Titolo

Electronic power presentazione

conversion:
AC to DC sottotitolo
Morris Brenna Milano, XX mese 20XX
 Introduction

One of the first and most widely used application of power electronic devices have
been in rectification. Rectification refers to the process of converting an ac voltage or
current source to dc voltage and current. Rectifiers specially refer to power electronic
converters where the electrical power flows from the ac side to the dc side. In many
situations the same converter circuit may carry electrical power from the dc side to the
ac side where upon they are referred to as inverters. In this lesson and subsequent
ones the working principle and analysis of several commonly used rectifier circuits
supplying different types of loads (resistive, inductive, capacitive, back emf type) will be
presented. Points of interest in the analysis will be.
• Waveforms and characteristic values (average, RMS etc) of the rectified voltage and
current.
• Influence of the load type on the rectified voltage and current.
• Harmonic content in the output.
• Voltage and current ratings of the power electronic devices used in the rectifier circuit.
• Reaction of the rectifier circuit upon the ac network, reactive power requirement,
power factor, harmonics etc.
• Rectifier control aspects (for controlled rectifiers only)

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 Introduction

In the analysis, following simplifying assumptions will be made.

• The internal impedance of the ac source is zero.
• Power electronic devices used in the rectifier are ideal switches.

The first assumption will be relaxed in a latter module. However, unless

specified otherwise, the second assumption will remain in force.
Rectifiers are used in a large variety of configurations and a method of
classifying them into certain categories (based on common
characteristics) will certainly help one to gain significant insight into their
operation. Unfortunately, no consensus exists among experts regarding
the criteria to be used for such classification. For the purpose of this
lesson (and subsequent lessons) the classification shown in the figure
below will be followed.

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 Terminologies

Certain terms will be frequently used in this lesson and subsequent lessons while
characterizing different types of rectifiers. Such commonly used terms are defined in
this section.
Let "f" be the instantaneous value of any voltage or current associated with a rectifier
circuit, then the following terms, characterizing the properties of f, can be defined.
Peak value of f : As the name suggests fmax = f over all time.
Average (DC) value of f(Fav) : Assuming f to be periodic over the time period T
1 T
Fav = ∫ f(t) dt
T 0
RMS (effective) value of f(FRMS) : For f , periodic over the time period T,
1 T 2
FRMS =
T ∫0
f (t) dt
Form factor of f(fFF) : Form factor of f is defined as
FRMS
f FF =
Fav

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 Terminologies

Ripple factor of f(fRF) : Ripple factor of f is defined as

2
FRMS − Fav2 2
f RF = = f FF −1
Fav
Ripple factor can be used as a measure of the deviation of the output voltage and
current of a rectifier from ideal dc.
Fundamental component of f(F1): It is the RMS value of the sinusoidal component
in the Fourier series expression of f with frequency 1/T.
2 2
F1 = 1 2 (f A1 + f B1 )

Where
2 T  2π t  2 T  2π t 
f A1 = ∫ f(t) cos   dt f B1 = ∫ f(t) sin   dt
T 0  T  T 0  T 
Kth harmonic component of f(FK): It is the RMS value of the sinusoidal component
in the Fourier series expression of f with frequency K/T.
2 T  2π K t  2 T  2π K t 
FK = 1 2 (f 2 2
+f ) f AK = ∫ f(t) cos   dt f BK = ∫ f(t) sin   dt
AK BK
T 0  T  T 0  T 

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Morris Brenna – Department of Energy
Morris Brenna – Department of Energy
 Terminologies

Crest factor of f(Cf) : By definition

f
Cf =
FRMS
Distortion factor of f(DFf) : By definition
F1
DFf =
FRMS
Total Harmonic Distortion of f(THDf): The amount of distortion in the waveform of f
is quantified by means of the index Total Harmonic Distortion (THD). By definition
2
F 
α
THDf = ∑  k 
K=0,K ≠1  F1 

From which it can be shown that

1 − DFf 2
THDf =
DFf

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 Terminologies

Displacement Factor of a Rectifier (DPF): If vi and ii are the per phase input voltage and input
current of a rectifier respectively, then the Displacement Factor of a rectifier is defined as:

DPF = cos Φ i
Where Φi is the phase angle between the fundamental components of vi and ii.

