Unit I

MEANING AND CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH:

Business research is a process of acquiring detailed information of all the areas of business and
using such information in maximizing the sales and profit of the business. Such a study helps
companies determine which product/service is most profitable or in demand. In simple words,
it can be stated as the acquisition of information or knowledge for professional or commercial
purpose to determine opportunities and goals for a business.

Business research can be done for anything and everything. In general, when people speak
about business research it means asking research questions to know where the money can be
spent to increase sales, profits or market share. Such research is critical to make wise and
informed decisions.

For example:
A mobile company wants to launch a new model in the market. But they are not aware of what
are the dimensions of a mobile that are in most demand. Hence, the company conducts a
business research using various methods to gather information and the same is then evaluated
and conclusions are drawn, as to what dimensions are most in-demand, This will enable the
researcher to make wise decisions to position his phone at the right price in the market and
hence acquire a larger market share.

Business research is a field of practical study in which a company obtains data and analyzes it in
order to better manage the company. It is a systematic inquiry that helps to solve business
problems and contributes to management knowledge. It Is an applied research.

Characteristics of Business research

 Trans-discipline approach: It draws ideas from related disciplines

 Information access is difficult: Each piece of information will have a confidential nature.
 Managers need processed information: Managers need advanced information for
decision making
 Findings must resolve a practical problem
Qualities of a Good Researcher:

There is a researcher within all of us just waiting to be let loose…

• An analytical mind.
• The ability to stay calm.
• Intelligence.
• Curiosity.
• Quick thinker.
• Commitment.
• Excellent written and verbal communication skills.
• Sympathetic.

TYPES OF RESEARCH:
It is imperative that a marketer has to have a broad understanding of the various types of
research, in general. There are eleven types of research depending on whether it is primarily
“fundamental” or “applied” in nature. They are as follows:

1. Applied research, also known as decisional research, use existing knowledge as an aid to the
solution of some given problem or set of problems.
2. Fundamental research, frequently called basic or pure research, seeks to extend the
boundaries of knowledge in a given area with no necessary immediate application to existing
problems.
3. Futuristic research: Futures research is the systematic study of possible future conditions. It
includes analysis of how those conditions might change as a result of the implementation of
policies and actions, and the consequences of these policies and actions.
4. Descriptive research includes surveys and fact-finding enquiries of different kinds. It tries to
discover answers to the questions who, what, when and sometimes how. Here the researcher
attempts to describe or define a subject, often by creating a profile of a group of problems,
people, or events. The major purpose of descriptive research is description of the state of
affairs as it exists at present
5. Explanatory research: Explanatory research goes beyond description and attempts to explain
the reasons for the phenomenon that the descriptive research only observed. The research
would use theories or at least hypothesis to account for the forces that caused a certain
phenomenon to occur.
6. Predictive research: If we can provide a plausible explanation for an event after it has
occurred, it is desirable to be able to predict when and in what situations the event will occur.
This research is just as rooted in theory as explanation. This research calls for a high order of
inference making. In business research, prediction is found in studies conducted to evaluate
specific courses of action or to forecast current and future values.
7. Analytical research: The researcher has to use facts or information already available, and
analyse these to make a critical evaluation of the material.
8. Quantitative research: Quantitative research is based on the measurement of quantity or
amount. It is applicable to phenomena that can be expressed in terms of quantity.
9. Qualitative research: It is concerned with qualitative phenomenon (i.e.) phenomena relating
to or involving quality or kind. This type of research aims at discovering the underlying motives
and desires, using in depth interviews for the purpose. Other techniques of such research are
word association test, sentence completion test, story completion tests and similar other
projective techniques. Attitude or opinion research i.e., research designed to find out how
people feel or what the think about a particular subject or institution is also qualitative
research.
10. Conceptual research: Conceptual research is that related to some abstract idea(s) or theory.
It is generally used by philosophers and thinkers to develop new concepts or to reinterpret
existing ones.
11. Empirical research: It is appropriate when proof is sought that certain variables affect other
variables in some way. Evidence gathered through experiments or empirical studies is today
considered to be the most powerful support possible for a give hypothesis.

The Variable:
A variable is an event, idea, value or some other object or category that a researcher
or business can measure. Variables can be dependent or independent.
Dependent variables vary by the factors that influence them, but independent variables stand
on their own – changes in other variables have no effect on them.

Types of Variable-
• DEPENDENT VARIABLES
show the effect of manipulating or introducing the independent variables. For
example, if the independent variable is the use or non-use of a new language teaching
procedure, then the dependent variable might be students' scores on a test of the
content taught using that procedure. In other words, the variation in the dependent
variable depends on the variation in the independent variable.
• INDEPENDENT VARIABLES
are those that the researcher has control over. This "control" may involve
manipulating existing variables (e.g., modifying existing methods of instruction) or
introducing new variables (e.g., adopting a totally new method for some sections of a
class) in the research setting. Whatever the case may be, the researcher expects that
the independent variable(s) will have some effect on (or relationship with) the
dependent variables.
• INTERVENING VARIABLES
refer to abstract processes that are not directly observable but that link the
independent and dependent variables. In language learning and teaching, they are
usually inside the subjects' heads, including various language learning processes
which the researcher cannot observe. For example, if the use of a particular teaching
technique is the independent variable and mastery of the objectives is the dependent
variable, then the language learning processes used by the subjects are the
intervening variables.
 • MODERATOR VARIABLES
affect the relationship between the independent and dependent variables by
modifying the effect of the intervening variable(s). Unlike extraneous variables,
moderator variables are measured and taken into consideration. Typical moderator
variables in TESL and language acquisition research (when they are not the major
focus of the study) include the sex, age, culture, or language proficiency of the
subjects.
• CONTROL VARIABLES
Language learning and teaching are very complex processes. It is not possible to
consider every variable in a single study. Therefore, the variables that are not
measured in a particular study must be held constant, neutralized/balanced, or
eliminated, so they will not have a biasing effect on the other variables. Variables that
have been controlled in this way are called control variables.

• EXTRANEOUS VARIABLES
are those factors in the research environment which may have an effect on the
dependent variable(s) but which are not controlled. Extraneous variables are
dangerous. They may damage a study's validity, making it impossible to know
whether the effects were caused by the independent and moderator variables or
some extraneous factor. If they cannot be controlled, extraneous variables must at
least be taken into consideration when interpreting results.

Factors Affecting Research....

1. Time Constrains.
2. Availability of Resources.
3. Nature of Information Sought.
4. Benefits Versus Cost.

Importance of Business research:

• Business research is one of the most effective ways to understand customers, the market
and competitors. Such a research helps companies to understand the demand and supply
of the market.
• Using such a research will help businesses reduce costs, and create solutions or products
that are targeted to the demand in the market and the correct audience.
• In-house business research can enable the senior management to build an effective team
or train or mentor, when needed. Business research enables the company to track its
competitors and hence can give you the upper hand to stay ahead of them.
• Failures can be avoided by conducting such a research as it can give the researcher an idea
if the time is right to launch its product/solution and also if the audience is right. It will help
understand the brand value and measure customer satisfaction which is essential to
 continuously innovate and meet customer demands. This will help the company grow its
revenue and market share. Business research also helps recruit the ideal candidates for
various roles in the company.
• By conducting such a research a company can carry out SWOT analysis, i.e. understand the
strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats. With the help of this information, wise
decisions can be made to ensure business success.
• Business research is the first step that any business owner needs to set up his business, to
survive or to excel in the market.
• The main reason why such a research is of utmost importance is because it helps
businesses to grow in terms of revenue, market share and brand value.

