral standards. Living a moral life means that the
person has internalized moral standards to live by and put them into practice.
Take note that doing the right thing because you believe in your mind and in your
heart that it is right is very different from doing the right thing just because you
are told to do it.

In a film entitled “Clockwork Orange” by award winning author Stanley

Kubrick, the lead character Alex lives a violent life where he engages in all sorts
of violent crimes. One night, he gets arrested for breaking into a house. While he
is incarcerated, he becomes one of the subjects in a government project that
entails brainwashing people to “be good” by programming them to have severe
physical reactions to acts of violence. After being brainwashed, Alex is declared
to be cured from his “badness” and is released from prison. On one occasion,
Alex encounters friends from his past who beat him up severely. Having been
stripped of his of his free will, Alex cannot defend himself because it will entail
him having to engage in a type of violent behaviour in order to defend himself. He
gets beaten up because he cannot choose to fight back. In the end, the
“goodness” that was programmed into him does more harm than good, causing
him to be so unhappy with his life that he even contemplates committing suicide.
The film ends with Alex being injured in a failed suicide attempt and showing
signs that the brainwashing is wearing off and that he will revert to his old violent
ways. The film outlines one very important aspect of freedom and morality from a
personal aspect.

Before a person can be moral, he must first be free. In order for one to be
a truly good person, he or she does the right thing because it is right thing to do
and not because of any other undue influence such as brainwashing or any type
of force. Making moral choices that stem from one’s own freedom allows us to be
able to be happy and content with the choices we make. Choosing to do the right
thing against your will causes feelings of discontentment and dissatisfaction and
ultimately unhappiness. This defeats the purpose of doing good. The excellence
of character is achieved through an organic process of conscious growth,
learning and practice.

Interpersonal Aspect. Exercising one’s freedom and living a moral life

also has an interpersonal aspect. Going back to the ship analogy, we choose
proper action in terms of how they affect others. On many instances, wrong
actions do not just affect us but extend to people around us such as causing
offense or hurt whether physical or emotional or it may cause conflict to happen.
When viewed from an interpersonal aspect, we see that our freedom ends when
it interferes with the ability of others to enjoy their freedom. The interpersonal
aspect is also the social aspect of freedom. Morality is social because it is
concerned with being fair to others and achieving harmony between people. If the
personal aspect allows us to live with our own choices, the interpersonal aspects
allow us to make choices that you and those around you can live with. If we want

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to truly flourish as a society, we need act towards avoiding harming others and
not just ourselves.

Aspect of the Ultimate End. This aspect allows us to view freedom and
morality in line with the overall purpose of human life- the destination which Lewis
refers to in his analogy. Living a moral life gives not only direction to our lives but
also a purpose. The answers to the questions “Why am I here?” and “What is the
purpose of my life” are questions that are not limited to moral philosophers and
theologians but also to every individual who seeks to find fulfilment and
happiness. The answer to these questions may vary among people because of
their different cultural, sociological and religious beliefs, but one whatever we
may think the answer is, exercising free will is important towards achieving our
ultimate end. Without morality, our actions become aimless, random actions. In
the same manner, the belief that life has no purpose makes our actions pointless
endeavours. If we believe that the purpose of our life is for us to be happy, fruitful
and productive, living at peace with ourselves and harmony with others and our
surroundings, then aspiring for moral excellence helps us achieve that end.

The Human Person as a Free Being

In the module overview we discussed that any action, whether moral or

immoral begins with the Human Person- the moral agent. We also discussed how
humans differ from animals. Philosophy looks at humans beyond the
physiological and biological components, hence the term human being, which
also views spiritual and rational components. Aristotle’s idea of a “being”
suggests the actual condition of humans, their actuality or existence. Another way
of viewing this would be circumstance or totality which encompasses properties
both inborn and acquired that he or she uses to direct his or her own
development toward self- fulfilment. Humans are born as free beings.

Philosophical Understanding of Freedom

Since Philosophy examines the actuality of human beings, philosophers

throughout the ages have discussed the concept of freedom comprehensively.
Let us discuss these philosophical views on freedom as well as the philosophers
who help us in gaining a more rounded understanding of what freedom is.

Freedom is a Gift. Gabriel Marcel, who is often regarded as the first

French Existentialist saw freedom a a God- given gift which allows humans to be
who they are by making choices that are important to their self- actualization. He
said that being free meant being able to choose according to what we think is
right for us and towards achieving the life we hope to have. This insight is
significant because what is the point of doing something if it does not matter to us
anyway? Our freedom allows us to make choices that impact us in one way or
another.

Freedom is complementary to reason. The classical Greek Philosopher,

Aristotle, who is perhaps one of the most influential philosophers of all time also
discussed freedom extensively in his ethical doctrines. He said that practical
rationality not only enhances, but emphasizes freedom. Aristotle asserted that

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freedom and reason are necessary for consciously making sense of things and
that human ability for self-direction allows us to pursue and achieve our ultimate
end.

Freedom is absolute. Jean Paul Sartre, also one of the great French
philosophers, states that freedom in humans goes beyond freedom from
restrictions. According to him, unlike animals, “Humans are absolutely free” which
goes beyond primitive freedom for survival. Humans have freedom in terms of
their ability to think, to make changes to themselves and their lives and pursue
self-actualization and fulfilment. Sartre uses the example of a person serving time
in prison to explain his view. While a person in jail is confined to the premises of a
prison cell, he is still free because he can choose the way he spends his time in
prison. He can also choose to reform his ways while incarcerated. Humans have
the freedom to ultimately decide the direction their life takes by attaining goals
that go beyond just mere survival.

Freedom demands responsibility. Jean Paul Sartre also asserted that

having freedom meant taking responsibility for how our freedom is used. As
mentioned previously, we are constantly making choices with the knowledge that
these choices have consequences. This is where responsibility comes in. When
choices are made we have the responsibility of being held accountable for the
actions we have chosen. Yes we can choose to hurt others. The next question is,
are we prepared to live with the consequences of the hurt we have caused,
including the offense or hurt we have caused others? Or the guilt we feel that
could possibly arise as a result of it?

Lao Tzu, a prominent Chinese philosopher, also spoke of responsibility in

exercising our freedom. He said that our responsibility in exercising our freedom
lies in choosing actions that result in peaceful coexistence with others. To him,
this meant that check and balance of individual freedom was necessary for
society to flourish because the imbalances resulted to social injustice. Consider
what happens when an individual uses his freedom without thought for the rights
of others. Ultimately, someone suffers or is victimized. Exercising one’s freedom
is accompanied by the care for the welfare of others.

Now that you have finished the discussion, try applying your learning by
answering the Learner Activity on the next page.

Application

Read the story of Odysseus and the Sirens. The ancient writer, Homer
tells the story of Odysseus—also known as Ulysses—a respected warrior who is
returning home, to the island of Ithaca, from the Trojan War in the epic the
Odyssey, believed to have been written in the late 8th Century B.C. Odysseus
(Ulysses) is a sympathetic, complex man who tries to do the right thing and
usually pays attention to what the gods tell him. He is also a leader among men
who is aware that his decisions affect the lives and welfare of his crewmembers.
Odysseus and his crew travel all over the Ancient Mediterranean, a world fraught

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with supernatural beings, monsters, obstacles and dangers. After reading the
story answer the analysis questions that follow then answer Learner Worksheet
4.
Odysseus and the Sirens
Retold from Homer’s “The Odyssey”

One experience during his journey is Odysseus’ encounter with the Sirens.
These two creatures, pretended to be beautiful women with amazing voices, try
to assure sailors, who passed their island, that they just want to entertain them
with beautiful melodies. What they really want, however, is to kill them. The allure
of the Sirens was so strong that many sailors could not resist them. Upon hearing
their beautiful voices, sailors passing their island would lose their senses and
want nothing more than to be the sirens, which would lead them to their doom
and destruction.
Odysseus heard of the Sirens from the goddess Circe who warns him
saying, “First you will come to the Sirens who enchant all who come near them. If
any one unwarily draws in too close and hears the singing of the Sirens, his wife
and children will never welcome him home again, for they sit in a green field and
warble him to death with the sweetness of their song. There is a great heap of
dead men's bones lying all around, with the flesh still rotting off them. Therefore
pass these Sirens by, and stop your men's ears with wax that none of them may
hear; but if you like you can listen yourself, for you may get the men to bind you
as you stand upright on a cross-piece half way up the mast, and they must lash
the rope's ends to the mast itself, that you may have the pleasure of listening. If
you beg and pray the men to unloose you, then they must bind you faster. (See
Samuel Butler’s translation of The Odyssey, Book XII, online via MIT.)”
This warning triggers fear in Odysseus. He heeds Circe’s warning, taking
care to completely block his men’s ears with bees’ wax. Soon their ship passes
the beautiful island of the Sirens. It looks like paradise. They also see the Sirens
sitting beside the ocean combing their long golden hair and bewitching sailors
with the sweetness of their song.
Taking a large block of beeswax, a gift from Circe, Odysseus breaks it into
small pieces and gives one to each of his men. He tells them to soften it and put
it into their ears. In this way, they will not hear the song of the Sirens. But
Odysseus wants to hear that famous song and still survive. Circe has told him
how to do it. He orders his sailors to tie him firmly to the ship’s mast. When he is
firmly tied, and his men have the beeswax in their ears, they row their ship
alongside the island. Then Odysseus hears the magical song of the Sirens as it
floats over the summertime waters:

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Odysseus, bravest of heroes,

Draw near to us, on our green island,
Odysseus, we’ll teach you wisdom,
We’ll give you love, sweeter than honey.
The songs we sing, soothe away sorrow,
And in our arms, you will be happy.
Odysseus, bravest of heroes,
The songs we sing will bring you peace.

When he hears the words and the music, the song enchants Odysseus’
heart. He longs to plunge into the waves and to swim to the island. He wants to
embrace the Sirens. He strains against the bonds, which hold him to the ship’s
mast. He strains so hard that the bonds cut deeply into the flesh of his back and
arms. Nodding and scowling at his ear-plugged men, he urges them to free him.
Expecting this reaction, the men row harder and harder with their oars.

To Odysseus, who is bewitched by the song, the Sirens look as beautiful

as Helen of Troy. To his crew, made deaf with beeswax, the Sirens seem like
hungry monsters with vicious, crooked claws. The ship speeds forward and soon
the song of the Sirens is an echo of an echo. Only then do the crewmembers
stop rowing and unplug their ears. Eurylochus, a trusted crewmember unbinds
Odysseus, who has now come to his senses. By heeding the advice of the
goddess Circe, Odysseus has avoided a catastrophe. He and his crew go on to
face many more trials and temptations before they reach home and their families.

When answering Learner Worksheet 4 consider the following:

 What is the end goal of your journey? This can be your dream or ambition
for yourself in the future.

 What are the Sirens or temptations you might encounter on your journey
that keep you from achieving your end goal? How do you plan on avoiding
these? What conscious choices will you make to protect yourself? Who will
help you in preventing doing something that could possibly lead to your
ruin?

 Be creative in doing your mind map. You may use figures or symbols to
represent these figures. Make your mind map clear in outlining how you
envision your personal odyssey.

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Learner Worksheet 4
Student Name: ______________________________ Score: ____________

Course/ Year/ Section: _______________________________

Map out your own personal Odyssey in the space below containing all the
considerations outlined in the guide questions.

Submitting Your Work. If you do not have Internet Connectivity, neatly detach this page
from your module and submit via University Drop Box or by courier/ mail together with
your other Learner Activity Worksheets once you reach the prescribed Learning
Checkpoint. If you have Internet connectivity, you may answer directly on the online
version of this worksheet through the University Virtual Environment.

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Closure
Well done! You have just finished Lesson 1 of this module.

If you have questions or need to make clarifications take note of them in

the space provided below to ask your Course Professor through direct messaging
or through the University Virtual Environment (UVE).

Notes from this Lesson

Now that you have completed Lesson 1, let us move on to the next lesson
in this module. You may now move on to the next lesson.

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Lesson 2
Culture & Moral Behaviour
Learning Outcomes

Now let us move on to the aspect of culture, which is one of the driving
influences of human behaviour. By the end of this lesson you should be able to:

o Explain what culture is, its elements and how it affects human behaviour;
o Discuss why culture should not be the ultimate determinant of values;
o Attribute facets of personal behaviour to culture;

Time Frame: 1 Week

Introduction

Humans are social creatures. It is natural for humans to want to form

relationships with others in one way or another. It is also natural for human
beings to want to gain social acceptance and respect and as a result, human
tend to modify their behaviour to gain social favour.

“Whenever a populace crowds together at any public

gathering, in the Assembly, the law- courts, the theater, or the
camp, and sits there clamoring its approval and disapproval,
both alike and excessive, of whatever is being said or done;
booing and clapping till the rocks ring and the whole palaces
redoubles the noise of their applause and outcries. In such
scene, what do you suppose will be a young man’s state of
mind? What sort of private instruction will have given himthe
strength to hold out against the force of such a torrent, or will
save him from being swept away down the stream, until he
accepts all their notions of right and wrong. Does as they do
and comes to be just suhc a man as they are. And have I said
nothing of the most poweful engines of persuasionwhich the
masters in this school of wisdom bring to bear when word
have no effect. As you know they punish the recalcitrant with
disenfranchisement, fines and death.”
-Plato
(from the Republic, as translated by F.M. Cornford, 1996)

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Activity
 Research on the term “Bandwagon Effect” and herd mentality.
________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

 Recall an experience with the Bandwagon Effect or herd mentality. This

could be an experience where you changed your own beliefs in order to
match popular belief just because it was popular and not necessarily
because it was in line with your own opinion.
________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

Analysis
 From your experience why is it easy to give in to herd mentality? Why is it
so difficult to resist?
___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

 From your experience, what are the advantages of going with the
bandwagon? What are the disadvantages?
___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

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Abstraction
Understanding Culture as a Phenomenon
There are many ways of defining culture. Generally, culture refers to the
“way of life” a particular group of people. The term culture encompasses so many
aspects from traditions, customs, beliefs, and values, to history, all forms of art,
knowledge, religions and even power dynamics among others. Culture or “our
way of life is very powerful in shaping social and personal decisions, behaviour
and practice because it provides the basis how and why things are done in a
particular way.

Basic Elements of Culture

Now let us discuss the five basic elements of culture.

Symbols. The word symbol comes from the Greek term “symbolon” which
means “token” or “watchword”. A symbol is a mark, sign, or word that indicates,
signifies, or is understood as representing an idea, object, or relationship in which
people of a particular culture find significant meaning. People who belong to
specific cultures share in ascribing meaning to particular symbols while people
who do not share in that culture may ascribe a different meaning to the object.
For example, the cross is a symbol of salvation for Christians because it
represents the ordeal of Christ on the cross and his sacrifice. Non- Christians

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however look at the exact same image and not find significance in it. Another
example would be wedding rings, which are symbols of marital commitment in
most cultures. These symbols of wedding vows of love, fidelity and honoring
one’s partner are not the same in all cultures. In fact, the exchange of rings
during a wedding ceremony is not done in all cultures. The flag of a nation is
symbolic because it represents the sovereignty of that nation as well as its
identity as a country. Notice how flags are prominently on display during
international events such as the Olympics. The display of the flags shows the
participating nations and are usually displayed side by side in order to symbolize
the camaraderie that these events try to foster. Further, the colors and objects on
the flags of different nations also have their own symbolization which people of
that nation find significant.

Some religious symbols from around the world.