Power factor of a rectifier (PF): As for any other equipment, the definition of the power factor
of a rectifier is
Actual power input to the rectifier
PF =
Apparent power input to the rectifier

if the per phase input voltage and current of a rectifier are vi and ii respectively then
Vi1 Ii1 cos φi
PF =
ViRMS IiRMS
If the rectifier is supplied from an ideal sinusoidal voltage source then Vi1 = ViRMS
Ii1
so, PF = cos φi = DFi1 × DPF
IiRMS

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Morris Brenna – Department of Energy
 Terminologies

In terms of THDii
DPF
PF =
1+ THDii2
Majority of the rectifiers use either diodes or thyristors (or combination of both) in
their circuits. While designing these components standard manufacturer’s
specifications will be referred to. However, certain terms are used in relation to the
rectifier as a system. They are defined next.
Pulse number of a rectifier (p): Refers to the number of output voltage/current
pulses in a single time period of the input ac supply voltage. Mathematically, pulse
number of a rectifier is given by
Time period of the input supply voltage
p=
Time period of the minimum order harmonic in the output voltage/current
Classification of rectifiers can also be done in terms of their pulse numbers. Pulse
number of a rectifier is always an integral multiple of the number of input supply
phases.

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Morris Brenna – Department of Energy
 Terminologies

Commutation in a rectifier: Refers to the process of transfer of current from

one device (diode or thyristor) to the other in a rectifier. The device from which
the current is transferred is called the "out going device" and the device to which
the current is transferred is called the "incoming device". The incoming device
turns on at the beginning of commutation while the out going device turns off at
the end of commutation.
Commutation failure: Refers to the situation where the out going device fails to
turn off at the end of commutation and continues to conduct current.
Firing angle of a rectifier (α): Used in connection with a controlled rectifier
using thyristors. It refers to the time interval from the instant a thyristor is forward
biased to the instant when a gate pulse is actually applied to it. This time interval
is expressed in radians by multiplying it with the input supply frequency in rad/s.
It should be noted that different thyristors in a rectifier circuit may have different
firing angles. However, in the steady state operation, they are usually the same

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 Terminologies

Extinction angle of a rectifier (γ): Also used in connection with a controlled

rectifier. It refers to the time interval from the instant when the current through an
outgoing thyristor becomes zero (and a negative voltage applied across it) to the
instant when a positive voltage is reapplied. It is expressed in radians by
multiplying the time interval with the input supply frequency (ω) in rad/sec. The
extinction time (γ/ω) should be larger than the turn off time of the thyristor to
avoid commutation failure.
Overlap angle of a rectifier (μ): The commutation process in a practical
rectifier is not instantaneous. During the period of commutation, both the
incoming and the outgoing devices conduct current simultaneously. This period,
expressed in radians, is called the overlap angle "μ" of a rectifier. It is easily
verified that α + μ + γ = π radians.

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 Single phase uncontrolled half wave rectifier

This is the simplest and probably the most widely used rectifier circuit albeit at
relatively small power levels. The output voltage and current of this rectifier are
strongly influenced by the type of the load. In this section, operation of this
rectifier with resistive, inductive and capacitive loads will be discussed.

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 Single phase uncontrolled half wave rectifier

This figure shows the circuit diagram and the waveforms of a single phase
uncontrolled half wave rectifier. If the switch S is closed at t = 0, the diode D
becomes forward biased in the interval 0 < ωt ≤ π. If the diode is assumed to be
ideal then
For 0 < ωt ≤ π
v0 = vi = √2 Vi sin ωt

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Morris Brenna – Department of Energy
 Performance parameters

Average value of the output voltage, Vdc

Average value of the output current, Idc
Output dc power, Pdc
• Pdc = Vdc·Idc
rms value of the output voltage, Vrms
Output ac power, Pac
• Pac = Vrms·Irms

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 Performance parameters

Efficiency, η
• η = Pdc/Pac
Effective (rms) value of the ac component of the output voltage, Vac
• Vac = √Vrms2 – Vdc2
Form factor, FF
• FF = Vrms/Vdc
Ripple factor, RF
• RF = Vac/Vdc