Concept of Theory & Empiricism:

What is Theory….?
Theory explains how some aspect of human behavior or performance is organized. It thus
enables us to make predictions about that behavior.

The components of theory are concepts (ideally well defined) and principles.

A concept is a symbolic representation of an actual thing - tree, chair, table, computer,

distance, etc.
Construct is the word for concepts with no physical referent - democracy, learning,
freedom, etc. Language enables conceptualization.
A principle expresses the relationship between two or more concepts or constructs.
In the process of theory development, one derives principles based on one’s
examining/questioning how things/concepts are related.

Concepts and Principles :

Concepts and principles serve two important functions:

1) They help us to understand or explain what is going on around us.
2) They help us predict future events (Can be causal or correlational)

That what theory is: the summary and synthesis of what is known about a field. It is the
reduction of our knowledge to the basic ideas, presented in a way that shows their
underlying patterns and relationships. (Moore, 1991:2)

A theory is a related set of concepts and principles….

- about a phenomenon
- the purpose of which is to explain or predict the phenomenon
Why Theory is Important…?

Theory provides concepts to name what we observe and to explain relationships between
concepts. Theory allows us to explain what we see and to figure out how to bring about
change. Theory is a tool that enables us to identify a problem and to plan a means for altering
the situation.

Theory is to justify reimbursement to get funding and support - need to explain what is being
done and demonstrate that it works - theory and research.

Theory is to enhance the growth of the professional area to identify a body of knowledge with
theories from both within and with out the area of distance learning. That body of knowledge
grows with theory and research. Theory guides research.

The theory also helps us understand what we don’t know and, therefore, is the only guide to
research. Relating to theory, it increases its ability to solve other problems in different times
and different places. (Moore, 1991: 2)

Development of Theories :

Theory is constantly revised as new knowledge is discovered through research. Three stages of
theory development in any new ‘science’

1) Speculative - attempts to explain what is happening.

2) Descriptive - gathers descriptive data to describe what is really happening.
3) Constructive - revises old theories and develops new ones based on continuing research.

Theory Development Process :

1) Theory-practice-theory take existing theory in education, apply to distance learning,

develop new theory.
2) Practice-research-theory see what is happening in distance learning, submit to research,
develop theory from results.
3) Theory-theory-research/practice build on an initial theory to develop a second
theory, then apply and test it.
Definition of Empiricism :
Why do you believe what you believe to be true? Is your knowledge based on your experience,
or is your knowledge based on what others have told you? There are a number of philosophical
beliefs about life and experience. Some philosophies suggest that knowledge must be proven,
while other philosophies suggest that it is based on reasoning.

Empiricism is an important part of the scientific method because theories and hypotheses must
be observed and tested to be considered accurate.

Empiricists tend to be skeptical that anything can be known for certain and, therefore, they
tend not to believe in dogmas or absolute truths. This is in contrast to rationalists, who tend to
believe that the universe has absolute laws that can be determined and that the human mind is
naturally predisposed to understanding certain truths.

Empiricism is a philosophical belief that states your knowledge of the world is based on your
experiences, particularly your sensory experiences. According to empiricists, our learning is
based on our observations and perception; knowledge is not possible without experience.

Empiricism means a method of study relying on empirical evidence, which includes things
you've experienced: stuff you can see and touch.

Empiricism is based on facts, evidence, and research. Scholars and researchers deal in
empiricism. If you believe in the Easter Bunny, the Tooth Fairy, or Santa Claus, you're out of the
realm of empiricism — there are no facts to support those myths. If you want to get something
practical done, or to really know what the deal is with something, empiricism is the way to go.

Empiricism, in philosophy, the view that all concepts originate in experience, that all concepts
are about or applicable to things that can be experienced, or that all rationally acceptable
beliefs or propositions are justifiable or knowable only through experience. This
broad definition accords with the derivation of the term empiricism from the ancient Greek
word empeiria, “experience.”

Degrees of Empiricism :

Empiricism, whether concerned with concepts or knowledge, can be held with varying degrees
of strength. On this basis, absolute, substantive, and partial empiricisms can be distinguished.

Absolute empiricism

Absolute empiricists hold that there are no a priori concepts, either formal or categorial, and no
a priori beliefs or propositions. Absolute empiricism about the former is more common than
that about the latter, however. Although nearly all Western philosophers admit that
obvious tautologies (e.g., “all red things are red”) and definitional truisms (e.g., “all triangles
have three sides”) are a priori, many of them would add that these represent a degenerate
case.

Substantive empiricism

A more moderate form of empiricism is that of the substantive empiricists, who are
unconvinced by attempts that have been made to interpret formal concepts empirically and
who therefore concede that formal concepts are a priori, though they deny that status to
categorial concepts and to the theoretical concepts of physics, which they hold are a posteriori.
According to this view, allegedly a priori categorial and theoretical concepts are either
defective, reducible to empirical concepts, or merely useful “fictions” for the prediction and
organization of experience.

Partial empiricism

The least thorough going type of empiricism here distinguished, ranking third in degree, can be
termed partial empiricism. According to this view, the realm of the a priori includes some
concepts that are not formal and some propositions that are substantially informative about
the world.

Important of Empiricism:

Empiricism is an important part of the scientific method because theories and hypotheses must
be observed and tested to be considered accurate. Empiricists tend to be skeptical that
anything can be known for certain and, therefore, they tend not to believe in dogmas or
absolute truths.

Empiricism is a philosophy that stresses the importance of experience in the attainment of

knowledge, especially sensory experience.

“All our knowledge begins with the senses, proceeds then to the understanding, and ends with
reason. There is nothing higher than reason.”
-Immanuel Kant, Critique of Pure Reason

Empiricism, in fact, forms the basis of the Scientific Method.

(however flawed it might be, as discussed elsewhere)

Empiricism in the philosophy of science emphasizes evidence, especially as discovered in
experiments. It is a fundamental part of the scientific method that all hypotheses and theories
must be tested against observations of the natural world rather than resting solely on a priori
reasoning, intuition, or revelation.

Empiricism, often used by natural scientists, says that "knowledge is based on experience" and
that "knowledge is tentative and probabilistic, subject to continued revision and falsification.“
One of the epistemological tenets is that sensory experience creates knowledge. Empirical
research, including experiments and validated measurement tools, guides the scientific
method.

However, empiricism is NOT "you have to see it to believe it." It is more like "someone must
have seen or experienced it at some point for that idea to have merit". If there is no evidence
behind that idea, then it can be easily dismissed.

Deductive and Inductive Theory :

THERE ARE TWO GENERAL APPROACHES OR PROCEDURES IN PROBLEM SOLVING…

1. INDUCTIVE
2. DEDUCTIVE

THE INDUCTIVE APPROACH :

 It is a approach of development.
 Thinking moves from particular to general.
 Concrete examples the students arrive at a generalization.
 The child is led to discover truth for himself.

