Titolo presentazione

Design of photovoltaic systems

sottotitolo
Morris Brenna Milano, XX mese 20XX
 From Single Cells to PV Arrays

Solar cells are rarely used individually. Rather, cells with similar
characteristics are connected and encapsulated to form modules
in order to obtain higher power values. These modules are then
in turn combined to construct arrays. PV arrays for a diversity of
applications can be constructed according to this principle in the
power range from μW to MW.

Morris Brenna – Department of Energy

 Parallel connection

If higher current is required in a system, solar cells are connected in

parallel as illustrated in the figure below.

Regarding a parallel-connected configuration the voltage across each

cell is equal whereas the total current is the sum of all the individual cell
currents.

Morris Brenna – Department of Energy

 Parallel connection

Accordingly, the current-voltage characteristic curve of the

complete
configuration is
obtained, as
shown below,
by adding the
single cell current values corresponding to each voltage value
point for point.

Morris Brenna – Department of Energy

 Parallel connection

The question of the system performance arises when part of a module is

shaded. As indicated in the figure, three identical cells are connected in
parallel and one cell is completely shaded, which then stops generating its
photocurrent. The worst case takes place with open-circuit condition, i.e. if
there is no external load. Since the shaded cell is cooler than the other two
cells, the breakdown voltage of its diode is higher according to their I-V
characteristic curves. Whereas the voltage across all three cells is
identical, the diode current of the shaded cell is therefore extremely small.
Pure parallel connection in order to construct a module is usually not
suitable for common application
because high current requires
big cross section of conductor.
Besides, low voltage causes high
relative losses. For these
reasons a series connection is
more attractive.
Morris Brenna – Department of Energy
Morris Brenna – Department of Energy
 Series connection

In a series connection, as illustrated in the figure below, the same

current flows through each cell whereas the total voltage is the
sum of the voltage across
each cell.

Morris Brenna – Department of Energy

 Series connection

The I-V characteristic curve of the complete configuration, as

shown below, is obtained by adding the single cell voltage values
corresponding to each current value point for point. The following
characteristic curves result for a given radiation intensity, which is
equal for three of solar cells.
Series connection of the solar
cells causes an undesired
effect when a PV module is
partly shaded. In contrast with
parallel connection, the worst
case occurs in case of
short-circuit condition.

Morris Brenna – Department of Energy

Morris Brenna – Department of Energy
 Series connection

In case of complete shading as shown below the shaded cell

generates no current and acts as an open-circuit and therefore no
current flows in the circuit. Its diode tends to be reverse biased by
the voltage generated from other
two cells. However, there is no
power dissipation to the shaded
cell unless the breakdown voltage
of its diode is exceeded.

Morris Brenna – Department of Energy

 Series connection

Due to the fact that there is no current flowing in the circuit, the
output power in this case is also zero. One solution to this
problem is to connect bypass diode anti-parallel to the cells so
that larger voltage differences cannot arise in the reverse-current
direction of the solar cells. Under normal conditions such as with
no shading each bypass diode is
reverse biased and each cell
generates power. As here shown,
when the third cell is shaded, its
bypass diode is forward biased and
conducts the circuit current.

Morris Brenna – Department of Energy

 Series connection

Regarding the I-V characteristic curve of the PV array in case of shading by

assuming that the load is adjusted from infinity (open-circuit) to zero (short-
circuit), the result is shown in the figure below. Under open-circuit condition
no current flows through the circuit and there is no voltage across the third
cell. When the load is smaller than
infinity, the load voltage is
smaller than open-circuit
voltage and the voltage
across the third cell increases
from zero, its bypass diode is
therefore forwards biased and
will conduct the circuit current
as soon as its threshold
voltage is reached. Afterwards,
the characteristic corresponds
to the curve of two cells
connected in series.

Morris Brenna – Department of Energy

 Series connection

In case that the third cell is partly shaded, e.g. 20% irradiation
incident on the cell, it can produce approx. 20% of the
photocurrent produced by
the other two cells

Morris Brenna – Department of Energy

 Series connection

Regarding series connection, although the other two cells can

produce their 100% photocurrents, the amount of current flowing
in the circuit can only equal the amount of the current produced
by the third cell. The rest of the current produced by the first cell
will flow into its own diode
(this is also applied to the
second cell). In addition,
the diode of the third cell is
reverse biased by the
voltage generated by the
other two cells. Therefore,
lower dissipation to the third
cell arises.

Morris Brenna – Department of Energy

 Series connection

Such power dissipation refers to the so-called hot spot: an intolerable

effect, which leads to breakdown in the cell p-n junction and in turn to
destructions, i.e. cell or glass cracking or melting of solder. However, this
can also happen in case of mismatched cells within the module due to
manufacturing differences, degradation (cracked) or even unequal
illuminated cells, which then result in different outputs. By means of the
bypass diodes the problems of mismatched
cells and hot spots can be avoided.
As shown in the figure, after the
bypass of the third cell conducts, the
current flowing through it is equal to the
different amount between the circuit
current and the current produced by the
third cell.