Language. One important aspect in culture is shared language, which is a

complex symbol system that enables members of a shared culture to
communicate verbally whether orally or in writing. Dialects and sub-dialects are
also shared by certain groups of people for the exact same purpose. Languages
have common letter systems that represent spoken language.

Left to Right: The English Alphabet, The Cyrillic Alphabet & The Alibata

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Beliefs. Beliefs are assumptions or convictions held to be true by an

individual or group of people. Beliefs are grounded in the shared confidence on
the truth or existence of something without necessarily requiring proof for it. One
good example of this in ancient cultures were the belief in spirits, deities
supernatural beings. Beliefs also include superstitious beliefs. Beliefs also
provide basis for many practices within particular cultures. In the Philippine
culture few refer to beliefs as “paniniwala at pamahiin”. For example, when there
is death in the family, certain practices are performed in order to prevent any
further death in the family such as “pagtawid sa usok”, and “pagpag”. Beliefs are
usually passed on through teaching or acquired naturally in cultural
environments.

During Holy Week, many Christian believers engage in one form of “penitensya” or
penitence, which is believed to be a form of contrition and purging of one’s sins.

Values. Values are principles or standards of behavior. They are one's

judgment of what is important in life and thus guide and motivate attitudes or
actions. Values describe the personal qualities we choose to embody to guide
our actions; the sort of person we want to be; the manner in which we treat
ourselves and others, and our interaction with the world around us. They provide
the general guidelines for conduct. Values are what people in shared cultures
deem as good, desirable and worth emulating, pursuing and being. Cultural
values are values accepted by religions or societies and reflect what is important
in each context.

The “Bayanihan” Tradition exemplifies the Filipino value of being “matulungin” or helpful to others.

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Norm. Cultural norms are the standards we live by. They are the shared
expectations and rules that guide behaviour of people within social groups.
Cultural norms are learned and reinforced from parents, friends, teachers and
others while growing up in a society. For example, in some countries, dressing is
conservatively is the norm where females are expected to cover up as much as
possible while in other cultures this is not practiced. When a person violates the
norm their behaviour is frowned upon by people belonging to that culture or in
some cases behaviour is sanctioned. In some cultures kissing and hugging a
member of the opposite sex is perfectly acceptable while in other cultures this
may be considered as a gross violation of their norms. Being aware of the norms
of a society allow a person to tailor their actions so that they can act within the
norm and avoid social censure or causing offense.

The practice of “pagmamano” is an important norm in Philippine culture, which entails showing
respect to elders.

Culture and Moral Behaviour

Cultural variations in morality within societies can vary as much as cultural

variations in morality between societies. Just as people belong to specific
cultures so their behaviours in terms of their moral judgement and moral
behaviour vary as well. Since culture is such a powerful force in the life of an
individually, it is also a powerful influence on one’s moral behaviour. When
considering what action to take, culture is on of the factors that weigh heavily on
an individual’s decision. The influence of community and society is very powerful
in motivating our actions. People will usually safely align their actions to popular
belief for example, going with the herd mentality without necessarily examining
the issue properly out of fear of the implications of going against what is held to
be right by the majority. This is because cultural beliefs are conditioned by
external and material elements around us that, in turn, provide the basis for
principles that orient our judgment and valuation of things. Notice how we would
generally not want to go against cultural beliefs because we don’t want to
disappoint our parents and elders or we want to avoid the resulting community
gossip that results from our actions. In some instances however, a person might
choose to against culture especially if these come in conflict with their own
personal beliefs and values.

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Application (Let’s Do It!)

Learner Worksheet 5
Student Name: ______________________________ Score: ____________

Course/ Year/ Section: _______________________________

Think about the beliefs outlined in the column on the left. In the center
column write a statement of the belief surrounding the statement. Then in the last
column write how you adjust your behaviour in accordance to that belief. The first
one is done for you as an example.

Cultural Beliefs & Values

Situation Involved Resulting Behavior

Black cat crossing your It is bad luck when a Avoid black cats.
path. black cat crosses your
path. Something bad will
happen.

Making noise and using

firecrackers to usher in the
new year.

Saying “tabi po” when

entering wooded areas at
night.

Removing one’s slippers

when entering the homes of
other people.

Choosing one’s clothing for

going to mass.

Speaking to an older
person or a superior.

Observing Good Friday and

Black Saturday.

Submitting Your Work. If you do not have Internet Connectivity, neatly detach this page
from your module and submit via University Drop Box or by courier/ mail together with
your other Learner Activity Worksheets once you reach the prescribed Learning
Checkpoint. If you have Internet connectivity, you may answer directly on the online
version of this worksheet through the University Virtual Environment.

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Closure
Well done! You have just finished Lesson 2 of this module.

If you have questions or need to make clarifications take note of them in

the space provided below to ask your Course Professor through direct messaging
or through the University Virtual Environment (UVE).

Notes from this Lesson

Now that you have completed Lesson 2, let us move on to the next lesson
in this module.

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Lesson 3
Cultural Relativism
Learning Outcomes

By the end of this lesson you should be able to:

o Discuss the nature of cultural relativism and how it affects moral

behaviour;
o Evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of cultural relativism;

Time Frame: 1 Week

Introduction

“If anyone, no matter who, were given the opportunity of

choosing from amongst all the nations in the world the set of
beliefs which he thought best, he would inevitably—after
careful considerations of their relative merits—choose that of
his own country. Everyone without exception believes his
own native customs, and the religion he was brought up in,
to be the best; and that being so, it is unlikely that anyone
but a madman would mock at such things. There is
abundant evidence that this is the universal feeling about
the ancient customs of one's country.”

— Herodotus (Histories, 3.38)

translated by Aubrey de Selincourt

Activity
Read the short article below and reflect on the guide questions that follow.
Sabong or Cockfighting is a popular pastime in the Philippines wherein
game fowls or gamecocks are pitted against each other in a cockpit or sabungan.
Its history in the Philippines can be traced back to the Spanish Colonization in the
1600s. It is also referred to as Tari-tari, tupada or tigbakay. The fighting cocks are
fitted with metal spurs or knife called a tari on their leg and made to fight until one
is severely hurt or dies. Sabong is largely considered a blood sport because
although not all fights are to the death, the cocks are subjected to significant
physical trauma as result of the fight.

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Game fowls are also bred specifically for the sport. They are born, raised
and bred on “game farms” where breeders keep only birds with potential for the
sport and killing birds that are deemed inferior. The birds are conditioned to fight
by training them through a regimented conditioning of physical work including
attaching weights or blades to their legs for practice fights with other roosters in
order to toughen them up for their fights. The birds are kept in makeshift shelters,
tethered by one leg. Breeders have also been known to pluck the birds’ feathers
and remove the roosters’ wattles and combs to prevent other roosters from
tearing them off during fights. These body parts are important for the birds ability
to regulate their body temperatures. Some “cockers” cut off the birds’ spurs,
which are the natural bony protrusions on the legs, so that more deadly, artificial
weapons can be strapped to their legs. Law enforcement officials have also found
performance-enhancing drugs during raids that are harmful to the animal’s health
with prolonged use.
Advocates of cockfighting cite cultural relevance to justify the perpetuation
of the sport. They argue that it is an ancient sport and is deeply ingrained in the
Filipino culture and in many other cultures in the world. Animal rights activists
however argue that the sport itself along with all its accompanying practices
violate human rights and are unethical. In some areas around the world and even
in the Philippines, cockfighting is still practiced as a mainstream event; either
regulated by law, or forbidden outright. For example, in the United States most
states declared it illegal. It is also considered as illegal sport in Brazil and in most
nations in Europe.
Analysis
o Do you think that cultural relevance is enough to justify the cruelty that is
done to animals in order for sabong to be continued as a practice? Why or
why not?
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________

o Many advocated of cockfighting would argue that sabong as a sport

should be viewed with cultural tolerance. Do you think tolerance is a
virtue? What are its limitations? Can you think of an instance when being
tolerant is not ethically ideal?
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________

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Abstraction
Cultural Relativism
We all live within a certain culture and different cultures have different
moral codes. What is culturally acceptable in one society may be culturally
unacceptable to another and vice versa. As German Anthropologist Franz Boaz
explains, “…civilization is not something absolute, but… is relative and… our
ideas and conceptions are true only so far as our civilization goes.” By relative he
means that anything within a culture should be considered “in relation or in
proportion to the culture to which he belongs. This sentiment would later be
echoed in 1924 by philosopher and social theorist, Alain Locke when he coined
the term cultural relativism.
Cultural relativism is the belief that the concepts and values of a culture
cannot be fully translated into, or fully understood in, other languages; that a
specific cultural artefact, for example a ritual, has to be understood in terms of the
larger symbolic system of which it is a part. Cultural relativists would assert that a
person’s beliefs and activities should be understood by others in terms of that
persons own culture. In the same manner it is important that any practice should
be viewed or judged based on the standards of the culture to which it belongs
and not by any other standard, where one culture might appear superior or
inferior to the other. A key component of cultural relativism is the concept that
nobody, comes from a neutral position. We all have our own biases that are
rooted in the cultures to which we belong. The way to deal with our own
assumptions is not to pretend that they don’t exist but rather to acknowledge
them, and then use the awareness that we are not neutral to inform our
conclusions.

Claims of Cultural Relativists

(Dr. James Rachels, The Elements of Moral Philosophy p. 16- 31)

1. Different societies have different moral codes.

2. The moral code of a society determines what is right
within that society; that is, if the moral code of a society
says that a certain action is right, then that action is right,
at least within that society;
3. There is no objective standard that can be used to judge
one society’s code better than another’s.
4. The moral code of our own society has no special status;
it is merely one among many.
5. There is no “universal truth” in ethics; that is there are no
moral truths that hold for all peoples at all times.
6. It is mere arrogance for us to try to judge the conduct of
other peoples. We should adopt an attitude of tolerance
toward the practices of other cultures.

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Closely linked to cultural relativism is ethnocentrism. Which is the

tendency to look at the world primarily from the perspective of one’s own culture.
The term Ethnocentrism was coined by William Graham Sumner and entails
having the belief that one’s own culture is the “right way” or the “only way” of
looking at the world. Ethnocentrism often entails the belief that one’s own race or
ethnic group is the most important or that some or all aspects of its culture are
superior to those of other groups. If we take this concept side by side with cultural
relativism, it is an extreme form of cultural bias because ethnocentrism uses only
one’s own cultural standard in seeing the world whereas cultural relativism
asserts that the only proper standard for looking at the world relative.
When taking an ethnocentric view, a person might view a cultural artifact in
terms of his own culture and judge other groups in relation to their own particular
ethnic group or culture, especially with concern to language, behaviour, customs,
and religion and see it as primitive, or barbaric or inferior in some way. Again, this
leads to making wrong assumptions or judgments about others. Ethnocentrism
could lead to animosity towards other cultures or groups of people, some
examples of this include, sexism, racism and bigotry and thus lead to social
injustice and discrimination.
What brings these two concepts together is that culture is so ingrained in
us that we cannot help but have it affect our view of the world. Understanding
these concepts help us to acknowledge these biases and act accordingly.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Cultural Relativism

Keeping in mind our own cultural biases goes a long way in preventing us
from making the wrong assumptions about peoples behaviour. It also allows us to
mitigate our own prejudices and be more open minded in examining other
cultures. Dr. James Rachels discusses very eloquently two important lessons that
can be learned from cultural relativism. First, it warns us from assuming that our
preferences are the absolute rational standard and second, it teaches us to keep
an open mind and to be more amenable in discovering the truth. The word
“tolerance” comes to mind from these two lessons. It means the ability or
willingness to be understanding or at the very least, allow the existence of
opinions or behaviour that one does not necessarily agree with.

Throughout this discussion you might also be asking the question as to

whether a culturally relative way of looking at the world is the right way to go.
Although cultural relativism espouses tolerance of behaviour, it is also not without
its disadvantages. There are dangers that are associated with cultural relativism.
Taking a culturally relative view may be well and good for harmless practices but
what about harmful ones? Research on cock fighting in the Philippines or bull
fighting in Spain or the Grindadràp or the Faroese for killing long-finned pilot
whales in the Faroe Islands or the Yulin Dog Festival in China. All these cultural
practices involve extreme cruelty to animals. Would it be right to allow these
cultural practices to continue in light of the fact that they involve cruel treatment
and killing of animals simply because they happen in a cultural context? This

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leads us to think about the extent of tolerance that is advocated by Cultural

Relativism.

The Consequences of Taking Cultural Relativism Seriously

(Dr. James Rachels, The Elements of Moral Philosophy,

1. We could no longer say that the customs of other societies

are morally inferior to our own.
2. We could decide whether actions are right or wrong just by
consulting the standards of our society.
3. The idea of moral progress is called into doubt.

The first danger of cultural relativism pointed out by Dr. Rachels is lies in
its original premise because we cannot call out harmful societal practices. If for
example one culture chooses to wage war on another as part of their cultural
practice we cannot call out that culture for their violence or aggression because it
is part of their culture. Consider other harmful practices such as “child brides” in
some cultures, tribal cleansing, slavery or “honor killings”. All these practices
cannot be seen as abominable or wrong because they happen in the context of a
particular culture.

The second consequence outlined by Dr. Rachels takes an insider view. If

we cannot call out the harmful practices of other cultures, in the same manner we
cannot also criticize harmful practices taking place in our own culture because
the only way of judging right or wrong would be to consult our cultural standard.

The third consequence stems from the two previous dangers. Ultimately, if
we are unable to criticize harmful cultural practices, the whole idea of moral
progress becomes doubtful because we would have to be tolerant with practices
that have a cultural aspect in spite of the fact that they are harmful. The whole
idea of progress is hinged on development moving forward towards advancement
and making things better. If we are to develop as a society both morally and
socially, harmful cultural practices must be corrected if not abandoned completely
and be changed for the better. Being tolerant of such practices would defeat the
purpose of social reform. The continued progress of individual cultures and global
society as a whole depends largely on being able to continuously evaluate
culture, whether that of our own or others in the interest of curbing or if not
eliminating harmful practices so that they can be changed for the better and stop
the harm that they cause. Being tolerant of negative cultural practices would
mean being complicit in the harm that it brings and encourage clinging to old
ways and prevent any growth or development to take place.
Given the dangers of Cultural Relativism, we are led to ask whether there
is a culture- neutral standard of right and wrong that we can use when judging
cultural practices. Dr. Rachels posits considerations when looking at cultural
practices. The first would be to consider “whether the practice promotes or
hinders the welfare of the people whose lives are affected by it.” The second
consideration would be “to see whether an alternative set of social arrangements

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that would do a better job of promoting their welfare”. He is quick to point out
however that these considerations are also independent moral standards that can
vary from person to person and can still be similar to “interfering with the social
customs of other peoples.” He also asserts that tolerance is a virtue because it
entails the willingness to live in peaceful cooperation with people who have a
different culture from ours.
Application
Research on any of the following cultural practices and give a critique of
the practice based on Dr. Rachels’ culture neutral considerations for judging
cultural practices. Write your critique in Learner Worksheet 6.
Topic Choices
o Child brides or early marriage of girls 11- 13 after which they are expected
to start producing children.

o Sex bias or son preference leading to selective abortion, foeticide and

infanticide because the female child is not valued by her culture.

o Female genital mutilation (FGM), an age-old practice which is perpetuated

in many communities around the world simply because it is customary
which involves surgical removal of parts or all of the most sensitive female
genital organs.

o Dowry murder is a brutal practice involving a woman being killed by her

husband or in-laws because her family is unable to meet their demands for
her dowry — a payment made to a woman’s in-laws upon her engagement
or marriage as a gift to her new family.

o Honour Killings wherein rape victims, women suspected of engaging in

premarital sex, and women accused of adultery have been murdered by
their male relatives because the violation of a woman’s chastity is viewed
as an affront to the family’s honour.
Critique Guide (Total Word Limit should not exceed 500 words)
o Discuss the cultural practice you have chosen. Give a short background of the
practice including the societies/ cultures that still engage in the practice.
o Discuss the practice against Dr. Rachels’ first culture- neutral consideration:
Does the practice promote or hinder the welfare of the people whose lives are
affected by it? Give proof to support your claim.
o Discuss the practice against Dr. Rachels’ second culture- neutral consideration:
Is there an alternative set of social arrangements that would do a better job of
promoting their welfare?
o Give your personal stance based on your research. Should the practice be
stopped? Or if it would be changed what is your proposal for change?
o All sources must be properly cited. Submissions will be subjected to plagiarism
check.