Inductive reasoning works the other way, moving from specific observations to broader
generalizations and theories. Informally, we sometimes call this a “bottom up” approach
(please note that it’s “bottom up” and not “bottoms up” which is the kind of thing the
bartender says to customers when he’s trying to close for the night!). In inductive
reasoning, we begin with specific observations and measures, begin to detect patterns
and regularities, formulate some tentative hypotheses that we can explore, and finally
end up developing some general conclusions or theories.
VARIOUS PROCESSES IN THE INDUCTIVE APPROACH :
1. Observation of the given material.
2. Discrimination and analysis noting differences and similarities.
3. Classification.
4. Abstraction and generalization.
5. Application or verification.
MERITS OF THE INDUCTIVE APPROACH :
 Knowledge is self acquired and transformed into ‘wisdom’.
 It promotes mental activity on the part of the pupils and makes them active participants
in the learning teaching process.
 It makes the lesson interesting by providing challenging situations to the students.
 The method affords opportunities to the students to be self dependent and self
confidence.
 The student’s curiosity is well kept up till the end when generalization are arrived at.
 This method is very natural because the knowledge in possession of man has been
acquired in this way from the practical side of experience.
 The child learn how to tackle problems. He not only acquires more facts but also learns
the process of acquiring facts which proves him for practical life.
 The method is based on sound psychological principles. Learning by doing is the basis of
this method.

DEMERITS OF INDUCTIVE APPROACH :

 The insufficient data may sometimes lead the learner to wrong generalizations.
 The method is very slow and lengthy.
 It is not very helpful in the case of small children. It is not suitable in the teaching of
subjects in which there is more stress on the teaching of facts.
 The inductive method is not a complete method in itself.
DEDUCTIVE APPROACH :
In the deductive approach rules, generalization and principles are provided to the students and
then they are asked to verify them with the help of particular examples.

MERITS OF THE DEDUCTIVE APPROACH :

 Teacher ’s work is simplified. He gives general principles and verify them.
 This method is very economical. It saves time and energy both of the students and the
teachers.
 It is very suitable for small children who cannot discover truths for themselves. They get
ready made material.
DEMERITS OF THE DEDUCTIVE APPROACH :
 Knowledge is not self acquired and, therefore, not assimilated properly.
 The child is deprived of the pleasure of self activity and self effort as ready made
formulae, principles and rules are given to him.
 It encourages memorization of facts which are soon forgotten and therefore, knowledge
is rendered useless.
 This method is unnatural and psychological for the students who do not possess ability
to appreciate abstract ideas in the absence of concrete examples.
 It fails to develop motivation and interest in learning.
 It fails to develop self confidence and initiative in the students.

DEDUCTIVE AND INDUCTIVE APPROACH COMPARED

Deductive
 General laws are first stated and particular examples to prove them.
 It does not lead to new knowledge.
 It is a method of verification and explanation.
 This method is very quick.
 This method dependence upon others as it is based on borrowing from others.
 It is downward movement

Inductive
 First particular cases are dealt with and then laws are derived from them.
 It leads to new knowledge.
 It is method of discovery.
 This method is very slow.
 This method gives training to the child to depend upon himself and to develop self
confidence and initiative.
 It is an upward movement.

These two methods of reasoning have a very different “feel” to them when you’re
conducting research. Inductive reasoning, by its very nature, is more open-ended and
exploratory, especially at the beginning. Deductive reasoning is more narrow in nature
and is concerned with testing or confirming hypotheses. Even though a particular study
 may look like it’s purely deductive (e.g., an experiment designed to test the
hypothesized effects of some treatment on some outcome), most social research
involves both inductive and deductive reasoning processes at some time in the project.
In fact, it doesn’t take a rocket scientist to see that we could assemble the two graphs
above into a single circular one that continually cycles from theories down to
observations and back up again to theories. Even in the most constrained experiment,
the researchers may observe patterns in the data that lead them to develop new
theories.

Problems and Precautions to the Researchers &

Types of Business Problems Encountered by the Researcher

What is a Research Problem..?

A research problem is an issue or concern that an investigator presents and justifies in a

research study. A problem that someone would like to research.

Problems Faced by RESEARCHER

Time and Money :

 Time and Money is one of the biggest problem that a researcher faced during
the research.
 We know that Time is Money if we loose our time than we are loosing the
money.
 During a Research Researchers have to waste their time for collecting the
information from the various sources.

Lack of Computerization :

 There is a problem related to Computerization which researchers generally

face. A researcher cant find the data for the research because of lack of
computerization.
 People generally used to record the data in the various books.
 So this is also one of the problem that is faced by researcher.

Confidence :

 Most of the business units in our country do not have the confidence that the
material supplied by them to researchers will not be misused and as such they
are often reluctant in supplying the needed information to researchers.
Library Management :

 Library management and functioning is not satisfactory at many places and

much of the time and energy of researchers are spent in tracing out the books,
journals, reports, etc., rather than in tracing out relevant material from them.

Distance :

 There is insufficient interaction between the university research

departments on one side and business establishments, government
departments and research institutions on the other side. A great deal of
primary data of non-confidential nature remain untouched or untreated by the
researchers for want of proper contacts.

Lack of Scientific Training:

 The research methodology is not systematic. Many researchers undertake
research work without having actual knowledge of the research methods. They
just look for similar studies and copy the methodologies listed in it. Even the
research guides do not have a thorough knowledge of the various
methodologies. This scenario warrants the need for some sort of short-term
training to be imparted to researchers prior to undertaking research activities.

Insufficient Interaction:

 There is no proper interaction between researchers and the business

establishments, government institutions, etc. This leads to a great deal of data
going untapped. Interaction programs should be organized between researchers
and other institutions on a regular basis. This will highlight what issues need to
be researched, what data is required for conducting research, and how the study
will be useful.

Lack of Code of Conduct:

 No specific code of conduct exists for the researchers, which leads to inter-
departmental and inter-university rivalries.

High Cost of Publishing:

 Once their research is completed, the researchers have to look for a means to
publish it. Publishing in international journals is highly expensive. This
discourages most of the researchers from taking up research work.
Other Problems Faced by Researcher :
1. The lack of a scientific training in the methodology of research.
2. This causes unnecessary delays in the completion of research studies.
3. All possible efforts be made in this direction so that efficient secretarial assistance is
made available to researchers and that too well in time.
4. There is also the difficulty of timely availability of published data from various
government and other agencies doing this job in our country.
5. There is also the problem that many of our libraries are not able to get copies of old
and new Acts/Rules, reports and other government publications in time.
 UNIT II
Research Design:
Research design is the framework of research methods and techniques chosen by a researcher.
The design allows researchers to hone in on research methods that are suitable for the subject
matter and set up their studies up for success.The design of a research topic explains the type
of research (experimental, survey, correlational, semi-experimental, review) and also its sub-
type (experimental design, research problem, descriptive case-study).