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 Performance parameters

Alternate form for ripple factor

V
=
RF ( ) −
rms
= 12
FF − 1
2

V
dc

Transformer utilization factor, TUF

• TUF = Pdc/VsIs
• Vs, Is are rms voltage and current of the transformer
secondary

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 Input voltage and current

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 Performance parameters

Displacement angle, Φ
Displacement Factor, DF
• DF = cos(Φ)
Harmonic Factor, HF

I −I  I  2 2
1
2

=
HF ( = ) ( ) − 1 s s1 2 s 2

I I 
2

s1 s1

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 Performance parameters

Power Factor, PF

VI I
=
PF =
cos Φ cos Φ s s1 s1

VI I s s s

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 Performance parameters

Crest Factor, CF

I
CF = s ( peak )

I s

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 Example

Determine η, FF, RF, TUF, PIV of the diode, CF of the input

current, input PF.

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 Calculation of the main quantities

1 T 1
V = ∫ v (t )dt f =
T T
dc L
0

1
T
ω = 2π f
V = ∫V sin ωtdt
2

T
dc m

V
0

V ωT V= = 0.318V
m

V =− (cos m
− 1)
dc
π m

dc
ωT 2 V 0.318V
I= = dc m

R R
dc

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 Calculation of the main quantities

(0.318V ) 2

P = m

R
dc

1 (0.5V )
V = 
2
2

=
T

∫ v (
2
t )dt P m

T
rms
0
L
 R
ac

1 (0.318V )
1 2

 
T

= η = 40.5%
2

∫ (V sin ωt ) dt
m

V =
2
2

T  (0.5V ) 2
rms m
0
m

V V 0.5V
V= = 0.5V m
=
FF = rms m

2 V 0.318V
rms m

dc m

V 0.5V = = 157%
FF 1.57
I= = rms m

R R
rms

=
RF FF − 1 2

RF= 1.57 − 1= 1.21

= 121%
2

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 Calculation of the main quantities

 1  V 2

∫ (V sin ωt ) dt= = 0.707V

T

=
V 2 m

T
s
0  2
m m

0.5V
=
I I= m

R
s load

(0.318V ) m
2

P R
= =
TUF dc

VI 0.5V
(0.707V )(
s )s
m

R
m

TUF = 0.286

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 Calculation of the main quantities

PIV is the maximum (peak) voltage that appears across the

diode when reverse biased. Here, PIV = Vm.

- - PIV +

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 Calculation of the main quantities

I s ( peak )
CF =
Is
Vm
I s ( peak ) =
R
0.5Vm
Is =
R
Vm
CF =
= R 2
0.5Vm
R
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 Calculation of the main quantities

Pac
= cos Φ
PF =
VA
2
(0.5Vm )
PF = 0.707 R
0.5Vm
(0.707Vm )( )
R

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 Summary – half-wave rectifier

RF=121% High
Efficiency = 40.5 Low
TUF = 0.286 Low
– 1/TUF = 3.496
– transformer must be 3.496 times larger than when using a
pure ac voltage source

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 Half-wave rectifier with R-L load

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 Current and voltage waveforms

Conduction period of D1 extends beyond ωt = π

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 Average output voltage

π +σ
Vm
Vdc =
2π ∫
0
sin ωtd (ωt )

Vm
[ − cos ωt ]0
π +σ
V
= dc
2π
Vm
Vdc = [1 − cos(π + σ ) ]
2π
Vdc
I dc =
R
Increase average voltage and current by making σ = 0
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 Waveforms with Dm installed

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 Application as a battery charger

Diode conducts for vs > E,

starting when Vmsinα = E

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 Waveforms for the battery charger

Diode turns off when

vs < E (at β = π – α)
Charging current
io = (vs – E)/R
io = (Vmsinωt – E)/R for
α < ωt < β

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 Single-phase full-wave rectifier

Center-Tapped Transformer
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 Waveforms for the full-wave rectifier

2 2
Vdc = ∫ Vm sin ωt
T 0
2Vm
Vdc =
π
Vdc = 0.636Vm

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 Single-phase full-wave rectifier

PIV = 2Vm

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 Full-wave bridge rectifier

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 Full-wave bridge and voltage waveforms

Conduction pattern
D1 – D2 D3 – D4
PIV = Vm
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 Capacitive output filter

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 Capacitive output filter

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 L-C output filter

C holds the output voltage at a constant level, and the L

smoothes the current from rectifier and reduces the peak
current in diodes.