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Learner Worksheet 6
Student Name: ______________________________ Score: ____________

Course/ Year/ Section: _______________________________

_________________________________________________
(Chosen Topic)

Note: You may use the back part of this paper or an extra sheet of paper if you need to.

Submitting Your Work. If you do not have Internet Connectivity, neatly detach this page
from your module and submit via University Drop Box or by courier/ mail together with
your other Learner Activity Worksheets once you reach the prescribed Learning

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Checkpoint. If you have Internet connectivity, you may answer directly on the online
version of this worksheet through the University Virtual Environment.

Closure
Well done! You have just finished Lesson 3 for this module.

If you have questions or need to make clarifications take note of them in

the space provided below to ask your Course Professor through direct messaging
or through the University Virtual Environment (UVE).

Notes from this Lesson

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Lesson 4
Filipino Values & Universal Values
Learning Outcomes

By the end of this lesson you should be able to:

o Analyse crucial qualities of the Filipino Moral identity in your own

experiences;
o Evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of Filipino moral traits;
o Evaluate what needs to be changed in the Filipino Moral Identity.

Time Frame: 1 Week

Introduction

What does it mean to be Filipino?

Gerard Lim
https://rappler.com/voices/ispeak/identity-crisis-filipino
June 20, 2014

“Is being kayumanggi the only thing that makes a Filipino?

Erin Sinogba, a writer, puts the Filipino identity in question. She
says there is a dominant construction of what it means to be
Filipino. The problem, however, is that it does not accommodate
the "cultural panorama" of Filipino experiences. Each person who
identifies himself/herself as Filipino contributes his/her diverse
background and experience to what it means to be Filipino… Even
Filipinos who leave the country and grow up in other nations still
identify themselves as Filipino in one way or another. Reina Reyes
looks at Jose Rizal and how he traveled Europe, adopting things
from various cultures in hopes of bringing them back to the
Philippines. She says the chance to experience other cultures
helps us realize that things don't have to be the way they've always
been… Is the Filipino really just the kayumanggi person who goes
to Catholic mass every Sunday and eats adobo? What does it
mean to be Filipino when most of Philippine history is a construct of
colonialism?”

Activity
Based on the article excerpt above, what does it mean to be Filipino?

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Analysis
o Discuss the major influences on your personal identity. Who played the
biggest role in moulding you to be the person you are now? How did they
impress their influence on you?
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________

Abstraction
Determining Factors of the Filipino Moral Identity
There are many factors that lay the foundation of our moral identity as
Filipinos. Former Chairperson of the Commission on Higher Education (CHED),
psychologist and educator Dr. Partricia Licuanan reported ten (10) key factors
that contributed to the Filipino character.
The Home Environment. The importance that Filipinos place on family is
given primary emphasis in the home environment and is ingrained from
childhood. Older siblings are generally expected to take responsibility for younger
siblings, which continues into adulthood. The care for parents in their old age is
also a responsibility impressed upon children throughout their lives. Closeness
with extended family is also typical among Filipinos, which fosters belongingness
to a larger family unit that extends beyond one’s immediate family. The home
environment is instrumental in imbibing Filipino values to an in individual.
Culture and Language. The Philippines is home to many dialects coupled
with diverse regional cultures. It is typical for a Filipino to speak a native dialect
and the national language of Filipino. It is also common for urban areas in the
Philippines to be melting pots of regional cultures. Filipinos also have foreign
influences that spring from their exposure to education and the media.
History. Many Filipino traits can also be traced from our colonial history.
The term “colonial mentality” refers to this directly to explain the internalized
attitude of ethnic or cultural inferiority felt by people as a result of colonization, i.e.
them being colonized by another group, which is accompanied by the belief that
the cultural values of the colonizer are inherently superior to one's own.
The Educational System. The school environment is also instrumental in
forming the Filipino identity. In the Philippine setting, many schools are
authoritarian, placing emphasis on being well-behaved and being obedient. Many
studies have shown that this contributes to passivity and conformity. The
educational system of the Philippines has seen many changes in the past few
decades, moving towards more learner- centeredness. Foreign educational
frameworks have also become a prominent feature in the Philippine educational
landscape in recent years.

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Religion. The Philippines is a dominantly Catholic country but at the same

time it is home to many religious denominations. The deep spirituality of Filipinos
is credited as one important factor in their inherent resilience and optimism,
because of their firm belief in the Divine Provision and Care. However this same
factor is also associated with passivity and conformity such as the “Bahala na
attitude” where Filipinos passively believe that everything will eventually sort itself
out.
The Economic Environment. Many Filipino traits can also be attributed to
the economic environment of Filipinos. Filipinos are known to be hard working
and frugal which could stem from their economic circumstances. Ilocanos for
example are known for these specific traits, which they attribute to the hard
working environments in their region, resulting in the tendency towards frugality.
Resilience during times of difficulty is another Filipino trait that can be traced to
the economic environment as well as strong community ties where the spirit of
“Bayanihan” or helping each other in time of need is very much alive. The
economic conditions of the country have also spawned the emergence of the
OFW family that has to deal with long periods of separation and a unique family
dynamic.
Political Environment. Politics figures heavily in the Filipino identity,
serving to emphasize Filipino family centeredness due to a lack of strong
government presence. The Philippine political landscape also contributes in large
part the “kanya kanya mentality” and the “barrio barrio mentality”. The political
environment is also known for the power imbalance that is evidenced by political
dynasties, corruption and impunity of the rich and elite. There are also on-going
political rivalries and divisions that trickle down to political supporters. This
makes for polarized public opinions on national issues.
Leaders and Role Models. Filipinos greatly respect people in authority
and have the tendency to be fiercely loyal to those they perceive as their role
models or “idols”. There is also a tendency to romanticize the role of leaders in
society which results in an overdependence in leaders to “save” the people from
their difficult circumstances. Former President Joseph Estrada was hugely
popular among the masses at the time he was elected. This was attributed to the
“Asyong Salonga” persona which was a “hero of the people” role he played when
he was still an actor. The “idol” status bestowed upon leaders and perceived role
models in Philippine society plays a part in the way Filipinos view and form
opinions about specific issues.
Mass Media. The media also contributes heavily to the Filipino identity
because it greatly impacts many aspects of culture. It can reinforce or erode
Filipino culture by exposing us to foreign cultures. The KPop phenomenon, for
example, which explains Filipino fascination for all things Korean was brought
about by the advent of Korean music groups and Korean telenovelas made
available by mainstream media. Our exposure to foreign cultures through media
and Internet has been

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Filipino Character Traits

“Character” is the mental and moral qualities distinctive to an individual or
shared by a group of people. Filipinos have distinct character traits. Note that
these character traits influence behaviour and moral judgement. Even positive
traits when manifested in the extremes can lead to either positive or negative
behaviour. For example, Filipinos find the trait of being “mabait” or kind to be a
positive trait because it means being friendly, generous or considerate. However,
if this trait is manifested in the extreme makes an individual prone to being taken
advantage of or abused which is bad and disadvantageous to the individual. Let
us discuss some Filipino character traits and how they can lead to the
manifestation of positive or negative behaviour.
Family orientation or Family- Centeredness (Makapamilya). Filipinos
are known for their family centered orientation, a genuine love for family
members not limited to immediate family but extended family as well. Foreigners
have often remarked their fascination on the lengths that Filipinos will go for the
sake of their family- being able to endure long periods of separation as in the
case of Overseas Filipino Workers (OFWs) and other personal sacrifices. This
strong family orientation gives Filipinos a sense of belongingness and security.
This trait solidifies the Filipino family unit, enabling them to withstand hardships
by providing a comprehensive support system. However, the trait can also lead to
dependency on the family unit. This can lead to a lackadaisical attitude in some
individuals knowing that their families will not abandon them no matter what. In
turn, unemployed family members become the burden of other members of the
family to the detriment of their own financial goals. Extreme family centeredness
can also lead to forsaking community and the common good for the sake of one’s
family as manifested in nepotism for example and the “kanya- kanya” attitude.
Pakikipagkapwa-Tao. The Filipino practice of “Pakikipagkapwa- Tao” is
explained to be the Filipino standard for benevolence or goodness. UP Diliman
Department of Psychology explains the Kapwa Theory, specifically the concept of
“pakikipagkapwa-tao” that is often used in Filipino psychology as the people’s
moral compass of what is good or bad. The theory states that when one sees
another as a fellow human being, one is obligated to treat others like how he or
she wants to be treated. It obliges one to be humane to other people, both in
attitude and action. Being humane, which requires putting oneself in another
one’s shoes, should serve as a guiding principle in decision-making.
Pakikipagkapwa-tao figures into many aspects of Filipino culture in close tandem
with Filipinos being innately social personality. In some respects this can also
lead to having an extremely collectivist mind-set where an individual forgoes his
or her own interests for the sake of many. This behaviour in itself comes with its
own advantages and disadvantages. The Bayanihan Spirit is a manifestation of
pakikipagkapwa- tao which fosters deep communal ties and care for neighbours
and other members of the community as well.

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Pagiging Matatag, Matiisin at Maparaan. Renowned CNN reporter,

Cooper Nielson made social media headlines when he publicly praised the
strength of the Filipino spirit during a report he was making on the Typhoon
Yolanda Aftermath in Tacloban. In his report, he thanked the Filipinos for
“showing the world how to live” citing that in the midst of great adversity he
observed how Filipinos maintained amazing flexibility, adaptability, resilience, and
tenacity under the worst of circumstances and lacking government presence.

Pagiging Masayahin. Another positive aspect of the Filipino character is

cheerful disposition of Filipinos coupled with their innate strength and tenacity;
this trait allows Filipinos to weather even the most extreme hardships. Humor is
another aspect that is a large part of the Filipinos fun-loving nature. This pleasant
disposition towards life eases the struggles of daily lives and allows Filipinos to
thrive even in difficult situations.
Pagiging Masipag at Matiyaga. Given the environmental factors that
Filipinos have to deal with socio- economically and politically, Filipinos are also
known for being hardworking and industrious. This trait is most noticeable in the
willingness to take on difficult jobs, even to the point of going abroad if the need
calls for it and the ability to persevere under these circumstances. In the same
way as other traits of the Filipino Character, this not only enables the Filipino to
survive but thrive in spite of many trials they might face.

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Pagiging Makadiyos at Madasalin. The Filipino character is also made

inherently resilient by a deep and abiding faith in God and being prayerful. It is
common for Filipino families to go to Church together and observe religious
holidays as well as pray together as part of daily living. Although the Philippines
is a predominantly Catholic nation, Filipinos are widely regarded to be a deeply
religious people.

However, there are also notable weaknesses in the Filipino Character,

which have hindered Filipinos from achieving their full potential.
Kanya-kanya Syndrome. This negative trait refers to the selfish, self-
serving attitude possessed by many Filipinos. This trait can manifest itself
particularly towards others who have gained some status or prestige or in terms
of personal drive for power, privilege and status causing one to forsake the
interests of others and being insensitive to the common good. The Kanya-kanya
Syndrome can also take the form of extreme family centeredness where the
interest of ones family takes such precedence that the person pays no mind for
the common good. The mentality of ensuring family welfare at all cost plays a
crucial role in deciding on matters where an individual has to choose between
family and the larger community.
Crab Mentality. Perhaps the opposite of the Bayanihan spirit is the crab
mentality or “pagiging utak talangka” which is a mind- set possessed by some
Filipinos. The expression “utak talangka” comes from the behaviour seen in crabs
placed in a basket wherein crabs prevent other crabs from reaching the top and
escaping by pulling them down again. This is manifested by insecurity and envy
towards others that leads to pulling others down by pointing out their faults,
negative gossip and back- biting or outright sabotage. This leads to animosity
and ill feelings that undermines sense of pakikipagkapwa-tao and the
achievement of set goals. Crab Mentality also often arises out of the Kanya-
Kanya syndrome where one’s selfish attitude pushes a person to pull others
down in order to bolster one’s own status.
Mañana Habit. This refers to the attitude of some Filipinos to put off for
tomorrow or until the last moment something that can be done today. This
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procrastination manifests itself in the statements “bukas na lang” or “mamaya na

lang”. This attitude stems from the unwillingness to deal with unpleasant things or
tasks until one absolutely has to leading to decreased productivity. Laziness also
contributes to this particular habit.
Filipino Time. One of the better-known negative aspects of the Filipino
character is disregard for time. This attitude refers to non- observance of
scheduled or standard time and overall punctuality. This is seen in scheduled
events that start hours after they are supposed to partly because people do not
show up on time. This behaviour is known among time-observant foreigners who
regard it as disrespectful and wasteful of the time of others.
Ningas Kugon. The term “ningas” can be translated to burn or flame while
“kugon” is an indigenous grass known to burn bright and fast. The term means “to
burn like kugon” in reference to short – lived enthusiasm for something. This
attitude captures the attitude of many Filipinos who engages in something with
zeal only at the beginning and quickly loses interest or enthusiasm for the task.
This can be seen not only in individual but community behaviour. This leads to
wasted time, effort and resources on tasks or projects that will not find
completion.
Lack of Self- Discipline. Another negative trait that is seen in many
Filipinos is the tendency to disregard or bend rules in order to serve their own
interests. This lack of self- discipline is seen many ways from queuing habits to
adherence to basic laws, regulations and ordinances. One common problem in
government agencies is the prevalence of fixers who offer their services to get
transactions done faster by circumventing proper procedure. The Filipino lack of
discipline often manifests whenever a situation seems to be inconvenient or there
is lack of time. Many Filipinos opt to take shortcuts or disregard rules. Another
reason for this lack of discipline is the mentality that there are no consequences if
one does not get caught. This type of attitude has a big impact on society. Many
problems that we have in society could actually be solved if people were able to
discipline themselves.
Colonial Mentality. As discussed previously in this lesson Filipinos also
have the tendency to have colonial mentality as an effect of our history of being
colonized by the Spanish, American and Japanese. The term “colonial mentality”
refers to this directly to explain the internalized attitude of ethnic or cultural
inferiority felt by people as a result of colonization, i.e. them being colonized by
another group, which is accompanied by the belief that the cultural values of the
colonizer are inherently superior to one's own. Colonial mentality can manifest
itself in an apparent lack of appreciation for our own culture by preferring foreign
things because they are viewed to be superior. One good example of this is our
fascination for foreign- made products and brands because they are better than
locally made products. This can also be seen by Filipino desire to associate
themselves with foreign culture by adopting or incorporating foreign elements in
our image as it is perceived to be a mark of status or privilege.