There are three main types of research design: Data collection, measurement, and analysis.The
type of research problem an organization is facing will determine the research design and not
vice-versa. The design phase of a study determines which tools to use and how they are used.

An impactful research design usually creates a minimum bias in data and increases trust in the
accuracy of collected data. A design that produces the least margin of error in experimental
research is generally considered the desired outcome.

The essential elements of the research design are:

1. Accurate purpose statement

2. Techniques to be implemented for collecting and analyzing research
3. The method applied for analyzing collected details
4. Type of research methodology
5. Probable objections for research
6. Settings for the research study
7. Timeline
8. Measurement of analysis

Proper research design sets your study up for success. Successful research studies provide
insights that are accurate and unbiased. You’ll need to create a survey that meets all of the
main characteristics of a design. There are four key characteristics of research design:

Neutrality: When you set up your study, you may have to make assumptions about the data
you expect to collect. The results projected in the research design should be free from bias and
neutral. Understand opinions about the final evaluated scores and conclusion from multiple
individuals and consider those who agree with the derived results.

Reliability: With regularly conducted research, the researcher involved expects similar results
every time. Your design should indicate how to form research questions to ensure the standard
of results. You’ll only be able to reach the expected results if your design is reliable.
Validity: There are multiple measuring tools available. However, the only correct measuring
tools are those which help a researcher in gauging results according to the objective of the
research. The questionnaire developed from this design will then be valid.

Generalization: The outcome of your design should apply to a population and not just a
restricted sample. A generalized design implies that your survey can be conducted on any part
of a population with similar accuracy.

The above factors affect the way respondents answer the research questions and so all the
above characteristics should be balanced in a good design.

A researcher must have a clear understanding of the various types of research design to select
which model to implement for a study. Like research itself, the design of your study can be
broadly classified into quantitative and qualitative.

Types of Research Design:

A researcher must have a clear understanding of the various types of research design to select
which type of research design to implement for a study. Research design can be broadly
classified into quantitative and qualitative research design.
1. Qualitative Research Design
2. Quantitative Research Design

1. Qualitative Research Design:

Qualitative research is implemented in cases where a relationship between collected data and
observation is established on the basis of mathematical calculations. Theories related to a
naturally existing phenomenon can be proved or disproved using mathematical calculations.
Researchers rely on qualitative research design where they are expected to conclude “why” a
particular theory exists along with “what” respondents have to say about it.

2. Quantitative Research Design:

Quantitative research is implemented in cases where it is important for a researcher to have
statistical conclusions to collect actionable insights. Numbers provide a better perspective to
make important business decisions. Quantitative research design is important for the growth of
any organization because any conclusion drawn on the basis of numbers and analysis will only
prove to be effective for the business.

Further, research design can be divided into five types :

1.Descriptive Research Design: In a descriptive research design, a researcher is solely
interested in describing the situation or case under his/her research study. It is a theory-based
research design which is created by gather, analyze and presents collected data. By
implementing an in-depth research design such as this, a researcher can provide insights into
the why and how of research.

“Descriptive Research Design”

Descriptive research design is a scientific method which involves observing and describing the
behavior of a subject without influencing it in any way.

Descriptive research is an appropriate choice when the research aim is to identify

characteristics, frequencies, trends, correlations, and categories.
It is useful when not much is known yet about the topic or problem. Before you can research
why something happens, you need to understand how, when and where it happens.

The term descriptive research then, refers to research questions, design of the
research and data analysis that would be conducted on that topic. It is called an observational
research method because none of the variables that are part of the research study are
influenced in any capacity.
Some distinctive characteristics of descriptive research are:
Quantitative research: Descriptive research is a quantitative research method that attempts to
collect quantifiable information to be used for statistical analysis of the population sample. It is
an popular market research tool that allows to collect and describe the nature of the
demographic segment.
Uncontrolled variables: In descriptive research, none of the variables are influenced in any
way. This uses observational methods to conduct the research. Hence, the nature of the
variables or their behavior is not in the hands of the researcher.
Cross-sectional studies: Descriptive research is generally a cross-sectional study where
different sections belonging to the same group are studied.
Basis for further research: The data collected and analyzed from descriptive research can then
be further researched using different research techniques. The data also can help point towards
the types of research methods are to be used for the subsequent research.

The 3 Basic Types of Descriptive Research Methods…

One of the goals of science is description (other goals include prediction and
explanation).Descriptive research methods are pretty much as they sound,
they describe situations. They do not make accurate predictions, and they do not determine
cause and effect.
There are three main types of descriptive methods:
• Observational methods,
• Case-study methods and
• Survey methods.

Observational Method…

• Observations allow you to gather data on behaviors and phenomena without having to
rely on the honesty and accuracy of respondents. This method is often used by
psychological, social and market researchers to understand how people act in real-life
situations.

• Observation of physical entities and phenomena is also an important part of research in

the natural sciences. Before you can develop testable hypotheses, models or theories,
it’s necessary to observe and systematically describe the subject under investigation.

• Observations allow you to gather data on behaviors and phenomena without having to
rely on the honesty and accuracy of respondents. This method is often used by
psychological, social and market researchers to understand how people act in real-life
situations.

• Observation of physical entities and phenomena is also an important part of research in

the natural sciences. Before you can develop testable hypotheses, models or theories,
it’s necessary to observe and systematically describe the subject under investigation.

Case Study Method….

A case study can be used to describe the characteristics of a specific subject (such as a person,
group, event or organization). Instead of gathering a large volume of data to identify patterns
across time or location, case studies gather detailed data to identify the characteristics of a
narrowly defined subject. Rather than aiming to describe generalizable facts, case studies often
focus on unusual or interesting cases that challenge assumptions, add complexity, or reveal
something new about a research problem.

Survey Method..
Survey research allows you to gather large volumes of data that can be analyzed for
frequencies, averages and patterns. They are a common method in correlational research, a
type of descriptive research that aims to find relationships between variables.
Other common uses of surveys include:
• Describing the demographics of a country or region.
• Gauging public opinion on political and social topics.
 • Evaluating satisfaction with a company’s products or an organization’s services.

Examples of Descriptive research Design…

The following are some examples for studies with Descriptive research design in business
studies:
• How has the Amsterdam housing market changed over the past 20 years?
• Do customers of company X prefer product X or product Y?
• What are the main genetic, behavioural and morphological differences between
European wildcats and domestic cats?
• What are the most popular online news sources among under-18s?
• How prevalent is disease A in population B?

Advantages of Descriptive Research..

Some of the major advantages of descriptive research are:
Data collection: Descriptive research can be conducted by using specific methods like
observational method, case study method and survey method. Between these 3, all major
methods of data collection are covered which provides a lot of information. This can be used
for future research or even developing hypothesis of your research object.
Varied: Since the data collected is both qualitative and quantitative, it gives a holistic
understanding of a research topic. This causes data that was not planned to be collected gets
tracked and the data is varied, diverse and thorough.
Natural environment: Descriptive research allows for the research to be conducted in the
natural environment of the respondent and this ensures that high-quality and honest data is
collected.
Quick to conduct and cheap: As the sample size is generally large in descriptive research, the
data collection is quick to conduct and is cheap.
Forms basis for decision-making: As the data collected in descriptive research represents a
larger population and is robust, it is easy to make decisions on the basis of the statistical
analysis of that data.