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 Three-phase rectifiers

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 Three-phase rectifiers

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 Three-phase rectifiers

Each diode conducts one-third of the time, resulting in

1
I D ,avg = I o ,avg
3
1
I D ,rms = I o ,rms
3
2
I S ,rms = I o ,rms
3

Apparent power from the three-phase source is

S = 3 VL − L ,rms I S ,rms

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 Three-phase rectifiers

∞
v0 ( t ) = Vo + ∑V n
n = 6 ,12 ,18..
cos( nw0 t + π )

1 2π / 3 3Vm ,L − L
V0 =
π/3 ∫π / 3
Vm ,L − L sin wtd ( wt ) =
π
= 0.95Vm ,L − L
6 Vm ,L − L
Vn = 2
, n = 6 , 12 , 18, ...
π( n − 1 )

Since the output voltage is periodic with period 1/6 of the ac supply voltage, the
harmonics in the output are of order 6kω, k=1,2,3,…

Advantage: output is inherently like a dc voltage, and the high-frequency low-

amplitude harmonics enable filters to be effective.

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 Three-phase rectifiers

For a dc constant
load current

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 Three-phase rectifiers

2 3 1 1 1 1
ia = I o (cos w0 t − cos 5w0 t + cos 7 w0 t − cos 11w0 t + cos 13w0 t ....
π 5 7 11 13
which consists of terms at fundamental frequency of the ac system and harmonics
of order 6k ± 1, k=1,2,3,…

Filters are frequently necessary to prevent harmonic currents to enter the ac system.
Resonant filters for 5th and 7th harmonics.
High-pass filters for higher order harmonics.

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 Controlled full-wave rectifiers

Resistive load

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 Controlled full-wave rectifiers

1 π
Vo = ∫ Vm sin( wt )d ( wt )
π α
α = delay angle
Vm
= ( 1 + cos α )
π
Vo Vm
Io = = (1 + cos α )
R πR
1 π Vm
I rms =
π ∫α (
R
sin wt ) 2 d ( wt )

Vm 1 α sin( 2α )
= − +
R 2 2π 4π
The power delivered to the load is: P = I 2 rmsR
The rms current in source is the same as the rms current in the load.

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 Controlled full-wave rectifiers

R-L load

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 Controlled full-wave rectifiers

continuous current ∞
v0 ( wt ) = Vo + ∑ Vn cos(nwt + θn)
wt = π + α , i (π + α ) ≥ 0 n =1

sin(π + α − θ ) − sin(α − θ )e − (π +α −α ) /(ωτ ) ≥0

[
sin(θ − α ) 1 + e −π /(ωτ ) ] ≥0 Vo =
1
π
π +α
∫α Vm sin wt d ( wt ) =
2Vm
π
cos α
sin( θ - α ) ≥ 0
(θ -α ) ≥ 0 2 2
Vn = an + bn

ωL 2Vm  cos(n + 1)α cos(n − 1)α 

α ≤ θ = Tan -1 ( ) an = −
R π  n + 1 n − 1 
for continuous current 2Vm  sin( n + 1)α sin( n − 1)α 
bn =  −
− bn π  n +1 n − 1 
θn = Tan -1 ( )
an
n = 2,4,6,....

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 Controlled full-wave rectifiers

For continuous current case, the average bridge output voltage is

2 Vm
Vo = cos α
π
Vo − Vdc
average load current is Io =
R
The ac voltage terms are unchanged from the controlled rectifier with an R-L load.
The ac current terms are determined from circuit.

Power absorbed by the dc voltage is Pdc = Io Vdc

Power absorbed by resistor in the load is P = I 2 rmsR ≈ Io 2 R is l arg e

ifif L isL large

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Morris Brenna – Department of Energy
 Controlled full-wave rectifiers

Controlled Single-phase converter operating as an inverter:

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 Controlled full-wave rectifiers

For inverter operation, power is supplied by the dc source, and power is

absorbed by the bridge and is transferred to the ac system.