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The colonial mentality of Filipinos has a powerful impact on the collective

nationalism and patriotism. This is seen in the constant false comparison of
Philippine conditions to that of other countries and looking at these countries as
greener pastures to be aspired for instead of seeking to become part of uplifting
conditions here in the Philippines.
“Bahala na” Attitude. A result of the Filipinos deep faith and religiosity,
the phrase “bahala na” translates to “come what may” can is manifested by
abandoning proper rationalization in favour of leaving a situation to the hands of
fate or Divine Providence. This attitude is the embodiment of the fatalistic attitude
of Filipinos and could result in avoiding the confrontation and resolution of tough
situations or issues.
Universal or Core Ethical Values
In the previous lesson we discussed cultural relativism to take a macro
perspective of how cultural values may differ. In this lesson we took a micro
perspective at Filipino values to be able to focus more on the Philippine cultural
context. Inevitably, are bound to be moral values that are regarded in the same
way by all societies regardless of cultural context. Ethicists and social scientists
disagree on which values are held universally. Foremost ethicist, Dr. James
Rachels cites that there are only three universal values shared by all cultures.
It is wrong to kill. The preservation of human life is given paramount
importance in all cultures. Many sociologists observed that this universal value
has some variations in culture and that more apt way of stating this value would
be “It is wrong to kill innocents” because in some cultures sanctioned killings do
take place such as penalty for heinous crimes or other reprehensible actions. Be
that as it may, killing in itself is found to be abhorrent in all cultures whether it is
justified or not.
Tell the truth. Honesty and integrity are universally held as noble
behaviour that should be aspired for. In all cultures, telling a lie is equivocally
seen as a form of disrespect and disloyalty and a violation of honor. Truth telling
is a challenge for everyone regardless of what culture they come from. Even in
ancient civilizations people who were held in high esteem in the community were
described to hold very specific traits, being honest in all their dealings being one
of them. In the same manner, individuals despised in the community were
described as being deceitful in one way or another. Trustworthiness is always
seen in positive light as it enables people to live harmoniously and without
conflict.
The young should be cared for. Across all cultures, care for the young is
seen to be of paramount importance as it ensures the future of any society. In
times of conflict and distress such as war and famine, the welfare of the young is
always given precedence over other concerns. Although cultures may vary in
how “care” is expressed, it is generally held that ensuring safety from harm and
provision of necessities for survival for younger members in society is the right
thing to do.

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Although Dr. Rachels only outline three, other ethicists say that there are
traits that are seen positively across cultures. The Josephson Institute of Ethics gives
a number core ethical values that can be used as guidelines for harmonious living in
any society.
Trustworthiness. Echoing Dr. Rachel’s point on telling the truth, the quality
or trait of trustworthiness implies a variety of behavioural qualities. Honesty is
communicating with intent to disclose the truth to the best of ones knowledge and
avoiding any form of deceit seen in terms of three dimensions: truthfulness (not
misrepresenting facts), sincerity (non- deception and sensitivity) and frankness
(volunteering information worth knowing). Integrity is the consistent manifestation of
being trustworthiness. Traits that are associated with trustworthiness also includes
reliability and loyalty as well.
Respectfulness. Respect is about honouring the essential worth and dignity
of all people, including ones self. In all cultures around the world, the value of being
respectful is manifested in many different ways but the emphasis of giving and
receiving respect is expected in all societies. Respectfulness includes civility,
courtesy and decency.
Responsibility. Members of harmonious societies need to be mindful and
accountable of their duties and actions especially those that have an impact on the
community. All societies demand certain responsibilities of its members.
Fairness. Another trait that is held valuable in all cultures is a sense of justice
or fairness. This is evidenced by the presence of systems for attending to the
concerns of conflicting parties in even the most remote tribal societies. Fairness is an
expectation that naturally follows the need for respect. When a person feels they are
being treated unfairly, they also feel disrespected. Various cultures have different
ways of exercising fairness and do so in consonance with other factors in their
culture.
Caring. The formation of human relationships and ultimately the formation of
society depends on human bonds that give people a sense of belonging. Caring,
meaning being kind and displaying concern for others, is expected of members in all
societies. Harmonious societies are characterized by this particular value wherein its
members take care of each other especially after those who are unable to take care
of themselves. Caring can manifest itself in many ways within a society, from basic
neighbourly relations to legislature and policy that are aimed at making people’s lives
better. Caring for other members of society is also considered to be one of the duties
of a good citizen.
Citizenship. Perhaps if one were to summarize how values become
universal, the value of citizenship would be one way of bringing together all the other
values mentioned in this lesson. As in all values discussed here, the actual
manifestation of citizenship varies from culture to culture but all societies agree that
there are specific traits that society expects from all of its members. Citizenship
simply means being a good member of any given society; doing one’s duties for its
betterment and manifesting traits that ensure harmonious living with others.

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Application

Learner Worksheet 7
Student Name: ______________________________ Score: ____________

Course/ Year/ Section: _______________________________

Take a personal inventory of your own personal traits by filling out the matrix
below. How do you manifest these traits in your own life? How do you violate these
values? Remember that in taking this exercise seriously you are critically examining your
own moral character.

My Personal Traits/ Ways I manifest these Ways I violate these

Values values in my life values in my life
(Choose only the most important to you)

Note: You may use the back part of this paper or an extra sheet of paper if you need to.

Submitting Your Work. If you do not have Internet Connectivity, neatly detach this page
from your module and submit via University Drop Box or by courier/ mail together with
your other Learner Activity Worksheets once you reach the prescribed Learning
Checkpoint. If you have Internet connectivity, you may answer directly on the online
version of this worksheet through the University Virtual Environment.

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Closure
Well done! You have just finished the last lesson for this module.

If you have questions or need to make clarifications take note of them in

the space provided below to ask your Course Professor through direct messaging
or through the University Virtual Environment (UVE).

Notes from this Lesson

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Module Summary
In this module we examined the Human Being as the moral agent in order
to gain an understanding of what factors and traits impact our moral judgement
and behaviour. Let us now summarize some of the highlights of this module.

o Human ethics is driven by rational behaviour and animal ethics is driven by

instinctual behaviour. Rational behavior is a decision making process
where the person acts in ways that best achieves his/ her needs in
conformity to personal morals, principles, beliefs, preferences, and
priorities. Humans are born as free beings. Freedom, or having free will
means being able to choose and do things on our own with or without the
guidance or undue control of external forces or influences. Our freedom to
choose is the foundation for moral acts.

o Culture refers to the “way of life” a particular group of people. The term
culture encompasses so many aspects from traditions, customs, beliefs,
and values, to history, all forms of art, knowledge, religions and even
power dynamics among others. The five basic elements of culture include:
symbols, language, beliefs, values, and norms.

o Cultural relativism is the belief that the concepts and values of a culture
has to be understood in terms of the larger symbolic system of which it is a
part. On the other hand, Ethnocentrism entails having the belief that one’s
own culture is the “right way” or the “only way” of looking at the world and
the belief that one’s own race or ethnic group is the most important or that
some or all aspects of its culture are superior to those of other groups.

o There are many factors that lay that determines our moral identity as
Filipinos. These include the Home Environment, Culture and Language,
History. the Educational System, Religion, the Economic Environment, the
Political Environment, Leaders and Role Models and the Mass Media.

o “Character” is the mental and moral qualities distinctive to an individual or

shared by a group of people. Filipinos have distinct character traits. Note
that these character traits influence behaviour and moral judgement. Some
traits of the Filipino Character include: Family orientation or Family-
Centeredness (Makapamilya), Pakikipagkapwa-Tao, Pagiging Matatag,
Matiisin at Maparaan, Pagiging Masayahin, Pagiging Masipag at Matiyaga,
and Pagiging Makadiyos at Madasalin.

o Notable weaknesses in the Filipino Character, have hindered Filipinos

from achieving their full potential. These include: Kanya-kanya Syndrome,
Crab Mentality, Mañana Habit, Filipino Time, Ningas Kugon, Lack of Self-
Discipline, Colonial Mentality, and the “Bahala na” Attitude.

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o There are moral values that are regarded in the same way by all societies
regardless of cultural context. Foremost ethicist, Dr. James Rachels cites
that there are only three universal values shared by all cultures, which
include: it is wrong to kill; tell the truth; and the young should be cared for.
The Josephson Institute of Ethics gives a number core ethical values that can
be used as guidelines for harmonious living in any society. These values
include: Trustworthiness, Respectfulness, Responsibility, Fairness, Caring,
and Citizenship.
Now that you have completed all the lessons in this module, it is time to
assess your learning and move on to the next module.

Check your work and prepare for submission and assessment. The
succeeding page will give you instructions on completing your requirements for
this module.

Learning Checkpoint
Module Assessment
Now that you have completed the first module, it is time to submit your
learning output and take the module assessment. A checklist is provided for you
below.

☐ Learning Worksheets 4-7

o For students with no Internet Connectivity use the University

Drop Box/ Courier/ Mail for submission. Neatly detach only the
Learner Worksheets from this module.

o For students with Internet Connectivity answer the Learning

Activities through the University Virtual Environment (UVE)
platform.

☐ Module Assessment

o For students with no Internet Connectivity, contact your Course

Professor to make arrangements on taking the Module
Assessment (Quiz).

o Take the quiz on the University Virtual Environment (UVE)

platform.

END OF MODULE 2
If you have completed all the items on the checklist,
you may move on to the next module.

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Module 3
THE ACT
Module Overview

Moral Philosophers attempt to determine how one ought to act in the course
of their life by prescribing action on what one has to do. But the ultimate ethical
questions which have been particularly prominent in the history of ethics are: What
makes actions moral, meaning good or bad, right or wrong? and Why should one
behave in accordance with an ethical theory?

Module Outcomes

By the end of this module, we hope to achieve the following objectives:

 Identify and articulate each stage of moral development;

 Recall immediate responses to moral dilemmas;

 Differentiate responses based on reason and those based on feelings;

 Capture and analyze feelings in personal moral experiences;

 Compare reasonable and emotional responses;

 Able to make reason and impartial decision;

 Check real-life cases against the 7-step model, a model that uses reason
and impartiality;

 Differentiate knowing and actually executing a good moral decisions.

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Lesson 1
Stages of Moral Development
Learning Outcomes

By the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

o Identify each stage of moral development;

o Articulate each stage of moral development;
o Check personal growth against the stages of moral development.

Time Frame: 1 Week

Introduction

Lawrence Kohlberg ‘s Stages of Moral Development – adapted from General

Psychology with Drug Education book by Virgie S. Otig and Winston B. Gallinero,
M.A.

A 20th century developmental psychologist and moral philosopher,

Lawrence Kohlberg was the director of Harvard’s Center for Moral Education. His
researched was focused on the moral development of children particularly on how
they develop a sense of what is right or wrong, as well as justice. He believed, by
observation, that children move through a definite stages of moral development.

He studied morality using a very controversial technique. He would be

asking his participants, both children and adult, to try to solve moral dilemmas in
short stories and to think out loud so Kohlberg could follow their reasoning.
However, he is not interested with their specific answers to the dilemma but he just
wanted to know how the person got to his or her answer.

Activity (Let’s Get Started)

Read Heinz Dilemma after which you have to identify and clarify the
dilemma. To do this, you must clarify your own notions of justice. This might also
be your first opportunity to think about issues, which you have heard but not really
thought about.

In Europe a woman was near death from a special kind of cancer. There was one
drug that doctors thought might save her. It was a form of radium that a druggist in the
same town had recently discovered. The drug was expensive to make, but the druggist
was charging ten times what the drug cost to make. He paid $200 for the radium and
charged $2,000 for a small dose of the drug. The sick woman’s husband, Heinz, went
to everyone he knew to borrow the money, but he could only get together about $1,000,
which is half of what it cost. He told the druggist that his wife was dying and asked him

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to sell it cheaper or let him pay later. But the druggist said, “No, I discovered the drug
and I’m going to make money on it.” So Heinz became desperate and began to consider
breaking into the man’s store to steal the drug for his wife.

Analysis (Let’s Think About it!)

Now think about the following questions:
 Should Heinz steal the drug? Why and why not?
 If Heinz doesn’t love his wife, should he steal the drug for her? Why or why
not?
 Why should people do everything they can to save another’s life?
 Is it against the law for Heinz to steal? Does that make it morally wrong?
Why or why not?
 Why should people generally do everything they can to avoid breaking the
law? How does this relate to Heinz’s case?

Abstraction (Let’s Explore!)

Here’s a summary of Kohlberg’s findings in terms of age appropriate morality
in relation to Heinz’s dilemma.

His research in psychology showed that our conception of justice (what is

right) changes and develops overtime as we interact with the environment.

Students at the pre-conventional level approach a moral problem from the

interests of the individuals involved in a situation. Their concerns will be whether
Heinz will be punished for stealing and whether he will be able to live without his
wife.

At the conventional level, students approach a moral problem as a

member of society and take into account what the group or society expects an
individual to do within its moral norms. The students’ considerations at this level
will focus on 1) whether a loving husband would do whatever he could to save his
wife, 2) whether he could get help from the authorities and what happen to society
if all its members broke the laws. The concern is to protect society as well as one’s
own interests.

For post-conventional level, a moral problem is considered from the

society’s perspective. The person at this level sees beyond the current laws and
norms of society and thinks about the principles upon which a just society can be
based. Relating to Heinz’s dilemma, the person at the post-conventional level will
consider whether the attempts to save a life would be interpreted as breaking the
law. What kind of system could both prevent the loss of innocent life and protect
the druggist’s right to property is another consideration for decision.

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Outline of Kohlberg’s classification of moral stages:

Level Stage Social Orientation

Pre-conventional 1 Obedience and Punishment
2 Individualism, Instrumentalism & Exchange
Conventional 3 “Good boy/girl”
4 Law and order
Post-conventional 5 Social Contract
6 Principled conscience

The first level of moral thinking is found generally at the elementary school
level. In the first stage of this level, people behave accordingly to socially
acceptable norms because they are told to do so by some authority figure such as
parents or teacher. Their obedience is compelled by the threat or application of
punishment. The second stage is characterized by the idea that right behavior
means to act according to one’s own best interest.

The second level of moral thinking is generally found in the society. The first
stage of this level (stage 3) is characterized by an attitude which seeks to do what
will gain the approval of others while the second stage (stage 4) is one oriented to
abide the law and to respond to the obligations of duty.

The third level of moral thinking is not reached by the majority of adults.
Stage 5 is an understanding of social mutuality and a genuine interest in the
welfare of others. On The last stage (stage 6) is based on respect for universal
principle and the demands of individual conscience.

Kohlberg believed that individuals could only progress through these stages one
stage at a time, meaning they could not “jump” stages. For example, they could
not move from an orientation of selfishness to the law and order stage without
passing through the good boy/girl stage. They could only come to understand of a
moral rationale one stage above their own. According to Kohlberg, it was important
to present them with moral dilemmas for discussion which would help them to see
the reasonableness of a “higher stage” morality and encourage their development
in that direction.

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Application

Learner Worksheet 8
Student Name: ______________________________ Score: ____________

Course/ Year/ Section: _______________________________

Using Kohlberg’s stages of Moral Development, draw a chart of your life’s journey
to show incipient moments in your lives and where you are right now in your moral
development.