Disadvantages of Descriptive Research..

Some of the major disadvantages of descriptive research are:
Confidentiality: Respondents aren’t always truthful if questions are too personal or they feel
that they are being “watched”. This may negate the validity of the data.
Halo effect: If the research observer has a potential bias towards the research topic or some
respondents in the research, the observations then maybe considered as invalid or untrue.
Sample isn’t representative: Due to the randomness of the sample, it is very tough to validate
that the sample is an accurate representation of the whole population.
No scope to learn cause: Since descriptive research only focuses on the “what” of an objective
or phenomenon, it does not delve into the “why or how” and that is a limitation in learning
specific causes.

3. Experimental Research Design: Experimental research design is used to establish a

relationship between the cause and effect of a situation. It is a causal research design
where the effect caused by the independent variable on the dependent variable is
observed. For example, the effect of an independent variable such as price on a dependent
variable such as customer satisfaction or brand loyalty is monitored. It is a highly practical
research design method as it contributes towards solving a problem at hand. The
independent variables are manipulated to monitor the change it has on the dependent
variable. It is often used in social sciences to observe human behavior by analyzing two
groups – affect of one group on the other.

CHARACTERISTICS:
 Experimental research is defined as “OBSERVATIONS UNDER CONTROLLED
CONDITIONS”.
 In experimental design the researcher is active agent rather than a passive
observer.
 Experimental designs are concerned with examination of the effect of an
independent variable on dependent variable, where the independent variable is
manipulated through treatment or intervention(s).
 True experimental designs consists of three cardinal feature: RANDOMIZATION,
CONTROL & MANIPULATION or TRIAL.
 According to Riely, experimental design is a powerful design for testing hypotheses
of causal relationship among variables.
 Experimental research design is further classified as TRUE EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN,
QUASI EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN & PRE EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN.
TRUE EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS :
In true experimental designs the researchers have complete control over the extraneous
variables and can predict confidently that the observed effect on the dependent variable is only
due to the manipulation of independent variable.

ESSENTIAL CHARACTERISTICS:

A true experimental design consists of three important characteristics. They are as follows:

1. MANIPULATION.
2. CONTROL.
3. RANDOMIZATION.

1. MANIPULATION
Manipulation refers to conscious control of the independent variable by the researcher
through treatment or intervention to observe it ’s effect on the dependent variable.
INDEPENDENT VARIABLE MEDICATION

DEPENDENT VARIABLE PAIN LEVEL

2.CONTROL
• Control refers to the use of control group and controlling the effects of extraneous
variables on the dependent variable in which the researcher is interested.
• The subjects in the control and experimental groups are similar in number &
characteristics, but the subjects in the control group do not receive experimental
treatment or any intervention.
• A comparison of the experimental group is made with the control group to observe the
effect of the treatment or intervention.
• The control of effects of extraneous variables on the dependent variable can be ensured
by adopting one of the following measures : Matching, counterbalancing, Homogeneity
by statistical test.
MATCHING :

• Is a conscious “matching" of the subject characteristics in both the groups.

• It is a weak but a common method of control over the extraneous variables.
• In matching the researcher identifies one or more extraneous variables to be controlled
which are supposed to have effect on dependent variable.
• As the subjects are recruited for one of the treatment groups, the researcher tries to
find subjects for the other group (similar to the subjects of the first group based on the
specific matching variable).
• For example if age and gender are the matching variables of interest in a two group
study (if 40 yrs old man is recruited for the first group, the researcher would try to find
another man aged 40 yrs for the second group).

COUNTER BALANCING :

• Counter balancing is another way to exert control over extraneous variables.

• Counter balancing is used in which the researcher is concerned that the orders in which
the treatment or interventions are administered influence the study results.

HOMOGENEITY BY STATISTICAL TEST

• To ensure homogeneity of the demographic characteristics among two groups under

study, a chi- square test may be applied on the frequency distribution of selected
characteristics in two groups.

3.RANDOMIZATION:

• Means that every subject has an equal chance of being assigned to experimental or
control group.
• This is called random assignment of subjects.
• The process involves random assignment to different groups.
• Through random assignment chances of systemic bias is eliminated.
• Randomization is used in true experimental designs to minimize the threats of internal
validity of the study and eliminates the effects of extraneous variables on the
dependent variables.
 METHODS OF RANDOMIZATION

 Random assignment of study subjects may be done with simple flip of a coin for

52 35 89 71 43 15 25 00 20 85 76 92 46 35 81 67 32 65 06 42 48 47 43 65 95 10 56
82 64 12 42 27 59 32 09 37 32 65 75 62 73 96 58 34 69 34 80 76 71 92 75 38 88
05 95 66 79 46 01 17 74 62 06 53 57 26 08 72 39 41 87 83 84 64 72 62 19 38 45
45 19 75 72 05 65 39 21 56 31 08 43 49 29 35 45 43 07 03 97 92 46 53 27 08 54 82
each subject. If coin lands on its “head”, subjects are assigned to first group &
with “tail” the subjects are assigned to the second group.
 Another methods is to write the names of the subjects on slips of paper and put
the slips into a bowl and then drew lots. The first designated numbers of subjects
are placed in one group and the rest are assigned under another group.
 A random table may be used to facilitate the randomization process. In this
method blindfolds the subjects to chose a number from a table of numbers
horizontally (row) or vertically (column), till a requisite number is reached for
both the experimental & control group.
 Computer assisted random sequences also may be used for the random
assignment of the subjects.

SYMBOLIC PRESENTATION OF RANDOM NUMBERS

EXAMPLE OF RANDOMIZATION PROCEDURE

NAME NUMBER GROUP

RAMU 1 I

BABU 2 II

SOMU 3 II

SIMBU 4 II

ACHU 5 I

BUJJU 6 II

KICHU 7 I

SACHU 8 I
TYPES OF TRUE EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS
1. POST TEST ONLY DESIGN.
2. PRETEST-POST-TEST-ONLY DESIGN.
3. SOLOMOM FOUR GROUP DESIGN.
4. FACTORIAL DESIGN.
5. RANDOMIZED BLOCK DESIGN.
6. CROSS OVER DESIGN.
POST TEST ONLY CONTROL DESIGN:
• Is composed of two randomly assigned group - experimental & control groups.
• Both the groups are not tested previous to the introduction of an intervention.
• While treatment is implemented on the experimental group only, post test
observations are made on both the groups.
• This design is helpful in situations where it is not possible to pre teat the subjects.
• E.g., A study on educational intervention related to contraception among couples.

PRE TEST-POST TEST-ONLY DEIGN :

• In this design, subjects are randomly assigned to either the experimental or control
group.

• The effect of the dependent variable on both the groups is seen before the treatment
(pre test).

• Following this the treatment is carried out on experimental group only.

• After treatment observation of dependent variable is made on both the groups to

examine the effect of the manipulation of independent variable on dependent variable.

SOLOMON FOUR GROUP DESIGN

• There are two experimental and two control group.(control group - I & II) (Exp group- I
&II).