 Vdc and Vo must be negative

00 < α < 900  Vo > 0 rectifier operation

900 < α < 1800  Vo < 0 inverter operation

Pbridge = Pac = − IoVo

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 Controlled three-phase rectifiers

2π
1 +α
Vo =
π ∫π 3
+α
Vm , L − L sin wtd ( wt )
3 3

3Vm , L − L
=( ) cos α
π

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 Twelve-pulse rectifier using two six-pulse bridges

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 Twelve-pulse rectifier using two six-pulse bridges

The purpose of the Y - ∆ transformer connection is to introduce phase 30° shift

between the source and bridge.
This results in inputs to two bridges which are apart. The two bridge outputs are
similar, but also shifted by 30°
The delay angles for the bridge are typically the same.

3Vm , L − L 3Vm , L − L 6Vm , L − L

Vo = Vo ,Y + Vo ,∆ = cos α + cos α = cos α
π π π
The peak output of the twelve-pulse converter occurs midway between alternate
peaks of the six-pulse converters. Adding the voltages at that point for α = 0
gives

Vo , peak = 2Vm , L − L cos(15°) = 1.932 Vm , L − L for α = 0°

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 Twelve-pulse rectifier using two six-pulse bridges

Since a transition between conducting SCRs every 30°, there are a total of 12 such
transitions for each period of the ac source. The output has harmonic frequencies
which are multiple of 12 times the source frequency. (12k k=1,2,…)

2 3 1 1 1 1
iY (t ) = I o (cos w0t − cos 5 w0t + cos 7 w0t − cos 11w0t + cos 13 w0t − ....)
π 5 7 11 13
2 3 1 1 1 1
i∆ (t ) = I o (cos w0t + cos 5 w0t - cos 7 w0t − cos 11w0t + cos 13 w0t + ....)
π 5 7 11 13
4 3 1 1
iac (t ) = iY (t ) + i∆ (t ) = I o (cos w0t - cos 11w0t + cos 13 w0t − ...)
π 11 13
iac , harmonic order = 12k ± 1 , k = 1,2,...

Cancellation of harmonics 6(2n-1) ± 1 , n=1, 2, … has resulted

from this transformer and converter configuration.

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 Twelve-pulse rectifier using two six-pulse bridges

This principle can be expanded to arrangements of higher pulse number by

incorporating increased number of six-pulse converters with transformers which have
the appropriate phase shifts.
The characteristic ac harmonics of a p-pulse converter will be: pk ± 1, k=1,2,3…

 More expense for producing high-voltage transformers with the appropriate

phase shifts.

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 Three-phase converter operating as a inverter

The bridge output voltage V0

must be negative.

0 < α < 90°  V0 > 0  rectifier

90° < α < 180°  V0 > 0  inverter

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 DC power transmission

․ By using controlled twelve-pulse converter (generally).

․ Used for very long distances of transmission lines.
Advantages:
1. XL = 0  voltage drop↓ in lines
2. XC = 0  ↓ line loss and no overvoltages occur
3. Two conductors required rather than three
4. Transmission towers are smaller
5. Power flow in a dc transmission line is controllable by adjustment
of delay angles at the terminals
6. Power flow can be modulated during disturbances on one of the ac
system  System stability is increased
7. The two ac systems that are connected by the dc line do not need
to be in synchronization
Disadvantages:
1. costly ac-dc converter, filter, and control system required at each
end of the line to interface with the ac system

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 DC power transmission

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 DC power transmission

+ , 0 < α < 90° rectifier 

Vo1 , Vo 2 = 
 − , 90 ° < α < 180 ° inverter 
For current being ripple free
Vo1 + Vo 2
Io =
R
3Vm1, L − L
Vo1 = cos α 1
π
3Vm 2, L − L
Vo 2 = cos α 2
π
Power supplied by the converter at terminal 1 is: P1 = Vo1 I o
Power supplied by the converter at terminal 2 is: P2 = Vo 2 I o

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 DC power transmission

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 DC power transmission

One of the lines is energized at Vdc and the other is energized at

–Vdc. In emergency situations, one pole of the line can operate
without the other pole, with current returning through the ground
path.

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