Submitting Your Work. If you do not have Internet Connectivity, neatly detach this page
from your module and submit via University Drop Box or by courier/ mail together with your
other Learner Activity Worksheets once you reach the prescribed Learning Checkpoint. If

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you have Internet connectivity, you may answer directly on the online version of this
worksheet through the University Virtual Environment.

Closure
Well done! You have just finished Lesson 1 of this module.

If you have questions or need to make clarifications take note of them in the
space provided below to ask your Course Professor through direct messaging or
through the University Virtual Environment (UVE).

Notes from this Lesson

Now that you have completed Lesson 1, let us move on to the next lesson
in this module. You may now move on to the next lesson.

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Lesson 2 Requirements of Ethics

Reason and Impartiality
Learning Outcomes

By the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

 Know about making very difficult and possibly life-altering decisions;

 Understand impartiality and reason;
 Decide what to do and be able to choose what action to take;
 Make a rational, impartial decision.

Time Frame: 1 Week

Introduction

You might be wondering, “Why should human beings be moral? Why should I do what
is right?”

Here are some compelling reasons:

a. It is enlightened self-interest – “I will be better off”
b. It is the traditional law – “Because some authority says so”
c. It is responsibility – “It is expected of me”
d. It is what is fair and equitable – “It is about fairness and justice”

But most of all,

e. People have shared human needs, goals, desires, and/or objectives, and
these are better met when people treat each other in a manner that
promotes what is right and good.

- (Thiroux and Krasemann,2009)

Activity
Read the short article below and reflect on the guide questions that follow.
During an exam you saw your friend (who is sitting next to you) secretly
open the notebook to look for an answer on one of the test questions. Your teacher
noticed that your classmate was doing something suspicious. The teacher called
your classmate and asked if your classmate was cheating. Surreptitiously, your
classmate closed the notebook and answered, “No”. Your teacher did not trust your
classmate’s answer so the teacher asked you.

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Analysis
 What will you say for your decision to be moral?
 How will your answer affect your friend, your teacher, and the rest of your
classmates? What about you as a person?
 How is impartiality a requirement for morality?
Abstraction
Is reason a requirement for morality?
A relevant definition of reason to our topic is “the power of the mind to think,
understand, and form judgments by a process of logic” (Merriam-Webster, 2017).
However, one of the most influential philosophers in the history of Western
Philosophy, Immanuel Kant, argued that reason alone is the basis for morality, and
once the person understood this basic requirement for morality, one would see that
acting morally is the same as acting rationally. The definition of morality alone
shows that a person must decide what to do as Kant pointed out. You, as a person,
are able to think and reflect on different actions and then choose what action to
take. Implicitly, moral decision means one is not force to act in a particular manner
but acted by the power of the will.
Is impartiality a requirement for morality?
How impartiality is related to morality, one must know the importance and
understand what impartiality is. It is a broad concept, but it is also identified as a
core value in professional code of ethics. Impartiality is commonly understood as
a principle of justice. It denotes that decision should be “based on objective criteria
rather than on the basis of bias, prejudice, or preferring to benefit one person over
another for improper reasons” (Jollimore, 2011); impartiality stresses that everyone
ought to be given equal importance and not favor one class (people, animals, or
things) in capricious way.
How impartiality becomes a requirement for morality? You saw your friend
during the exam who was sitting next to you secretly open a notebook to look for
an answer on one of the test questions. Your teacher noticed that your classmate
was doing something suspicious. The teacher called on the student’s attention and
asked about it. The student surreptitiously closed the notebook. Since the teacher
was not convinced, you were asked by the teacher. What will you say? According
to philosopher and Professor Dr. James Rachels, for your decision to be moral,
you should think how your answer will affect your friend, your teacher, the rest of
your classmates, and how it will affect you as a person. An impartial choice involves
ones decision based on how all the persons in the situation will be affected, and
not to the advantage of a particular party that you favour.
Thus, for the question “are reason and impartiality a requirement for
morality, Dr. James Rachels (2004) said morality “at the very least is the effort to
guide one’s action based on the most logical choice (reason) while giving equal
importance to the interests of each person affected by one’s decision (impartiality).

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Application (Let’s Do It!)

Learner Worksheet 9
Student Name: ______________________________ Score: ____________

Course/ Year/ Section: _______________________________

Discuss briefly your understanding of contributory elements to your moral

character. How is character developed?

Contributory Elements How character develops

Family

School

Peer

Media

Neighborhood

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Closure
Well done! You have just finished Lesson 2 of this module.

If you have questions or need to make clarifications take note of them in the
space provided below to ask your Course Professor through direct messaging or
through the University Virtual Environment (UVE).

Notes from this Lesson

Now that you have completed Lesson 2, let us move on to the next lesson
in this module.

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Lesson 3
Feelings and Reason
Learning Outcomes

By the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

o Decide which one to use in making moral decision: reason or feeling;

o Differentiate responses based on reason or feeling.

Time Frame: 1 Week

Introduction

Philosopher, historian, economist, and essayist Avid Hume (1711-1776)

famously placed himself in opposition to most moral philosophers, both ancient
and modern. He argued to regulate actions using reason and that reason has
dominion over feelings or emotions. He is best known in ethics for asserting
these four theses:

1. Reason alone cannot be a motive to the will, but rather is the “slave of
the passions”.
2. Moral distinctions are not derived from reasons.
3. Moral distinctions are derived from the moral sentiments: feelings of
approval (esteem, praise) and disapproval (blame) felt by the
spectators who contemplate a character trait or action.
4. While some virtues and vices are natural, others (including justice) are
artificial.

Max Scheler, an important German Ethical Philosopher distinguished for

himself for his contribution in phenomenology, ethics, and philosophical
anthropology who sought to know what comprised the structures of consciousness,
including that of mental acts such as feelings, thinking, resolve, as well as the
inherent objects or correlates of these mental acts such as values, concepts, and
plans (Frings, 2013). Scheler presented four strata of feeling, claiming these strata
or levels are constant and it follows and exact order of importance, calling these
levels as “stratification model of emotive life”.

On the opposite side of the discussion about the role of feelings in making
moral decisions are those who argued on the use of reason over feelings.
Philosopher Professor Dr. James Rachels asserted that in moral reasoning, one
could not rely on feelings no matter how powerful these feelings may be. Feelings
can be irrational and merely a product of one’s prejudice, selfishness or cultural
conditioning. The morally right thing to do is one that is supported by rational
arguments and these arguments is reasonable if:
a. The facts are correct.
b. The moral principles are correctly applied.
c. Each individual’s well-being is treated equally important

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Activity

Read the short article and explain your notion on the questions.

Your teacher announced there would be a long test next meeting. After
school, you saw a at the mall. You knew she was absent when your teacher had
announced the test. However, you did not go out of your way to inform your
classmate about the test.

Analysis
 Why you did not go out of your way to inform your classmate about
the test as announced by your teacher?
 What is the role of feeling in decision-making based on your answer
in the first question?
Abstraction
Feelings can be obstacles to making the right decisions because of its non-
deliberate nature. Nondeliberate is doing something without thinking through. It is
not intentional, unplanned or without conscious effort.
Emotions notoriously play favourites since it operates on a principle called
“the law of concern” where emotions give focus only on matters of personal
interest. It draws its perspective from personal interest and addresses subjective
concerns and takes action primarily to satisfy such concerns. A highly partial
perspective is interested only in the immediate situation, which mean no rational
explanations from a broader perspective are relevant.
Emotion is problematic since it rises up for arbitrary reasons. Aspects or
situation that have nothing to do in moral situations could rile up your emotion, and
this emotion will certainly influence your subsequent moral judgment.
Although several studies point out the negative effects of emotion in making
decisions, contemporary research on how emotions facilitate reasoning is also
catching up. Several studies suggest that emotions are the foundation of all
cognitive and behavioural processes; and emotional responses often guide a
person in making beneficial choices without any conscious reasoning
(Arnold,1960; Damasio, 2003).
There are at least three (3) ways that negative feelings help in making the
right decisions:
 It signals the need to adjust behavior – Psychologists acknowledged
that emotions serve as a red flag when these signal that something
is happening and that it needs attention (Arnold, 1960). Sometimes
you get the feeling that “something is wrong” when you make an
incorrect judgment. This red flag aspect in emotions help in making
better decisions.
 It can help us learn from our mistakes – we are all familiar with
feelings of regret, shame, guilt, disappointment, and sadness as a

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result from acting contrary to what we believe as morally right.

Studies, however, have shown that negative feelings are integral part
to our ability to learn. The surge of negative emotions triggers
“counterfactual thinking” (Smallman and Roese, 2009).
Counterfactual thinking is a psychological concept about the human
tendency to create possible or alternative scenarios other than what
had actually happened. This analysis of what went wrong when you
replayed a situation in your mind repeatedly, thinking about how you
could have done better or how you should have reacted instead
present an opportunity to reflect and prepare oneself in making a
different, and possibly better choice in the future. This idea,
supported by evidence that focus on the action rather than on
shortcomings or weakness, can result in making better choices in
similar encounters in the future (Roese, 1994; McMullen and
Markman, 2000).

 Emotional responses can be reshaped as time pass by – the idea

that behaviour can be changed is a hallmark in Psychology. What is
important is the idea that emotional responses can be deliberately
altered. The psychological state of “mindfulness”, where one gives
active and open attention to personal thoughts and feelings show
that, with some effort, emotional reactions can be brought in accord
with one’s belief and goals.

Apparently, emotions are powerful and unavoidable. Upsurge of

feelings is natural. However, it should no control behaviour nor
should it prevent reason. What one does with feelings is what makes
an individual ethical or unethical.

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Application

Learner Worksheet 10

Name of Student __________________________________Score ___________

Course/Year/Section _______________

Direction: Give your intrinsic response to the following moral dilemmas.

Moral dilemma Response

end-of-life support case, unplugging of

life support, involving a dying parent

Payment of facilitation fee to a custom

office by a finance employee

The use of official car to bring one’s

children to school everyday

Submitting Your Work. If you do not have Internet Connectivity, neatly detach this page
from your module and submit via University Drop Box or by courier/ mail together with your
other Learner Activity Worksheets once you reach the prescribed Learning Checkpoint. If
you have Internet connectivity, you may answer directly on the online version of this
worksheet through the University Virtual Environment.

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Closure
Well done! You have just finished Lesson 3 for this module.

If you have questions or need to make clarifications take note of them in the
space provided below to ask your Course Professor through direct messaging or
through the University Virtual Environment (UVE).

Notes from this Lesson

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Lesson 4
The 7 (Seven) – Step of Moral Reasoning Model
Learning Outcomes

By the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

o Distinguish feature of a moral dilemma typically arising to an individual or

group;

o Differentiate knowing and actually executing a good moral decision;

o Check real-life cases against the 7-step model, model that uses reason
and impartiality

Time Frame: 1 Week

Introduction

Most ethical decisions lie in a gray area. There are times one is facing with
a situation where there are no clear-cut or obvious choices; meaning, the situation
cannot be determined by simple quantitative analysis data. Ethical decision-
making requires interpretation of the situation, application of one’s values, and
estimating the consequences of the action. In real life, such situations do not only
involve between right and wrong; good or bad. Oftentimes, it is about choosing
between good and better or bad and worse.

Knowing this, how would you make ethical decisions? Ethical decision-
making is a process of evaluating and choosing among alternatives in a manner
that is consistent with the moral principles (University of California, 2004). Making
ethical choices requires the ability to make distinctions between competing options.
Here are seven steps to help one make a better decision, as introduced by Scott
B. Rae.

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Activity
Here is a sample case study for you to analyse.

Here is a case study:

Jen and her messenger husband Lito, along with their three
young children, live as informal settlers in a compound in Halaan
City, Jen works as the stay-out house help for Ms. Carla, who is
the administrative assistant of Mayor Balasic of Halaan City.
One day, Ms. Carla approached Jen to offer her a source for
extra money. What Ms. Carla wants Jen to do is to sign up as a
ghost employee in a city hall projects Ms. Carla is overseeing.
Ms. Carla tells Jen she does not have to do anything except to
put her signature in an employee contract. Ms. Carla will give
Jen half of the expected Php8,000 monthly allowance for the six-
month long project. Jen, who is an active member of her local
parish, is now feeling conflicted. Ms. Carla wants her to sign
soon.

(Adapted from 2nd Gen CHED-GET, XU Training)

Analysis
o What must Jen do, and why?
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________

Abstraction
The 7-step model for ethical decision-making
1. Gather the facts
2. Identify the stakeholder
3. Articulate the dilemma
4. List the alternatives
5. Compare the alternatives with the principles
6. Weigh the consequences
7. Make a decision

Gather the facts

Do not jump to conclusions. Ask questions (who, what, where, when, how
and why). There may be instances when facts are hard to find or are not available

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because of the uncertainty that surround ethical issues. Nevertheless, gather as

many facts as you can. Clarify what assumptions you are making.
Identify the Stakeholders
Identify all the persons involved and will be affected in an ethical situation.
Who are the primary stakeholders? Who are the secondary stakeholders? Why are
they stakeholders in the issue? Get the proper perspective. Try to see the situation
through the eyes of the people affected.
Articulate the Dilemma
Once you have gathered the facts and identified the stakeholders, it is
important that you express the ethical dilemma. What are the competing values?
The purpose of articulating the dilemma is to make sure that one understands the
situation and the moral conflict an individual is facing. Awareness and
comprehension are important in making the right decision, especially when there
are lives that will be affected.
List the Alternatives
Think creatively about potential actions, as there may be choices you
neglected. This will help ensure that you have not been pushed back into a corner.
For example, you may already have solution A and solution B. Try to brainstorm
and come up with solution C that might satisfy the interests of the primary parties
involved.
Compare the Alternatives with the Principles
In decision-making, specify the relevant values that you want to uphold in
making your decision. Then compare whether your alternative actions are in line
with your values. Identifying the values and comparing your action with these
values are important because it will help identify if your alternative action is illegal
or unethical, thus making this action easy to discard.
Why is it important to have a system in making decisions? In systematically
considering your set of values, the risk of overlooking important principles and
considerations is reduced. Hence, the chance of doing something you will regret
in the future is also reduced.
Weigh the Consequences
When considering the effects of your actions, filter your choices to
determine if your options will violate ethical values. Determine how all the
stakeholders will be affected by your decision.
Make a Decision
Remember, deliberation cannot go on forever. You must avoid “paralysis by
analysis” or the state of over-analysing (or over-thinking) a situation so that a
decision or action is never taken.\, in effect paralysing the outcome. There is no
easy, painless decision to a moral dilemma.