• Initially the researcher randomly assigns subjects to the four groups.

• Out of four groups, only exp grp I & control grp I receives the pre test followed by the
treatment to the experimental grp I & II.
• Finally all the four groups receive post test, where the effects of the dependent
variables of the study are observed and comparison is made of the four groups to assess
the effect of independent variable (experimental variable) on the dependent variable.

• The experimental group II is observed at one occasion.

• To estimate the amount of change in experimental & control group II the average test
scores of experimental & control groups I are used as baseline.

• The solomon four group design is considered to be most prestigious experimental

research design, because it minimizes the threat to internal and external validity.

• The test effectively presents the reactive effects of the pre test.

• Any difference between the experimental and control group can be more confidently
attributed to the experimental treatment.

• The disadvantage of this design is that it requires a large sample and statistical analysis,
and therefore not commonly used in health care researches.

FACTORIAL DESIGN

• Here the researcher manipulates two or more independent variables simultaneously to

observe their effects on the dependent variables.

• This design is particularly useful when there are more than two independent variables
to be tested.

• E.g., researcher wants to test the efficacy of two different medication.

• The design facilitates the testing of several hypotheses at a single time.

• Typically factorial design incorporates 2x2 or 2x3 factorial. (it can be any combination).

• The first number (alpha - A) refers to the independent variables or the types of
experimental treatments and the second number (beta -B) refers to the level or
frequency of the treatment.
 FACTORIAL DESIGN

RANDOMIZED BLOCK DESIGN:

FREQUENCY OF PROTOCOLS OF PROTOCOLS OF

TREATMENT TREATMENT TREATMENT
ALPHA (I) BETA (II)
(DRUG I) (DRUG II)
4 hourly (B1) A1 B1 A2 B1
6 hourly (B2) A1 B2 A2 B2
8 hourly (B3) A1 B3 A2 B3

 Randomized block design is used when the researcher desires to bring

homogeneity among selected groups.
 This is a simple method to reduce the variability among the treatment
groups by a more homogenous combination of the subjects through
randomized block design.
 For example if the researcher wants to test the efficacy of three different
medications in reducing hypertension, to ensure homogeneity among
subjects under treatment, researcher randomly places the subjects in
homogenous groups (blocks).
 like patients with hypertension, diabetic patients with hypertension
and hypertensive patients with heart diseases.
 The design looks similar to that of factorial design in structure, but out of
two factors one factor is not experimentally manipulated.

RANDOMIZED BLOCK DESIGN

TYPE OF BLOCKS BLOCKS BLOCKS
HYPERTENSIVE
DRUG
PATIENT WITH DIABETICPATIENT PATIENT WITH
HYPERTENSION WITH HEART DISEASE
(I) HYPERTENSION AND
(II) HYPERTENSION
(III)

A A,1 A, I A, III

B B,1 B, I B, II

C C,1 C, I C, III
 CROSS OVER DESIGN :
 In cross over design the study subjects are exposed to more than
one treatment.
 It is also known as “repeat measure design”.
 This design is more efficient in establishing the highest possible similarity among
subjects exposed to different conditions where groups compared obviously have
equal distribution of characteristics.
 Some times this design is not effective because, when subjects are exposed to two
different conditions, their responses of the second condition may be influenced by
their experience in the first condition.

CROSS OVER DESIGN

GROUPS TREATMENT TREATMENT

PROTOCOL PROTOCOL

GROUP I TREATMENT I TREATMENT II

GROUP II TREATMENT II TREATMENT I

ADVANTAGES OF TRUE EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN :

 Most powerful design to establish the causal relationship between

independent and dependent variable.
 Since the study is conducted under controlled environment, it can
yield a greater degree of purity in observation.
 Conditions that are not found in natural setting can be created in experimental
setting in a short period of time that may take years to naturally occur (therefore
very useful in genetic studies).
 Because the experiment is carried out in experimental setting the problems of real
life situations and the personal problems of the researcher is eliminated.

DISADVANTAGES OF TRUE EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN:

 Most often the results of experimental designs cannot be replicated in studies

conducted on humans due to ethical problems.
 Many of the human variables neither have valid measurable criteria nor
instruments to measure them.
  In experimental studies conducted in natural settings like a hospital or community,
it is not possible to impose control over extraneous variables.
 Experiments are often more impractical when the effect of independent variable
may require a lengthy period of time before it can emerge as a response on the
criterion measures.
 It is very difficult to obtain permission from the participants.
 Because the size of the sample is kept small especially studies involving humans,
the representativeness of the findings of such study is questionable.
 Though theoretically experimental designs can yields a greater insights , yet
practically many a times they are not possible in human studies as humans & their
parameters are complex.

3. Co relational Research Design: Co relational research is a non-experimental research design

technique which helps researchers to establish a relationship between two closely connected
variables. Two different groups are required to conduct this research design method. There is
no assumption while evaluating a relationship between two different variables and statistical
analysis techniques are used to calculate the relationship between them.
Correlation between two variables is concluded using a correlation coefficient, whose value
ranges between -1 and +1. If the correlation coefficient is towards +1, it indicates a positive
relationship between the variables and -1 indicates a negative relationship between the two
variables.
4. Diagnostic Research Design: In the diagnostic research design, a researcher is inclined
towards evaluating the root cause of a specific topic. Elements that contribute towards a
troublesome situation are evaluated in this research design method. There are three parts of
diagnostic research design:
• Inception of the issue
• Diagnosis of the issue
• Solution for the issue
5.Explanatory Research Design: In exploratory research design, the researcher’s ideas and
thoughts are key as it is primarily dependent on their personal inclination about a particular
topic. Explanation about unexplored aspects of a subject is provided along with details about
what, how and why related to the research questions.
“Exploratory Research Design”..

Exploratory research begins on the basis of a general idea and the outcomes of the research are
used to find out related issues with the topic of the research, which can be used for future
research on the same topic.
In exploratory research, the process of the research varies according to the finding of new data
or insight.
Exploratory research is conducted in the beginning phase of the problem.
The outcomes of this research provide answers to questions like what, how, and why.
Therefore, it is also referred to as interpretive research or a grounded theory approach.
For Example, take an example of an ice cream parlor.
The owner of the ice-cream parlor feels that if he introduced more flavors of ice-creams in his
ice-cream parlor it will enable him to get a greater number of customers.
• To find out this, he carries out exploratory research to determine that expanding the
range of flavors of ice-creams will get him more customers or if there is any other
better idea.
let us use one more example to understand exploratory research better.
An XYZ website, which provides paid online courses conducts a survey to find out how they can
increase the number of users for their newly introduced course.
• For this, they take feedback from their existing users as well as from other potential
users.
The data collected from the feedback can be used to find out what can be done to increase the
number of users who take their course.

Characteristics of Exploratory Research..

