1.

Introduction

Transformers are devices that can perform mutual induction to change the value of
alternating currents and voltages that pass through them. They are key factor in the distribution
of alternating current as through using them the voltage and current can be decreased or
increased.
Transformers have low losses and their time and work durability is very high. In case
they are being static they have a long lifespan and are very stable. Having all that under
consideration we can conclude that the transformers are very efficient.
There are different types of transformers that range in size and form in dependence of
their use. For example, an electronic circuit would require a miniature unit in comparison to a
power station that would need a large transformer. There are three main types of transformers
in terms of their cores and construction and regardless of their size:

 Magnetic core transformer – it has two cores (fig. 1.1)

A simplistic representation of a transformer is shown on figure 1.4. it consists of two electrical

figure 1.4 figure 1.5

2. principle of operation

when an alternating voltage V1 is applied to the primary winding N1 and the secondary winding is
an open circuit a small current pass through the primary winding called no-load current I₀. this current
sets up a magnetic alternating flux through the core which connects to the primary and the secondary
coil and induces an EMF in them. The induced EMF in the primary and the secondary winding we will call
E1 and E2, respectively. the induces EMF (E) in a coil of n turns is given by formula 1.1

formula 1.1

Where dф/dt is the rate of change in the flux. In an Ideal transformer the rate of the change in flux is the
same for the both winding. In this case the induced EMF per turn is constant E1/N1 = E2/N2 and E1=V1,
E2=V2 due to the lack of power loss. From this we can assume that

V1 V2 V1 N1
= ∨ = formula 1.2
N1 N2 V2 N2

V1/V2 2 is called the voltage ratio and N1/N2 the turns ratio. If N2 is less than N1 then V2 is less than V1
and the device is called a step-down transformer. If N2 is greater than N1 then V2 is greater than V1 and
the device is termed a step-up transformer. Keeping to the ideal world, if a load is connected to the
secondary winding all the current induced in the wire will be transferred to the load, giving 100%
efficiency of the transformer. That means the input power equals the output power or V1 x I1 = V2 x I2

V 1 I2
And = formula 1.3
V 2 I1
Combining formula 1.1, 1.2 and 1.3 we can derive

V1 N1 I1
= = formula
V2 N2 I
1.4

The rating of a transformer is stated in terms of the volt-amperes that it can transform without
overheating. With reference to formula 1.4, the transformer rating is either V1 x I1 or V2 x I2, where I2 is
the full-load secondary current

3. E.m.f. equation of a transformer

When a alternating voltage is exercised on the primary coil, a magnetic flux ф is being set up int
the core of the transformer. As the voltage is alternating it is generating a sinusoidal. фm is the
maximum value of the flux, f is the frequency of the supply and T is the periodic time equal to 1/f
seconds. The flux reaches it’s maximum value in one quarter of the cycle and the time for ¼ of the
1
cycle equals to 1/4f seconds therefore the average rate of change in the flux is ф m/( ) Wb/s
4ф
and since 1 Wb/s = 1 volt, the average e.m.f. induced in each turn equals 4fфm volts. As the flux ф
varies sinusoidally, then a sinusoidal e.m.f. will be induced in each turn of both primary and
secondary windings.
 The form factor for a sine wave equals the root mean square (the effective value) or rms divided
by the average value

value
form factor=rms =1.11
avarageValue
therefore, the rms value equals the form factor times the average value

rms value=form factor∗avarage factor=1.11∗avarage value

each turn=1.11 x 4 f ф m volts=4.44 f ф m volts

Hence, rms value of e.m.f. induced in primary

Е1=4.44 f ф m N 1 volts equation 2.1

And the rms value induced in the secondary is :

E2=4.44 f Ф m N 2 volts equation 2.2

Dividing equation 2.1 by equation 2.2 give us

E1 N 1
=
E2 N 2

4. Regulation of a transformer

Say an electrical power transformer is open circuited, meaning that the load is not
connected to the secondary terminals. In this situation, the secondary terminal voltage
of the transformer will be its secondary induced emf E2.

Whenever a full load is connected to the secondary terminals of the transformer, rated
current I2 flows through the secondary circuit and voltage drop comes into picture. At
this situation, primary winding will also draw equivalent full load current from source.
The voltage drop in the secondary is I 2∗Z 2 where Z 2 is the secondary impedance of
transformer.