Morris Brenna – Department of Energy

Morris Brenna – Department of Energy
 Series connection

However one bypass diode per cell is generally too expensive. In

practice, according to reasons of permissible power loss, it is
sufficient to provide one diode for every 10 to 15 cells, i.e. for a
normal 36-cell module three diodes are needed. In addition,
these connections are included in the connection box by the
manufacturer. It should be noted that the bypass diodes do not
cause any losses while current does not flow through them in
normal operation. In addition to protecting the shaded module,
the bypass diode also allows current to flow through the PV array
when it is partly shaded even if at a reduced voltage and power.

Morris Brenna – Department of Energy

 Series connection

The effect of partial shading and the role of bypass diode can be
more indicated here. Under normal condition a module has a
power curve indicated in the left figure. However, shading affects
the curve by drastically reducing the power output of the module
considerably as obviously seen in the right figure.

Morris Brenna – Department of Energy

 Series connection

As already states, for series connection, the worst module

determines the quality of the whole configuration. For these
reasons, modules with different types of solar cells or from
different manufacturers should never be connected to each other.
In a larger system it could be well worthwhile to ensure that all
the modules originate from a singe production run. Besides, not
all commercial modules include bypass diodes. Therefore, case
must be taken to avoid even light shadows, e.g. from cables,
mounting wire, tree tops, surrounding structure or adjacent
arrays.

Morris Brenna – Department of Energy

 PV generator

PV generator is a heart of a PV system. For a practical

application, however, additional components are needed, e.g. for
the energy storage, for the energy flow regulation or for the
supply of network-conformal alternating voltages and currents.
These additional components represent a considerable share of
cost, efficiency reduction and influence the behavior of the whole
system substantially. Assuming
the representation of a solar
cell by a current source
parallel with a diode its
standard symbol is illustrated
here.

Morris Brenna – Department of Energy

 Maximum Power Point Tracker (MPPT)

The position of the points of maximum power on the PV generator

characteristic depends strongly on the irradiation and the cells
temperature. In principle this makes a continuous tracking of the working
point voltage (MPP tracking) necessary for achieving of a maximum
energy yield. The additional energy gains, which can be obtained by this
way in comparison to a (correctly selected) certain voltage, are however
rather overestimated: detailed examinations, with which both during
shorter periods (e.g. one winter month) and longer period (many years)
the energy yields were compared with and without MPPT, resulted for an
ideal, loss-free MPPT in a gain of 3…5 %. This statement applies also to
the initially represented direct coupling of a correctly dimensioned PV
generator/battery combination. A tracking of the MPP is therefore only
meaningful if components for energy processing e.g. network inverters
or DC/DC converter with the possibility of a working point adjustment
are available and the tracking of the working point does not bring
additional energy losses and only small addition costs. The development
of MPPT’s represents a technically charming theme, so that in the
course of the time a great deal of procedures was developed.

Morris Brenna – Department of Energy

Morris Brenna – Department of Energy
 Indirect MPPT

This type of MPPT's uses the connection between measured

variables, which can be easily determined, and the approximate
position of the MPP. These procedures count for example:
1. Season-dependent tracking (switching) of the PV generator
voltage.
2. This measure provides only a small increase in energy in
comparison to a certain adjusted voltage for whole year.
Temperature-controlled working point voltage. Here the
module temperature is determined by a temperature sensor
and adjusted according to the working point voltage.

Morris Brenna – Department of Energy

 Indirect MPPT

3. Measurement of the PV generator’s open circuit voltage. This

method is based on the fact that for a certain module the
relationship between open circuit voltage and MPP voltage
can be approximated by a constant factor of e.g. 0.8 or also a
simple function. With this procedure the open circuit voltage is
measured within regular intervals by short separation of the
load and then the desired working point voltage is
determined. The advantage of the procedures mentioned can
be a very simple feasibility - it is however disadvantageous
that in general only an approximation to the actual MPP is
achieved and modifications of the PV generator characteristic,
e.g. by contamination, cannot be taken into account.

Morris Brenna – Department of Energy

Morris Brenna – Department of Energy
 Direct MPPT

This MPPT’s get the information about the desired optimal working point
from actually measured currents, voltages or powers in the system and
thus can react also to unforeseeable modifications in the behavior of the
PV generator. Usually assigned procedures are based on a search
algorithm, with which the maximum of the power curve is determined
without interruption of the normal operation. For this, in regular intervals,
the working point voltage is changed around a certain increment –
consequently output power becomes larger, then the search direction is
maintained for the next step, otherwise it is reverse. The actual working
point oscillates therefore with a certain range around the actual point of
maximum power. This simple basic principle can be secured by
additional algorithms against misinterpretations, which can occur for
example with a wrong search direction and nevertheless a rising power
due to fast increasing irradiation.

Morris Brenna – Department of Energy

Morris Brenna – Department of Energy
 Direct MPPT

The necessary determination for searching the MPP of the PV

generator power requires in principle a measurement of
generator voltage and current as well as a multiplication of these
variables. A substantial simplification results, if one considers that
the actual target is not a maximization of generator output power,
but rather achieving a maximum power at the load. It is therefore
meaningful and simpler to detect and maximize either the voltage
at the load or usually the current through the load.