• Exploratory research is inexpensive, interactive, unrestricted, and

open-ended in nature.
• It is an unstructured type of research.
• No pre-research is conducted to support exploratory research and even there is
no prior information available on the problem from the past researcher.
• It enables a researcher to answer all questions like why, how, and what.
Therefore, it helps a researcher to know about the purpose of the research.
• All the available material should be studied in detail.
• It consumes a lot of time to conduct exploratory research and it might
sometimes lead to disappointments.
• There is no standard format to carry out exploratory research. It is
• flexible, scattered, and broad in nature.
• There must a few theories which can verify your outcome.
• Make sure the problem you are going to conduct research about should have
importance and value.
• Most of the time you will get qualitative data as an outcome of this
research.
5 Steps to conduct an Exploratory Research….
Here, we discuss 5 steps to conduct exploratory research.
1) Identify the problem
Find out the problem that you want to address.
2) Build your hypothesis
Build your hypothesis, it will provide a direction to your research. Later you can refute or
prove the hypothesis on the basis of the outcome of your study.
3) Choose your method of research
You can use one or more than one method (described ahead) to conduct your research.
4) Conduct the Research
Spend a good time to explore different sources and make sure you are not missing an
aspect of the research.
5) Analyze the results
There are many methods for analysis of data. Using those methods, you can come down to
the result of your hypothesis and prove it right or wrong.

Methodologies and Types of Exploratory Research…

There are two methods such as primary and secondary to conduct exploratory research. There
are various methods under these categories to conduct exploratory research. The data
collected by conducting this research can be qualitative or quantitative. Followings are the
frequently used research designs.
1) Primary Research Method:
In this research, information is directly gathered from the subject. The information can be
collected from a group or an individual. A researcher can either use a third party to conduct
research for him or he can himself conduct the research. The purpose of conducting this
research is to collect information about the problem which requires in-depth analysis.
1-a) Interviews
You can collect in-depth information on the subject using the in-person interview technique.
This research will provide you qualitative data. If you can get an interview with a person who is
an expert in that subject can help you to gather a lot of useful data.
Usually, open-ended questions are asked in interviews and interviews can be conducted in-
person as well as on the telephone. For example, you interview a loyal customer of your
company to know about their experience with your company.

1-b) Surveys/Polls
This method is used to collect data from a predefined group of participants. Data collected from
this method is quantitative in nature. A variety of polls and survey can be conducted to explore
trends, opinions of people. Surveys can be conducted both online as well as offline. With the
advancement of technology, it has become easy to conduct a survey.
You can use audience worldwide to respond to your survey. In this way, you can get opinions of
a diverse audience. In addition to this, you can collect get in real time. Response rate can be
increased by providing rewards to respondents. For example, a survey can be conducted about
the price range of mobile phones that most people usually buy within.

1-c) Observational method

In this type of exploratory research, the researcher does not make direct contact with the
subject. There
are two types of observational study.
• The subject is aware that he is being observed.
• The Subject has no idea about the research.
There is a high chance that you will get fair data by opting the second method. However, it can
be difficult to conduct. This research can provide both types of data qualitative or quantitative.
For example, an ice-cream company wants to know which size of ice-cream people usually
prefer when they buy ice-cream.
1-D) Focus Group
This method is very frequently used by a market researcher to find out the answers to their
questions. to conduct this study, a group of people is chosen and they are asked to express
their views on the subject of the study.
However, you should make sure the people that you are choosing for the discussion have the
same background and sort for similar experiences. For example, a focus group can help you to
get insights on what people usually think about before buying a mobile phones.

2) Secondary Research method…

Secondary research uses the existing resources on the subject under study. To conduct this
research you conduct information from resources like newspapers, books, articles, magazines,
and case studies etc.
2-a) Literature Research
This type of research is most inexpensive exploratory research. You can make the use of the
abundance of information available in libraries, online sources (such as discussion forum,
websites, and blogs), Government and commercial databases.
You can get information from resources like newspapers, articles, documents from the
government, published statistics, annual reports, specific topic related articles etc. however,
you can’t rely on information gathered from all types of resources blindly.
Documents from government agencies can be valid but they can cost you some amount of
money. You can also get useful data from educational institutes. For example, a company
conducts exploratory research using literature before introducing a new product in the market.
this research will help them to understand the trends in the current market.

2-b) Online Research

This type of research is the fastest and easiest way to collect data. You can conduct this
research at the comfort of your home or office on your laptop or mobile phone. There is
an abundance of data available online. A user can download it and use it whenever he
wants to.
However, one should make sure the authenticity and genuineness of the online sources before
using its information in your study. For example, you can easily find out the leading features
preferred by people while buying a camera. You can simply enter a query in a search engine
and can get thousands of links to websites which provide similar information.
2-c) Case Study Research
Using this research, a researcher can find out information on the problem by studying the
existing cases that have gone through a similar problem as yours.
This method is useful and critical especially in the world of business. but it is important for a
researcher to analyze all variables of the existing case to use in his research. This method is
preferred by health organizations and social science sectors to conduct research. For
example, Doctors using the cases performed by a successful doctor to improve their own
practice.
The above was all the information about Exploratory research. Hope the article helps you in
conducting any exploratory research that you have to.

Examples of Exploratory Research Design…

The following are some examples for studies with exploratory research design in business
studies:
• A study into the role of social networking sites as an effective marketing
communication channel.
• An investigation into the ways of improvement of quality of customer services
within hospitality sector in India.
An assessment of the role of corporate social responsibility on consumer behavior in
pharmaceutical industry in the India.

Importance of Exploratory Research…..

• Exploratory research helps a researcher to build understanding about the
problem of the research. The purpose of conducting this research is to
explore the problem and areas around it and not to reach a conclusion.
• This type of research helps a researcher to establish a strong foundation for his
research and to choose correct research design and variables which are important for
the analysis. Exploratory research helps a researcher to save time and resources along
with the usefulness of conducting research further.

Advantages of Exploratory Research

• Flexibility.
• Inexpensive.
• Get you better insights on the problem.
• A researcher can decide at an early stage whether to pursue or not pursue the
research.
Disadvantages of Exploratory Research
• In conclusive in nature
• This research provides qualitative data which can be biased and judgmental.
• Outcomes can’t be generalized, because this type of research is usually
conducted on small samples.
• There are chances that data obtained from secondary resources is obsolete and
old.

Component of Research Design:

1. Title of the Study : Brief and Generalized, Clear, Specify and Justify.
Example: “An Analysis of Consumer Behaviors towards Online Shopping of Electronic
Goods With special reference to Bhopal and Jabalpur city”
2. Problem Statement: Descriptive, Exploratory, Theoretical etc… Origin of research
problem.
3. Review of Previous Studies : Reviewed critically. Refer good library, Indexing Journals,
Published and unpublished Bibliography, Conference and Seminar proceedings, Govt.
reports, earlier studies.
4. Definition of Concepts Involved: Concepts, Theory, Principles define in simple and
general terms.
5. Scope of Study : Geographical, Temporal, Functional and Dimensional.
6. Objectives of Study: Form of Questions or Explanation related subject.
The objectives should start with words such as…
‘To determine’, ‘To find out‘, ‘To measure',‘To explore’ etc…..
7. Formulation of Hypothesis: Specific, Empirical, Conceptually clear related theory.
Example:
1."Do flexible work hours improve employee productivity….?"
Another question might be:
2. "How do flexible hours influence employees' work?"
3. "There is a positive relationship between the availability of flexible
work hours and employee productivity."
8. Methodology of the Research :
(i) Period of study (ii) Area of study (iii) Variables (Dependent/ Independent) (iv) Source
of data (v) Techniques of analysis
9. Limitations of Study: Like area, year, data and techniques etc. related
limitations…
10. Time Schedule : One year or Two year (Year wise plan of work and target to be
achieved)
1. Interpretation and Results: To build a theory, Real value of research, Explain findings.
 2. Report Writing: Introduction, Summary, Main Report,Conclution including
Bibliography in standard format.
11. Budget : Resources like… Funding Agency Financial Assistance Required,

means….. Estimated Expenditure item wise

like… Books and Journals, Equipments, Field work and Travel,Chemical and glassware,
Contingency including special needs expenses