Now if at this loading condition, anyone measures the voltage between secondary
terminals, he will get voltage V2 across load terminals which is obviously less than no
load secondary voltage E2 and this is because of I 2∗Z 2 voltage drop in the
transformer

As the power factor decreases, this voltage drop increases. This is called the regulation
of the transformer and it is usually expressed as a percentage of the secondary no-load
voltage, E2. For full-load conditions:
 E2 – V 2
Regulation= ( E2 ) x 100 %

The fall in voltage, E2 V2, is caused by the resistance and reactance of the windings.
Typical values of voltage regulation are about 3% in small transformers and about 1% in large
transformers.

6. Equivalent circuit of a transformer

Figure 2.1 shows an equivalent circuit of a transformer. R1 and R2 represent the resistances of
the primary and secondary windings and X1 and X2 represent the reactances of the primary and
secondary windings, due to leakage flux.

Figure 2.1

The core losses due to hysteresis and eddy currents are allowed for by resistance R which takes a
current Ic, the core loss component of the primary current. Reactance X takes the magnetizing
component IM. In a simplified equivalent circuit shown in Figure 2.2, R and X are omitted since the no-
load current I0 is normally only about 3–5% of the full load primary current. It is often convenient to
assume that all of the resistance and reactance as being on one side of the transformer. Resistance R2 in
Figure 2.2 can be replaced by inserting an additional resistance R0 2 in the primary circuit such that the
power absorbed
 figure 2.2

In R ’2 when carrying the primary is equal to that of R2 due to the secondary current i.e. I 21 R'2=I 22 R 2
I2 2 2
V
from which, R2=R 2
'
( ) ( )
I1
=R2 1
V2

Which means that the total equivalent resistance in the primary coil Re is equal to the primary and the
secondary coil resistance combined i.e. Re =R1 + R'2 .

Therefore:

V1
Re =R1 + R2
2
( )
V2

By similar reasoning, the equivalent reactance in the primary circuit is given by

The equivalent impedance Ze of the primary and secondary windings referred to the primary is given by:

z E =√ ( R2e + X 2e )

If ф е is the phase angle between is the phase angle between I1 and the volt drop I1 * Ze then

Re
cos ф e=
Ze
The simplified equivalent circuit of a transformer is shown in Figure 2.3.

figure 2.3

7. Losses and efficiency

There are broadly two sources of losses in transformers on load, these being copper losses and iron
losses.

Copper losses are variable and result in a heating of the conductors, due to the fact that they possess
resistance. If R1 and R2 are the primary and secondary winding resistances, then the total copper loss is
I 21 R1 + I 22 R2
Copper losses are variable and result in a heating of the conductors, due to the fact that they possess
resistance. If R1 and R2 are the primary and secondary winding resistances then the total copper loss is
I2 1R1 C I2 2R2

(b) Iron losses are constant for a given value of frequency and flux density and are of two types —
hysteresis loss and eddy current loss.

(i) Hysteresis loss is the heating of the core as a result of the internal molecular structure reversals
which occur as the magnetic flux alternates. The loss is proportional to the area of the hysteresis loop
and thus low loss nickel iron alloys are used for the core since their hysteresis loops have small areas.

(ii) Eddy current loss is the heating of the core due to e.m.f.’s being induced not only in the transformer
windings but also in the core. These induced e.m.f.’s set up circulating currents, called eddy currents.
Owing to the low resistance of the core, eddy currents can be quite considerable and can cause a large
power loss and excessive heating of the core. Eddy current losses can be reduced by increasing the
resistivity of the core material or, more usually, by laminating the core (i.e., splitting it into layers or
leaves) when very thin layers of insulating material can be inserted between each pair of laminations.
This increases the resistance of the eddy current path, and reduces the value of the eddy current.

The efficiency formula is derived as show3n:

power input power−losses losses

and is usually expressed as a percentage. It is not uncommon for power transformers to have
efficiencies of between 95% and 98%.

Output power =V 2 I 2 cos ф 2

total losses = copper loss + iron losses,

and input power = output power + losses

Internet sites used:

1. https://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/transformer/transformer-basics.html

literature used:

1. Electrical Circuit Theory and Technology - John Bird