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Application

Learner Worksheet 11
Student Name: ______________________________ Score: ____________

Course/ Year/ Section: _______________________________

Now, what if you are in this situation:

You are a junior executive for a firm. As was your habit, you are still in the
office working while most of your officemates have gone home. Soon, you find
yourself in need of a file for your presentation; so you texted your officemate,
Michael, your fellow junior executive, to ask if he has a copy. Several minutes have
passed, but your officemate did not reply. You called his mobile phone. But you
only got the automated voice saying the number cannot be reached.
Then you recalled that a few days ago, you unintentionally saw his password
when he logged into his office computer. Since you absolutely need the file now
(or else your project presentation will fail), you decided to log into his computer
without asking permission. As soon as gained access, you see that he left his email
open. Something in the email caught your eye, so you read it. You see, based on
what you have read, your office mate is making anomalous transaction in the
company’ s name.
You thought about reporting your officemate but you realize that you will
have to admit violating company regulations on logging into someone else’s
computer. Even if you report your officemate anonymously, the investigation will
ultimately lead back to you and the fact that you invaded your officemate’s privacy.
If you confront your officemate about the illegal transactions, you will have to admit
that you logged into his computer without permission. However, if you decide not
to do anything, you will have to carry the burden in your conscience and continue
working with your officemate although you know about the illegal transaction he is
doing. You will have to live with the knowledge that the company is losing money
because of your officemate’s dishonest transactions, and that you did not do
anything to stop him just because you knew about it by invading his privacy.
Questions to answer:
1. What will you do?
2. How would you arrive at the best decision facing this dilemma?
3. Using Scott B. Rae’s 7-step model, resolve the dilemma and decide the best
option to arrive at the right moral decision.
‘

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Submitting Your Work. If you do not have Internet Connectivity, neatly detached this
page from your module and submit via University Drop Box or by courier/ mail together
with your other Learner Activity Worksheets once you reach the prescribed Learning
Checkpoint. If you have Internet connectivity, you may answer directly on the online
version of this worksheet through the University Virtual Environment.

Closure
Well done! You have just finished the last lesson for this module.

If you have questions or need to make clarifications take note of them in the
space provided below to ask your Course Professor through direct messaging or
through the University Virtual Environment (UVE).

Notes from this lesson

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Lesson 5
Naturalistic Ethics
Learning Outcomes

By the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

1. describe naturalistic ethics in the practical application of attitude balance;

2. examine Carl Jung’s theory of Psychological Types and discuss its support
to naturalistic ethics.

Time Frame: 1 Week

Introduction

“Indeed, it is becoming ever more obvious that it is not famine, not

earthquakes, not microbes, not cancer, but man himself who is man’s
greatest danger to man, for the simple reason that there is no adequate
protection against psychic epidemics, which are infinitely more
devastating than the worst of natural catastrophes” (Jung, 2014, p. 509).
Jung, C.G. (2014). Collected Works of C.G. Jung, Volume 18: The Symbolic Life: Miscellaneous Writings.
https://books.google.com.ph/books?id=1BQ3AgAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false

Activity
Watch: How to Protect Yourself from Toxic Beliefs & Tech | Eckhart Tolle |
SPIRITUALITY | Rubin Report via https://youtu.be/drrLeWCOmCg

Analysis
o Have you experienced the gravitational pull of “reactivity” that Eckhart
describes in his interview video? How did you work with that energy?
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

Abstraction
• Naturalistic ethics is defined as the theory of moral behavior according to
which ethics is an empirical science. Ethical statements are reduced to the
natural sciences (physical or social), and ethical questions are answered
wholly on the basis of the findings of those sciences.

• Ethical naturalism is shown to avoid some of the difficulties of a rule-based

ethics. For example, suppose we accept the following statement as an
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ethical principle: When given the choice to murder or not to murder

someone, you should choose not to murder. Is this principle true or false?
(Note the difference between “killing” put to death and “murder” the unlawful
killing of a human being.) Consider the case where one twin was put to
death so the other could have the shared heart. The moral rule, then, would
seem be clear-this act of separating the twins should not be done. Yet, the
empirical results seem to demand that a life be saved.

• Ethical naturalism can take several different forms. A major difficulty in the
articulation of the theory is diverse definitions of “nature,” “natural,” and
“natural law.” Examples of ethical naturalism as covered in this module are
as follows:

1. Virtue Ethics includes the doctrine that ethical good is the realization
of the capacities of a human being “living well and doing well.”
2. Ethical values are a distinctive kind property – not reducible to those
studied by the physical sciences but possibly studied by the social
sciences.

• The latter example shows that a naturalistic theory can be developed based
on Jung’s theory of Psychological Types.

Adapted excerpt from philosophy.lander.edu (n.d.). Naturalistic Ethics.

https://philosophy.lander.edu/ethics/jung.html

• Jung (1921/1971) defined

an attitude as a predisposition to
act or react in a characteristic
direction. He insisted that each
person has both an introverted and
an extraverted attitude, although
one may be conscious while the
other is unconscious. Jung
recognized various psychological
types that grow out of a union of
two basic attitudes: introversion
and extraversion. Introversion and
extraversion serve in a
compensatory relationship to one
another and can be illustrated by
the yang and yin motif.

• According to Jung, introversion is the turning inward of psychic energy with

an orientation toward the subjective. Introverts are tuned in to their inner
world with all its biases, fantasies, dreams, and individualized perceptions.
These people perceive the external world, of course, but they do so
selectively and with their own subjective view (Jung, 1921/1971).

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• In contrast to introversion, extraversion is the attitude distinguished by the

turning outward of psychic energy so that a person is oriented toward the
objective and away from the subjective. Extraverts are more influenced by
their surroundings than by their inner world. They tend to focus on the
objective attitude while suppressing the subjective. (Feist & Feist, 2008, p.
115-116)

• People are neither absolutely

introverted nor absolutely extraverted.
For introverted ones, it can be likened
to an unbalanced seesaw with a heavy
weight on one end and a much lighter
weight on the other. Extraverted
people on the other hand have the
opposite illustration. However, ethical
people can harmonize the two
attitudes, feeling equally comfortable
with their internal and their external
worlds. (Feist & Feist, 2008)
Feist, J., & Feist, G. J. (2008). Theories of Personality (7th ed.). Boston: McGraw-Hill.

• Jung’s four functions describe ways in which we orient ourselves to the

external environment, given our basic tendency toward introversion or
extraversion. The first opposing pair of functions is thinking vs. feeling.

• Thinking involves intellect, it tells you what a thing is, whereas feeling is
values-based, it tells what a thing is worth to you. For example, if you are
trying to choose classes for your next semester of college, perhaps you
need to choose between a required general education course as opposed
to a personally interesting course like Medical First Responder or Interior
Design.

• If you are guided first by thinking, you will probably choose the course that
fulfils a requirement, but if you are guided by feeling, you may choose the
course that satisfies your more immediate interests.

• The second opposing pair of functions is sensing vs. intuition. Sensing

describes paying attention to the reality of your external environment, it tells
you that something is. In contrast, intuition incorporates a sense of time, and
allows for hunches. Intuition may seem mysterious, and Jung freely
acknowledges that he is particularly mystical, yet he offers an interesting
perspective on this issue:

…Intuition is a function by which you see round corners,

which you really cannot do; yet the fellow will do it for you
and you trust him. It is a function which normally you do not
use if you live a regular life within four walls and do regular
routine work. But if you are on the Stock Exchange or in

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Central Africa, you will use your hunches like anything. You
cannot, for instance, calculate whether when you turn round
a corner in the bush you will meet a rhinoceros or a tiger –
but you get a hunch, and it will perhaps save your life… (pg.
14; Jung, 1968)

(Allen, n.d., para. 45)

Allen, C. (n.d.) 5. Carl Jung. The Balance of Personality.

https://pdx.pressbooks.pub/thebalanceofpersonality/chapter/chapter-5-carl-jung/

• The four functions usually appear in a hierarchy, with one occupying a

superior position, another a secondary position, and the other two inferior
positions. Most people cultivate only one function, so they characteristically
approach a situation relying on the one dominant or superior function. Some
people develop two functions, and a few very mature individuals have
cultivated three. A person who has theoretically achieved self-realization or
individuation would have all four functions highly developed. (Feist & Feist,
2008, p. 119-120)

Feist, J., & Feist, G. J. (2008). Theories of Personality (7th ed.). Boston: McGraw-Hill.

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Application

Learner Worksheet 12
Student Name: ______________________________ Score: ____________

Course/ Year/ Section: _______________________________

Read the case: The American expat deported from Bali after tweeting about the
island as an LGBTQ-friendly place to live maintains she did nothing illegal

https://www.insider.com/american-expat-bali-deported-for-tweets-interview-2021-
1?amp&fbclid=IwAR3FBda9tJ6gle15GwvzyCsOzW1tFuZnUsf3p6569hguOQpS
WXArrXG6J1M

In minimum of 500 words, answer the following:

1. Identify and describe the part(s) of the case that clearly shows the
imbalances among Carl Jung’s notion of attitudes and functions.
2. Who is ethical? The government of Bali or the American expat? Justify your
stand using the lens of Carl’ Jung’s approach in naturalistic ethics.

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Submitting Your Work. If you do not have Internet Connectivity, neatly detached this
page from your module and submit via University Drop Box or by courier/ mail together
with your other Learner Activity Worksheets once you reach the prescribed Learning
Checkpoint. If you have Internet connectivity, you may answer directly on the online
version of this worksheet through the University Virtual Environment.

Closure
Well done! You have just finished the last lesson for this module.

If you have questions or need to make clarifications take note of them in the
space provided below to ask your Course Professor through direct messaging or
through the University Virtual Environment (UVE).

Notes from this lesson

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Module Summary
In this module, it addresses the role of feelings in moral decisions and the
disadvantages of over-reliance on feelings. It also tackled how we make reason
and impartial decisions. Sometimes reason alone is not enough in carrying out
moral decisions. The morally right thing to do is one that is supported by rational
arguments which mean that the facts are correct, the moral principles are correctly
applied and each individual’s well-being is treated equally important. Emotions are
powerful and avoidable, and upsurge of feelings is natural, however, it should not
control the behaviour nor should it prevent reason because what we do with our
feelings is what makes us ethical or unethical.

Check your work and prepare for submission and assessment. The
succeeding page will give you instructions on completing your requirements for this
module.

Learning Checkpoint
Module Assessment
Now that you have completed the third module, it is time to submit your
learning output and take the module assessment.

A checklist is provided for you below.

☐ Learning Worksheets 8-12

o For students with no Internet Connectivity use the University

Drop Box/ Courier/ Mail for submission. Neatly detach only the
Learner Worksheets from this module.

o For students with Internet Connectivity answer the Learning

Activities through the University Virtual Environment (UVE)
platform.

☐ Module Assessment

o For students with no Internet Connectivity, contact your Course

Professor to make arrangements on taking the Module
Assessment (Quiz).

o Take the quiz on the University Virtual Environment (UVE)

platform.

END OF MODULE 3
If you have completed all the items on the checklist,
you may move on to the next module.
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Module 4
ETHICAL FRAMEWORKS
Module Overview

In general, ethical frameworks is a course that delves into the origin and
nature of human life, the reality of human existence, or the principles that makes
the person truly human. Thus, it leads the students to look at the wholeness of their
being as the course guides them to see themselves and their fellow beings as
persons, subjects and centers of values.

In this module, as philosophy is the love or intense desire for wisdom, the
subject is geared towards fulfilling the desire to know and encounter the students
as human beings in the works and thoughts of noted philosophers, and in the
learner’s experiences of this phenomenon called ‘beings’.

At the end of the course, the learners are expected to formulate their views
about human nature and related topics, one that is well informed, thoroughly
reflected upon, and one they hope to live in their daily life. It is indeed hoped that
Ethics by its representation of possibilities and various concepts about this human
phenomenon that it will lead the learners (with teacher) to growth and maturity not
only in their awareness but most importantly in their faith and lives.

Module Outcomes

By the end of this module, we hope to achieve the following objectives:

 Explain the role of mental frames in moral experiences;

 Classify the dominant mental frames;

 Articulate and critique the basic tenets of dominant ethical frameworks;

 Apply ethical frames in making moral decision;

 Identify the important moral challenges, and;

 Utilize the ethical frameworks in a critical commentary/reflection of a social

issue

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Lesson 1
Moral Concepts and Theories: Why They Are
Important
Learning Outcomes
By the end of this lesson you should be able to:

o Identify basic theories as frameworks in Ethics;

o Explain the role of theories or frameworks in moral experience;
o Classify and discuss the ethical theories, and;
o Construct points of divergence and convergence as to why they are
moral theories important.

Time Frame: 1 Week

Introduction

In observing moral issues in

ethics, a distinction is usually
made to know its differences
and importance (e.g. between
morals and ethics). When this
distinction is made, the term
morals is taken to refer to
generally accepted standards
of right and wrong in a society
and the term ethics is taken to
refer to more abstract
principles which might appear
in a code of professional
ethics or in a textbook in
ethical theory. However, the
terms moral philosophy or
moral theory would refer to a
set of abstract moral principles as appropriately as the term ethics, so it may be
more practical to use the words interchangeably. Both of the terms refer to
standards of right conduct and the judgments of particular actions as right or wrong
by those standards.

As we go about our lives, we face many decisions. Some of the decisions seem to
concern people with whom we are intimate such as decisions about behavior within
the family and ourselves. Other decisions concern our responsibilities in our jobs.
Some concern our relationship to the state or the law. People who have
governmental roles sometimes make decisions about controversial social issues,
such as the morality of capital punishment or the justice of the tax system. All of us
who live in democratic societies need to make decisions about such issues if we

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intend to vote responsibly. Moral philosophy addresses the many abstract ethical
and philosophical issues that arise when we attempt to make such decisions in a
reflective and responsible way.

Now, in making judgments about right conduct; most of us recognize the value of
moral consistency. The requirements of consistency take several different forms,
example in the case of the Data Privacy Act.

(Case 1) If a consulting teacher breaks confidentiality with their student because it

is in their interest to do so but condemns another teacher for doing the same thing,
we are inclined to say that they are inconsistent. They are not applying the same
standards and expect everyone else to follow.

(Case 2) We also expect people to be consistent with their own moral standards.
If they keep strict confidentiality one time and breaks it another time, even when
there is no important difference between the two cases, we again say that they are
inconsistent.

(Case 3) Finally, our moral beliefs must be consistent with one another. Our moral
beliefs about confidentiality must be consistent with our beliefs about bribery,
whistle blowing, and the environment. Ultimately, we must know how our moral
beliefs in professional ethics relate to our beliefs about abortion, the moral
justification of racial and sexual quotas in hiring, euthanasia, and any other moral
issue.

One way to think consistently in this way is to have a moral theory, i.e. a set of
moral principles, which systematically link moral beliefs to one another by means
of a set of coherent moral principles. A theory in any area offers the opportunity to
define terms in uniform ways and to relate a set of ideas to one another in a
consistent manner. Moral theory does the same thing with moral ideas.

A moral theory can be conveniently divided into three parts. First, there is a moral
standard, a criterion or test of what is right or wrong. Second, moral principles serve
to categorize different types of actions as right or wrong. Third, moral judgments
are statements about the rightness or wrongness of particular actions. Moral
judgments apply moral standards or moral principles to specific situations. They
are thus the ultimate goal of moral reasoning.

Activity (Let’s Get Started)

 Write a one-paragraph essay: On the front page of a paper, the students

answer this question: “are you in favour of the DDS (Davao Death Squad)
phenomenon in Davao City? (After they are finished, the teacher goes
around affixing the signature on the front page to ensure that students do
not change their answer.)
 At the back page, the students answer this question: “do you agree that
each person holds an absolute inviolable intrinsic dignity? (after the teacher
then checks for consistency of answers.)

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Analysis (Let’s Think About it!)

Now think about the following questions:
 How do you welcome a rich neighbour to your house and regard a beggar
knocking on your gate?
 In their basic positions as persons, what is the difference between a king
and a slave, a healthy baby and a dying old man, or a president of a
country and a notorious criminal?
 Is it okay to legalize death penalty to heinous criminals, abortion and
euthanasia? Why or why not?
 What are the main classifications of ethical theories? Why are they
important?

Abstraction (Let’s Explore!)