Morris Brenna – Department of Energy

 Principles of PV system configuration

The modular structure of PV generators provides possibility that energy

supply systems can be constructed in an extremely wide power range.
The power spectrum extends from a few mW up to powers in the MW
range. A PV system consists basically of a PV generator and system
components, which are responsible for energy treatment, as well as a
consumer. In the following, the fundamental structures of PV systems
will be described at first, with which also deal briefly with the function of
system components. By means of block diagrams the systems will be
introduced for different applications of PV energy supplies. Examples of
realized systems should therefore ease the classification for the different
power ranges. The PV systems could be classified by different aspects.
Regarding battery storage the PV systems can be widely divided into 2
categories, namely PV systems with- and without battery storage.

Morris Brenna – Department of Energy

 PV systems without battery storage

In case that the energy supply and energy demand occur

simultaneously, it is unnecessary to store the energy produced by
the PV generators. In addition, grid-connected PV system is
classified in this type because the surplus energy produced by
the PV generators can be fed into the grid whereas energy will be
draw from the grid to supply the consumers when the PV energy
is not sufficient so that the battery storage unit is also
unnecessary in this case.

Morris Brenna – Department of Energy

 Direct-coupled PV system

For this configuration PV generators are directly connected with

consumers. Main application is ventilator. The system is simple
and reliable, reduces maintenance and requires lower investment
cost whereas the demand equals to the potential. An example of
this configuration is PV ventilator.

Morris Brenna – Department of Energy

 PV system with a matching converter

In order to match the voltage of the PV system with the voltage of

the consumer, a DC/DC converter is necessary, which
transforms one DC voltage to another. This configuration has
been applied to small electronic equipment (e.g. calculators, …),
water pumps and others similar applications.

Morris Brenna – Department of Energy

 PV powered AC system

With the help of an inverter, which converts DC power into AC

power, AC consumers can be supplied with solar energy. This
kind of system is often used for water pumping above a certain
power range (approx. 2 kW).

Morris Brenna – Department of Energy

 Grid-connected PV system

PV systems can also be connected to the public grid by means of suitable

inverters (left figure). As mentioned before, energy storage is not necessary
in this case. On sunny days the PV generator provides power e.g. for the
electrical appliances in a house. Surplus energy is fed into the grid. During
the night and overcast days, power is drawn from the grid. In big power
plant a DC/DC converter can be inserted between PV generator and
inverter in order to stabilize the DC voltage (right figure).

Morris Brenna – Department of Energy

 PV systems with battery storage

If the energy supply and energy demand do not always take

place at the same time, energy storage unit is necessary. By
means of the battery the system can even be operated during
night or bad weather condition periods.

Morris Brenna – Department of Energy

 DC-coupled PV system

Always when a battery is involved in a system, a charge regulator

should be included, which provide overcharge protection and
deep discharge protection (DDP), to ensure an accurate
operation of the battery.
This configuration is applied e.g. to a PV lighting system, info
panels, distributed wireless repeater, etc…

Morris Brenna – Department of Energy

 DC-coupled PV hybrid system

In case of high-energy demand, the PV generator alone could not

provide sufficient energy. In other words, the PV generator required
would become too large and too expensive. The same problem
occurs if a high reliability is demanded. For those reasons different
generators are coupled, resulting in a so-called hybrid system . One
possibility of such a hybrid system is the coupling of a PV- and a
backup generator. In regions with good wind conditions, even a wind
generator could be considered.
By means of backup generator
the PV generator and the battery
do not have to be oversized,
resulting in significantly reduced
investment costs.

Morris Brenna – Department of Energy

 PV system with both DC- and AC consumers

In the following configuration the inverter is included into the

system as a central inverter so that AC appliances can also be
operated.

Morris Brenna – Department of Energy

 PV hybrid system with both DC- and AC consumers

The following configuration is similar to the previous one, in which a

backup generator is included. With favorable solar radiation the
consumer’s total energy demand is covered by the PV generator.
Surplus energy is stored in batteries. During the night or unfavourable
weather the energy demand is covered by the batteries at first. If deep
discharge tends to occur, a backup
generator produces the electricity
and charges the battery at the
same time. At windy sites the
system can also be extended
with a wind energy converter.

Morris Brenna – Department of Energy

 DC-coupled PV system with AC consumer

If higher power is needed or if conventional household appliances

and industrial devices are to be used, a system voltage of 230 V
AC is desirable. To this purpose, an inverter is included into the
system. This configuration can be used for power peak shaving.

Morris Brenna – Department of Energy

 AC-coupled PV hybrid system

Nowadays, some inverters are optionally equipped with an

additional circuit for battery charging referring to the so-called bi-
directional inverters. They can turn off the inverter-function and
become efficient battery chargers if required. In addition, the backup
generator can be directly connected to the same inverter as the
battery. The switching circuit
inside the inverter allows the
backup generator to supply
loads, however, also to
charge the battery if
necessary.

Morris Brenna – Department of Energy