Earlier, the need to test our
moral views for overall moral
consistency was given as one
of the driving forces behind the
search for a moral theory.
From this standpoint, it would
be desirable to have a single
moral theory in which all of our
views could be encapsulated.
However, moral philosophers
have generally concluded that
it is not possible to incorporate
all of the moral views that are
generally accepted in our
culture into a single coherent
moral theory. Rather, there
seem to be two systems of
moral concepts that are the
most influential, although
there are considerable areas
of overlap. There are generally
three (3) general subject
areas: 1) meta-ethics, 2)
normative ethics, and 3)
applied ethics. Under these respective areas are various moral theories or
frameworks. Let us consider each of these.

1. Meta-ethics

The study of meta-ethics refers to the attempt to understand the underlying

assumptions behind moral theories; therefore, it is the branch of ethics that seeks
to understand the nature of ethical properties, statements, attitudes, and

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judgments. It covers a broad range of questions surrounding how we know what

moral truth is (and even if moral truth exists), and how we learn about moral facts.
Meta-ethical questions are abstract by their very nature. It might seem that they do
not necessarily bear much relation to the task of developing practical, decision-
making tools.

If we begin to consider whether one should be a just person, for example, then we
are very quickly faced with questions about the nature of justice and about what
being a 'just' person means. Is justice a human invention? Can we accept that
ideas of justice can be different in different societies? Or is the notion of justice an
eternal, unchanging concept that should be upheld by everyone, everywhere, and
throughout all time? This is not merely an abstract, academic question. The
question of whether or not one culture's notion of justice can and should be
imposed upon another has historically been - and continues to be - a cause of
profound conflict between people. For among its central questions are the
questions whether any moral claims are true, and whether it is rational to commit
oneself to acting morally. One cannot answer such questions without taking a
position on the correctness or cogency of people's moral convictions.

Let’s take the optimistic view on the issue of whether moral convictions can be
correct or cogent by discussing the concept of ‘moral realism’. Copp (2001)
characterizes moral realism as the position that (1) there are moral facts, (2)
people's moral judgments are made true or false by the moral facts, and (3) the
mere fact that we have the moral beliefs we have is not what makes the moral facts
be as they are. This is a highly abstract view that may be difficult to grasp. It means,
any claims that the existence of moral facts and the truth (or falsity) of moral
judgments are independent of people’s thoughts and perceptions. It maintains that
morality is about objective facts, that is, not facts about any person of group’s
subjective judgment.

2. Normative Ethics

In turning from meta-ethics

to normative ethics, we
turn from issues about
ethics to issues in ethics.
We turn to questions such
as; what kinds of actions
are right or wrong? What
kind of person should one
be? There are many
theories about these
issues. In thinking about
the differences among
them, it is helpful to
consider the answers they
give to two closely related questions. What is the basic matter of moral concern?

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In addition, what are the fundamental or basic moral truths? The disputes posed
by these questions are central to normative ethics.
First, what is the basic or fundamental matter of moral concern? Is it the kind of life
we should live? Is it the kind of person we should be? Is it the actions we perform?
Is it the kind of character we have? Is it our motivations or intentions? Is it goodness
or value—either the goodness in a person's own life, or the overall goodness of the
state of the world and the condition of people in the world? Second, what are the
fundamental or basic moral truths? Are they propositions about the kind of life we
should live? Are they about the kinds of actions we are required to perform, or
about the kind of character we ought to have, or about our motivations or
intentions? Or are they propositions about goodness or value?

Typically, a theory that proposes or argues that certain moral truths are basic to
ethics then attempts to support other moral propositions by deriving them in one
way or another from the basic truths. However, theories can differ in how they
attempt to do this, and they can differ in their views about the exact status of the
truths they take to be basic. Of course, a theory could instead reject the idea that
there are moral truths that are basic in any interesting sense. In addition, a theory
could take it that all or several of the matters of concern are equally fundamental,
thereby denying that there is a basic matter of moral concern. There are generally
three philosophical approaches, or what may be considered the science, to ethical
reasoning: 1) utilitarianism, 2) deontology, and 3) virtue ethics.

a. Utilitarianism
Utilitarianism has great intuitive appeal to many people because human well-being
seems to be such a natural goal of human endeavour. In order to be plausible,
however, utilitarians must define well-being. Yet people define well-being, or what
some might call the "good life," in different ways. For some it is physical pleasure,
for others financial and professional success, and so forth. How do we resolve
these conflicts?

As the first ethical system in normative ethics, it is often equated with the concept
founded by English philosopher Jeremy Bentham (1748 – 1832) and encapsulated
in the principle of “the greatest good for the greatest number.” The idea is that
ethical decisions are based on the consequences of the action, which is why it is
also sometimes called consequentialism.

A utilitarian analysis of a moral problem consists of three steps. First step, the
utilitarian must determine the audience of the action or policy in question; those
people who will be affected for good or ill; Second step, the positive and negative
effects of the alternative actions or policies must be determined; finally, the
utilitarian must decide which course of action produces the greatest overall utility.

While this idea initially may seem appealing, particularly with a field, that has a core
duty to the public; it does not provide a solid ethical framework for decision-making.
There are three main concerns that seem to arise when professionals working on
public relations and rely on utilitarian ethics to make decisions.

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First, rather than looking at the choice or action itself, decision-makers are forced
to guess the potential outcomes of their choice in order to determine what is ethical.
Other ethicists believes this is a faulty line of reasoning when they suggested that:
the public relations should be based on a worldview that incorporates ethics into
the process of public relations rather than on a view, that debates the ethics of its
outcomes. In other words, ethics should be about the decision-making process,
not just the outcome, which cannot be guaranteed.

Second, utilitarian ethics also presents questions of conflict with regard to which
segment of society should be considered most important in weighing the good or
outcome (Nozick, 1974). In other words, if a solution drastically harms a minority
group, would it be ethical if the majority benefited from that decision? This seems
to contradict the goal of public relations to build mutually beneficial relationships,
regardless of the number of people in a particular stakeholder group.

The third objection is that it is not always possible to predict the outcome of an
action. Let us point out that consequences are too unpredictable to be an accurate
measure of the ethics of a situation. In other words, consequences of actions can
be highly volatile or impossible, even, to predict (Donagan, 1977; Scanlon, 1998).
Using outcomes as a measurement of ethics will not provide an accurate way for
professionals to measure whether decisions are ethical. Professionals must be
able to evaluate decisions and choices with concrete ethical guidelines instead of
hoping that certain outcomes will result in them having made an ethical choice.

Many scholars in public relations identify these issues, as well as others, as

evidence that utilitarianism, sometimes called consequentialism due the concept
relying on the consequence of a decision, is not as strong of a fit for public relations
professional ethics.

b. Deontology
The second prominent concept, deontological ethics, is associated with the father
of modern deontology, Immanuel Kant. He was known for the ‘Categorical
Imperative’ that looks for transcendent principles that apply to all humans. The idea
is that human beings should be treated with dignity and respect because they have
rights (Kant, 2002; Ross, 1930). Put another way, it could be argued that in
deontological ethics people have a duty to respect other people’s rights and treat
them accordingly. The core concept behind this is that there are objective
obligations, or duties, that are required of all people. When faced with an ethical
situation, then, the process is simply one of identifying one’s duty and making the
appropriate decision.

Kant (2002) stresses in his second principle of morality that everyone should ‘treat
humanity in the other or in that of your person never as a means but always as an
end in itself.’ One’s goodwill must be directed towards the well-being of the other
person as an end, and not used the person to serve any other end. No one wants
to be treated as a thing, to be utilized for some other purposes. Objectification that
is treating a person as if they were an object of some utility is one way or the other
dehumanizing. The difference of a human person from non-human entities gets
clarified in the way we treat each other; we hold each as with absolute intrinsic

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worth by avoiding objectification and considering every human person as the end
of our human intentions.

The principle among many implication means that we ought to respect each
person. Respect, which is not a remainder of a human flourishing or value sourcing
from other persons, is not even deserved or earned. It is the price of human life;
as long as one remains alive as human, person ought to be respected by according
them with value true and the same for all human persons regardless of race, age,
sex, social status, academic achievements or political qualifications. This is respect
for human autonomy that each person should live by their free will, within an
environment that allows them the enjoyment of humanness or being human.

Example, a utilitarian rule in seeking for the benefits of the greater number of
people may opt to sacrifice somebody for the many or ignore the minority for the
welfare of the majority, but a Kantian sense of morality stands to uphold everyone’s
basic worth be a master or a slave (Kant, 2002), the richest or the poorest, a
producer or a beggar, a princess or a prostitute. With Kant’s moral imperative (or
his categorical imperative), the drug addict or the pusher is as equally valuable as
the leader without regard to one’s violation of norms or social position.

The challenges to this perspective, however, include 1) conflicts that arise when
there is not an agreement about the principles involved in the decision; 2) the
implications of making a “right” choice that has bad consequences; and 3) what
decisions should be made when duties conflict. These challenges are definitely
ones that should be considered when relying on this as an ethical system.

c. Virtue ethics
Finally, a third and growing area of philosophical reasoning with ethics is known as
virtue ethics, one that has gained more attention in all areas like public relations in
recent years. This philosophy stems from Aristotle and is based on the virtues of
the person making a decision. The consideration in virtue ethics is essentially,
‘what makes a good person?’ Virtue ethics require the decision-maker to
understand what virtues are good and then decisions are made in light of those
particular virtues. For example, if the virtue of honesty is of utmost importance to a
good human person, then all decisions should be made ethically to ensure honesty
is preserved.

In Aristotle’s time (384 - 322 B.C), most philosophers were focused on one of two
types of ethics. One is called deontological ethics, which judges ethics by how well
a person follows the laws and rules of society. Deontologists would say, ''it doesn't
matter what happens, following the rule is always the right thing to do.'' The second,
teleological ethics (consequentialism), judges ethics based on the outcomes of a
person's actions. Teleological ethicists would say, ''If what you do leads to
something good, you did the right thing.'' There are flaws in both types of thinking,
so Aristotle introduced a third option.

Aristotle's perspective on ethics was based on the virtue of being human; in other
words, his conception of the ethical values and of human flourishing (happiness),
continue to exert influence in ethics. Virtue ethics as a moral system, places
emphasis on developing good habits of character, (e.g. kindness and generosity)

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and avoiding bad character traits or vices (e.g. greed or hatred). Virtue-based
theories give importance to moral education, which molds individuals to habitually
act in a virtuous manner. Focusing on the character of the agent, virtue ethics
describes the right action as those chosen and performed by a suitably virtuous
person.

Also, Aristotle’s brilliance runs through the minds of medieval thinkers particularly
St. Thomas Aquinas and is widely seen to have great promise, and in recent years,
a number of new approaches to virtue have appeared in the philosophical literature
(Copp and Sobel, 2004). For Aristotle, human being is human being because of
his reason. Person’s rationality defines them as different from other forms of
person. It is distinguishing mark or character and should be the basis of
understanding how a person ought to live the life or ought to be happy.

Aristotle holds the following views:

 What is real is the real object or being that consists both the form and matter.
A person holds the unity of form and matter as making real beings possible.
 Man is a rational animal. A person’s purpose for life then must be in accord
with their rational nature. A reasonable life according to one’s natural
purpose is the measure of living life well. This is called Teleology, a
philosophy based on purpose.
 Happiness is a life of moderation. Whatever is extreme is bad. A person has
to live the golden mean – the mid-point.
 Knowledge comes from the perception of the senses, and;
 Change is necessary for growth and development of beings.

Theories in the classical tradition claim that moral virtue is necessary if one is to
flourish. Aristotle insists that this does not mean that these theories ground virtue
in self-interest, for in the classical view, flourishing is explained as consisting in
part in being virtuous. A virtuous person must be fair, kind, generous, and so on,
and his virtues lead him to be wholehearted in doing things for others. It therefore
involves acting both with an appropriate affect—with sympathy, for example—and
with an appropriate understanding of the reasons for so acting.

In view of the latter point, one might think that virtue ethics cannot avoid problems
in the theory of right action. Aristotle explains, however, that in the classical
tradition, ethical understanding is viewed as involving the acquisition of something
like a skill rather than learning a criterion of right action. A virtuous person has the
skill to determine the right way to act. The rest of us may need to use principles
and rules.

While this theory is growing in popularity, several objections can be made. First, in
terms of the public relations, the focus on virtues of the professional themselves
seems to miss the importance and role of obligations to clients and publics. The
industry is not simply about what public relations people themselves, but ultimately
the impact do to society. Additionally, it also can face the same obstacle as
deontological ethics when having conflicting virtues. If there is a virtue of loyalty to
a client and honesty to the public, what happens when they conflict? To which one
should a professional defer?

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Therefore, when people talk about these areas, they usually discussing areas of
normative ethics or the process of considering and determining ethical behaviour,
one may consider this:

Utilitarian Ethics Deontological Virtue Ethics

Ethics

Definition The greatest good for The idea that people Considering what
the greatest number should be treated with virtues make a good
of people dignity and respect person

Application Making decision Identifying one’s duty Making a decision in

based on what will and acting accordingly light of those favored
benefit the majority virtues

Pros - Strongest model for -

applied ethics

Cons  Decision-makers  There may be  Misses the

are forced to disagreement important
guess the about the obligations to
outcome of their principles involved other people
choice in the decision  The possibility of
 Harming a  The possibility of a conflict in
minority and making a ‘right’ virtues
benefitting a choice with bad
majority doesn’t consequence
build mutually  The possibility of a
beneficial conflict in duties
relationship
 It is not always
possible to predict
the outcome of a
decision

These three theories of ethics (utilitarian ethics, deontological ethics, virtue ethics)
form the foundation of normative ethics conversations. It is important, however,
that students also understand how to apply these concepts to the actual practice
of the profession. Ethical discussion that focuses on how a professional makes
decisions, known as applied ethics, are heavily influenced by the role or purpose
of the profession within society.

3. Applied Ethics

Applied Ethics is a discipline of philosophy that attempts to apply ethical theory to

real life situation. It is marked out from ethics in general by its special focus on
issues of practical concern (Rachels, 1997). It is concerned with ethical issues in
various fields of human life, including medical ethics, business ethics and
environmental ethics. Within these broad areas, it engages with policy issues
resulting from scientific and technological change and with the evaluation of social
and legal decision-making in public areas such as health care, policing, media and

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information, and the world of business and finance. It is also concerned with
professional codes and responsibilities in such areas.

The word ‘applied’ is a technical term describing a variety of new philosophical

enterprises. Applied means “to put into practice”. Applied Ethics focuses more
closely on ethical discussion, and likes to resolve controversial moral issues
(Singer, 2011). Take note that applied ethics cannot be separated from philosophy
because as an important field of ethics, it is part of philosophy. It does not only
studies ideas and theories from the general point of view of goodness and right
actions but also finds out the way to solve these problems.

As mentioned earlier, the task of applied ethics is to develop appropriate tools for
shaping the desired moral attitudes and to apply ethical principles to practice. For
example, in business ethics, tools such as ethical codes, trainings, ethical
sensitivity trainings, etc. are used. Environmental ethicists can use similar tools as
in business ethics, e.g. consulting, courses, trainings for, among others, the
managerial staff, employees involved in spatial planning, employees of municipal
enterprises, local government officials, etc. In applied ethics, as in specific ethics,
we currently have a large "specialization".

In addition, it is an application of normative principles to any fields as mentioned

earlier. As there are basically three basic theories associated with it i.e.
utilitarianism, deontological ethics and virtue ethics.

Some important principles on applied ethical discussion as stated by Rachels

(1997) and Singer (2011):
 Personal benefit – Personal benefit is an action which produces benefit to
the individual.
 Social Benefit -Social benefit is an action, which produces benefit to the
society as a whole.
 Principle of benevolence – This principle insists on helping those in need
 Principle of paternalism – This principle assists others in pursuing their best
interest or the interests of their choice.
 Principle of harm – Not to harm others.
 Principle of honesty – Not to deceive others.
 Principle of lawfulness –One is not supposed to violate the law.
 Principle of autonomy – This principle acknowledges a person’s right to due
process and fair distribution of benefit. Compensation is to be given for any
harm done to the person.
 Rights – It acknowledges a person’s right to life, right to information,
 right to privacy, free expression and safety.

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Application

Learner Worksheet 13
Student Name: ______________________________ Score: ____________

Course/ Year/ Section: _______________________________

Choose only one

1. Discourse Paper: Through a three-paragraph essay, make an analysis about
(“How can I help the society regard every person with respect and absolute
worth or dignity?”) in relation to the various moral theories discussed in this
module.
2. Film-viewing: “Howtorn Hears a Who”
Through a three-paragraph essay, answer the following questions:
a. How is the movie related to “The Human Value?”
b. The narrator at the end states: “Persons are persons.” What are the
meaning or implications of this line?

NOTE: The students bring to class real pictures of individuals in deep suffering
obviously left only with breath or basic life. They paste the images on a PowerPoint
slide/bond paper and in the class; they share a statement on “human value”
referring to the pictures.

Submitting Your Work. If you do not have Internet Connectivity, neatly detach this page
from your module and submit via University Drop Box or by courier/ mail together with your
other Learner Activity Worksheets once you reach the prescribed Learning Checkpoint. If
you have Internet connectivity, you may answer directly on the online version of this
worksheet through the University Virtual Environment.

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Closure
Well done! You have just finished Lesson 1 of this module.

If you have questions or need to make clarifications take note of them in the
space provided below to ask your Course Professor through direct messaging or
through the University Virtual Environment (UVE).

Notes from this Lesson

Now that you have completed Lesson 1, let us move on to the next lesson
in this module. You may now move on to the next lesson.

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Lesson 2 Virtue Ethics

Nicomachean Ethics and Natural Law
Learning Outcomes

By the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

 Recognize the meaning of eudaimonia or happiness, natural law

and its relation to ethics;
 Articulate the role of virtue in crafting an ethical life;
 Determine the role of habit in the formation of virtuous character;
 Articulate the difference between philosophical knowledge and
practical wisdom;
 Explain how natural law is an imprint of the Divine Will on the free
person, and;
 Discuss conscience and how this is defined by natural law.

Time Frame: 1 Week

Introduction

When we observe people around us, one of

the first things that strikes us is how different
people are from one another. Some people
are very talkative while others are very quiet.
Some are active whereas others are
passive. Some worry a lot, others almost
never seem anxious. Unbelievably, people
are often most remember by their most
significant traits. Each time we use one of
these words, words like “talkative,” “quiet,”
“active,” or “anxious,” to describe those
around us, we are talking about a person’s
character (traits or personality) — the
characteristic ways that people differ from
one another.

These traits are the product of a consistent

display of a particular behaviour. Some are
known to be courageous, some as quick-
witted, while others are remember for their
diligence and work ethic. To a certain extent, most people define a person by what
and how they live a life. On one hand, character traits such as respectfulness,
temperance and thoughtfulness are often seen in a positive light. On the other
hand, shamelessness, laziness and cowardice are generally frowned upon by
most. One who consistently exhibits certain behaviour in various situations gains
a peculiar identity that somehow determines how others perceive other beings as
a person.

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For example, a person who associate the nickname Supremo Isko (Francis “The
Chief/Leader”) is someone who is considered to have the most authority/skill or
consistently displayed a supreme power, strength and grit in character.

We build our characters through how we make choices in different situations we

face in our lives. In meeting and speaking to different people, facing various
problems, and handling different day-to-day tasks, we develop a certain way of
being a unique style of being a person. Through the constant interaction of thought
and action as prompted by various situation that call for one’s decision, a person
comes to know their certain type of character or personality.

Now, in one’s journey towards self-realization and self-flourishing, there is an

implied necessity to understand what people is actually aiming for their life. In
aiming for a goal, the person must also first understand what they are capable of
having and doing. Self-actualization is not attained through theory but by practice:
character is a product of practice.

Activity
Form groups of five members each. Research and discuss among yourselves the
following topics guided by the virtue ethics. Explain how they can help you decide
one of the following:
Group 1: whether abortion is morally acceptable and in what circumstances
Group 2: whether contractual labor is morally acceptable and why or why not
Group 3: whether one can change interest for a loan and why or why not
Group 4: whether one ca revolt against a tyrannical government administration
Assign a reporter to share with the class reflections. Present the main
discussions and justifications, and discuss the agreement and disagreements
among the members of your group.

Analysis
 What does it mean for one to achieve their goal?
 What is the goal of our existence as human beings and what does character
have to do with it?
 Which do you think a person/being should be more of, to be rational or
caring?

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Abstraction
Aristotle’s concept of being human is
embedded on the notion of virtue. A moral
person according to Aristotle is the man of
virtue. The latter taught us that a person is
always in pursuit to their end or finality. Thus,
finality or end, one’s purpose for living, is the
‘good life.’ Aristotle says on his notes about
‘politics’ that “in general, people seek not the
way of their ancestors, but the good.” Defining
man as a rational animal - distinguishes
people from other non-human beings. Thus, it
is Aristotle’s distinctive mark upon to base
one’s own life as good, happy and meaningful.
In the fields of the sciences, man’s rationality
dominates as the tool or instrument in the
progresses in researches, interventions, and
economic improvements of a society. Without
rationality, there may be no order and
harmony in one’s personal and social life.
Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) wrote his Nicomachean Ethics with the questions raised
earlier (analysis part). The philosopher’s answer is negative, for there is something
fundamental behind fame, riches, success, and sensuality. This fundamental
principle is happiness. Because of Aristotle’s conviction, the latter sets forth to
investigate the nature of happiness, its requisites and conditions for its acquisition.

Since Nicomachean ethics is also an ethics of self-actualization, the philosopher

cannot help but admit that happiness is dependent on one’s self-actualization. Put
differently, morality for Aristotle – which is centered in one’s happiness doctrine –
is exactly not innate but something that has to be developed by a person. Thus,
moral ideals are developed. But if happiness depends on one’s self-actualization
how can this actualization b done? Aristotle’s statement requires us to understand
human happiness that is measured within the bounds of reason. Rationality on
what makes man happy, for Aristotle, is that which strikes the moderation of life –
that is to live the golden mean.

Eudaimonia [yu-day-mon-ya]: A Healthier Word than Happiness

The philosopher Aristotle assumes that any activity, practical or theoretical, aims
towards some end or good; a broad concept to describe the highest good humans
could strive toward – or a life ‘well-lived’.

Though scholars translated eudaimonia as ‘happiness’ for many years, there are
clear differences (Deci & Ryan, 2006; Huta & Waterman, 2014; Heintzelman,
2018). For Aristotle, eudaimonia was achieved through living virtuously – or what
you might describe as being good. This does not guarantee ‘happiness’ in the
modern sense of the word. In fact, it might mean doing something that makes us
unhappy, like telling an upsetting truth to a friend. Sometimes it is translated from

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the original ancient Greek as ‘welfare’, sometimes ‘flourishing’, and sometimes as

‘well-being’ (Kraut, 2018).

By extension, the eudaimon life is one dedicated to developing the excellences of

being human. For Aristotle, this meant practicing virtues like courage, wisdom,
good humour, moderation, kindness, and more. The philosopher is not simply
interested in finding out the different ends or purposes for human life, but to find
out what the principal end is. The principal good for the human person must not be
something one aims at for the sake of something else. It cannot be fame or honor
for they are just mere instruments for feeding one’s ego, a servant of pride. Neither
can it be wealth, for wealth is merely a means for possessing things such as
houses or cars. For Artistotle, eudaimonia is the self-sufficient, final, and attainable
goal of human life. It is self-sufficient because it is desired for itself and not for the
sake of something else, and it is attainable because, it is not a mere theoretical
construct but something that one actually does practically.

When we try to articulate the purpose of our lives, we commonly have recourse.
We tell others and ourselves that the ultimate rationale for our jobs, our
relationships and the conduct of our day to day lives is the pursuit of a eudemon
life. It sounds like an innocent enough idea, but excessive reliance on the term
means that we are frequently unfairly tempted to exit or at least heavily question a
great many testing but worthwhile situations.

The Notion of Virtue

Virtue is moral excellence (arête). In practice, it is to allow something to act in
harmony with its purpose. As an example, let us take a virtuous virtual artist. In
their trade, virtue would be excellences in artistic eye, steady hand, patience,
creativity, and so on.

The eudaimon [yu-day-mon] artist is one who possesses and practices the virtues
of his trade. As mentioned earlier, the eudaimon life is dedicated to developing the
excellences of being human. It explains that our moral concept is through the
analysis of the constitution of the human being with a substance composed of body
and soul. The soul is the center of control, whereas the body serves as the
instrument. The soul dictates upon the human body on what to do, on how to act.

For Aristotle, morality consists of morally virtuous acts. The key to explaining the
meaning of moral virtue comes from the doctrine of the mean called mesotes.
Mesostes implies that the human beings must seek the middle ground when they
act. This doctrine of mean is learned through practice. It is the human being’s task
to see to it that their actions is neither excessive nor deficient, but equipped to
finding some form of harmonization. It is something that one masters, and this
forms what is called character.

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Now, the wisdom in determining ends and

the means of attaining practical
understanding is called phronesis and
practice. Our virtues, according to Aristotle,
are not mental faculties. Rather, these are
character traits. Living a virtuous life means
that one develops of self-perfection through
constant practice (phronesis). Thus, a
human being who is courageous has
imprinted in their character the virtue of
courage. This means that in the face of
risks, they know and acts in a particular
way exhibiting such a trait. One’s virtue, in
this regard, helps individual attain a certain
form of self-perfection. This self-perfection
is the full realization of the potentials of the human soul. Virtue thus defines who
the person is. The realization of one’s potential really implies self-perfection, which
is the ultimate end of the individual.

Related to self-realization, acting in line with virtues is acting in accordance with

reason. The function of being human being, accordingly, consists of activities
which manifest to best states of their rational aspect. Thus, moral and intellectual
excellences (arête) is attained by the habitual practice called as hexis (habit).
Aristotle employs the concept ‘hexis’ to refer to moral virtue as an active state or
condition in which something must actively hold itself. The philosopher confirms
this identity by reviewing the kinds of things that are in the soul, and eliminating the
feelings and impulses to which we are passive and the capacities we have by
nature, but human being first discovers what sort of thing a virtue is by observing
that the goodness is never in the action but only in the doer. This is a huge claim
that encompasses the need to stay attentive. No action is good or just because of
any quality in itself. Virtue manifests itself in action, Aristotle says, only when one
acts while holding oneself in a certain way.

As discussed earlier, Aristotle is interested in finding out the different ends or

purposes for human life, believing that the essence or essential nature of human
beings, lay not at their cause (or beginning) but at their end which is called telos.
Nicomachean Ethics can be summarized in this manner:
“All humans seek happiness (well-being), but in different ways. True
happiness is tied to the purpose or end (telos) of human life. The essence
of human beings (that which separate and distinguishes them as a
species is reason. Reason employed in achieving happiness leads to
moral virtues (e.g., courage, temperance, justice and prudence) and
intellectual virtues (e.g., science, art, practical wisdom, theoretical
wisdom)” (Aristotle, n.d.)

This Aristotelian view jives with the philosophy of purpose (Teleology). In the issue
of morality, the basis of knowing a good act is analyzed within the context of the
natural purpose of a being. To know such natural purpose is to determine the
distinction of a being from the rest. In case of a person, what makes us unique
among all created beings is that we are rational; therefore, to excel in or live in
accord to our rationality (to live in contemplation) is to live a good life. A moral life

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is a rational ordering of one’s lifestyle and avoiding unreasonable decisions like

choosing or living the extremes. It means further that person’s passion must be
toned by their reasons; the head must always prevail over the heart.

St. Thomas Aquinas’ Concept on Natural Law

St. Thomas Aquinas (Thomas of Aquino, 1225 – 1274), a medieval Roman
Catholic scholar, reconciled the political philosophy of Aristotle with Christian faith.
In doing so, Aquinas wrote that nature is organized for good purposes, and
contended that a just ruler or government must work for the "common good" of all.
The philosophy of Aquinas has exerted enormous influence on Christian theology
and also on Western philosophy in general. The philosopher most important and
enduring works are the “Summa Theologica,” in which expounds the systematic
theology of the ‘quinquae viae’ (the five proofs of the existence of God), and the
“Summa Contra Gentiles.”

Unlike Aristotle, Aquinas went on to say that God created nature and rules the
world by "divine reason." The latter elevated the genius of Aristotle’s philosophy in
the level of human endeavors; Aquinas transcended beyond the morality of human
life into the realm of the divine.

Aquinas described four kinds of law. Eternal law was God’s perfect plan, not fully
knowable to humans. It determined the way things such as animals and planets
behaved and how people should behave. Divine law, primarily from the Bible,
guided individuals beyond the world to "eternal happiness" in what St. Augustine
had called the "City of God."

Aristotle trusted human reason alone in the struggle to unravel the complex and
difficult puzzles of sciences and philosophy; Aquinas approached life with the
contemporary embracing faith and reason to explain the human and divine
realities. Aristotle contends that man can attain complete happiness with the aid of
reason in the full development of human possibilities; Aquinas conceives of man’s
perfect happiness beyond human limitation and morality to happen in his union and
participation with the overflowing joy and nature of God.

The goal of human life in Aquinas’ thought is union and eternal fellowship with God.
Specifically, this goal is achieved through the beatific vision, an event in which
person experiences perfect, unending happiness by seeing the very essence of
God. This vision, which occurs after death, is a gift from God given to those who
have experienced salvation and redemption through Christ while living on earth.

This ultimate goal carries implication for one’s present life on earth. Aquinas’ stated
that an individual’s will must be ordered toward right things such as charity, peace
and holiness. The philosopher sees this as the way to happiness. Aquinas orders
this treatment of the moral life around the idea of happiness. The relationship
between will and goal is antecedent in nature because rectitude of the will consists
in being duly ordered to the last end (that is, the beatific vision).

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Application (Let’s Do It!)

Learner Worksheet 14
Student Name: ______________________________ Score: ____________

Course/ Year/ Section: _______________________________

Do research and find the movie entitled “The Pursuit of Happyness” in which
Aristotle’s virtue ethics is exemplified. Form yourselves into small groups. Evaluate
the movie using the principal virtues and vices of Nicomachean ethics.
Now, identify and reflect on your personal experiences where you may have
engaged in some of the vices.
1. What factors led to your having such dispositions in these experiences?
2. How do you resolve the conflict? Or should the conflict remain as is?
3. Which philosopher is more possible or realistic, and more reasonable in
assuring happiness, that of Aristotle or of Aquinas?

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Closure
Well done! You have just finished Lesson 2 of this module.

If you have questions or need to make clarifications take note of them in the
space provided below to ask your Course Professor through direct messaging or
through the University Virtual Environment (UVE).

Notes from this Lesson

Now that you have completed Lesson 2, let us move on to the next lesson
in this module.

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