Characteristic Features of a Good Research Design:

(a) Objectivity
(b) Reliability
(c) Validity
(d) Generalisability
(e) Selection of Research Problem
(f) Selection of Units of Analysis
(g) Choice of Variable
(h) Identification of Relationship
(g) Ethical

Why Research Design Important:

1. Helpful to conclude solution of problem.
2. Reduce wastage of time.
3. Reduce uncertainty, confusion, related to any problem.
4. Great help for collection of research material and testing of hypothesis.
5. It is guide for giving research the right path.

6. Get rid of bias and marginal errors.

7. Provide an idea concerning the type of resources needed in terms of money, efforts, time
and manpower.

8. Maximizes reliability of results.

“Research Process”:
Research process contains a series of closely related activities which has to carry out by a
researcher. Research process requires patients. There is no measure that shows your research
is the best. It is an art rather than a science.
Following are the main steps in social or business research process.

Step 1: Identify the Problem

The first step in the process is to identify a problem or develop a research question. The
research problem may be something the agency identifies as a problem, some knowledge or
information that is needed by the agency, or the desire to identify a recreation trend nationally.
In the example in table 2.4, the problem that the agency has identified is childhood obesity,
which is a local problem and concern within the community. This serves as the focus of the
study.
Step 2: Review the Literature
Now that the problem has been identified, the researcher must learn more about the topic
under investigation. To do this, the researcher must review the literature related to the
research problem. This step provides foundational knowledge about the problem area. The
review of literature also educates the researcher about what studies have been conducted in
the past, how these studies were conducted, and the conclusions in the problem area. In the
obesity study, the review of literature enables the programmer to discover horrifying statistics
related to the long-term effects of childhood obesity in terms of health issues, death rates, and
projected medical costs. In addition, the programmer finds several articles and information
from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention that describe the benefits of walking
10,000 steps a day. The information discovered during this step helps the programmer fully
understand the magnitude of the problem, recognize the future consequences of obesity, and
identify a strategy to combat obesity (i.e., walking).
Step 3: Clarify the Problem
Many times the initial problem identified in the first step of the process is too large or broad in
scope. In step 3 of the process, the researcher clarifies the problem and narrows the scope of
the study. This can only be done after the literature has been reviewed. The knowledge gained
through the review of literature guides the researcher in clarifying and narrowing the research
project. In the example, the programmer has identified childhood obesity as the problem and
the purpose of the study. This topic is very broad and could be studied based on genetics,
family environment, diet, exercise, self-confidence, leisure activities, or health issues. All of
these areas cannot be investigated in a single study; therefore, the problem and purpose of the
study must be more clearly defined. The programmer has decided that the purpose of the study
is to determine if walking 10,000 steps a day for three days a week will improve the individual's
health. This purpose is more narrowly focused and researchable than the original problem.
Step 4: Clearly Define Terms and Concepts
Terms and concepts are words or phrases used in the purpose statement of the study or the
description of the study. These items need to be specifically defined as they apply to the study.
Terms or concepts often have different definitions depending on who is reading the study. To
minimize confusion about what the terms and phrases mean, the researcher must specifically
define them for the study. In the obesity study, the concept of “individual's health” can be
defined in hundreds of ways, such as physical, mental, emotional, or spiritual health. For this
study, the individual's health is defined as physical health. The concept of physical health may
also be defined and measured in many ways. In this case, the programmer decides to more
narrowly define “individual health” to refer to the areas of weight, percentage of body fat, and
cholesterol. By defining the terms or concepts more narrowly, the scope of the study is more
manageable for the programmer, making it easier to collect the necessary data for the study.
This also makes the concepts more understandable to the reader.
Step 5: Define the Population
Research projects can focus on a specific group of people, facilities, park development,
employee evaluations, programs, financial status, marketing efforts, or the integration of
technology into the operations. For example, if a researcher wants to examine a specific group
of people in the community, the study could examine a specific age group, males or females,
people living in a specific geographic area, or a specific ethnic group. Literally thousands of
options are available to the researcher to specifically identify the group to study. The research
problem and the purpose of the study assist the researcher in identifying the group to involve
in the study. In research terms, the group to involve in the study is always called the
population. Defining the population assists the researcher in several ways. First, it narrows the
scope of the study from a very large population to one that is manageable. Second, the
population identifies the group that the researcher's efforts will be focused on within the study.
This helps ensure that the researcher stays on the right path during the study. Finally, by
defining the population, the researcher identifies the group that the results will apply to at the
conclusion of the study. In the example in table 2.4, the programmer has identified the
population of the study as children ages 10 to 12 years. This narrower population makes the
study more manageable in terms of time and resources.
Step 6: Develop the Instrumentation Plan
The plan for the study is referred to as the instrumentation plan. The instrumentation plan
serves as the road map for the entire study, specifying who will participate in the study; how,
when, and where data will be collected; and the content of the program. This plan is composed
of numerous decisions and considerations that are addressed in chapter 8 of this text. In the
obesity study, the researcher has decided to have the children participate in a walking program
for six months. The group of participants is called the sample, which is a smaller group selected
from the population specified for the study. The study cannot possibly include every 10- to 12-
year-old child in the community, so a smaller group is used to represent the population. The
researcher develops the plan for the walking program, indicating what data will be collected,
when and how the data will be collected, who will collect the data, and how the data will be
analyzed. The instrumentation plan specifies all the steps that must be completed for the study.
This ensures that the programmer has carefully thought through all these decisions and that
she provides a step-by-step plan to be followed in the study.
Step 7: Collect Data
Once the instrumentation plan is completed, the actual study begins with the collection of data.
The collection of data is a critical step in providing the information needed to answer the
research question. Every study includes the collection of some type of data—whether it is from
the literature or from subjects—to answer the research question. Data can be collected in the
form of words on a survey, with a questionnaire, through observations, or from the literature.
In the obesity study, the programmers will be collecting data on the defined variables: weight,
percentage of body fat, cholesterol levels, and the number of days the person walked a total of
10,000 steps during the class.
The researcher collects these data at the first session and at the last session of the program.
These two sets of data are necessary to determine the effect of the walking program on weight,
body fat, and cholesterol level. Once the data are collected on the variables, the researcher is
ready to move to the final step of the process, which is the data analysis.
Step 8: Analyze the Data
All the time, effort, and resources dedicated to steps 1 through 7 of the research process
culminate in this final step. The researcher finally has data to analyze so that the research
question can be answered. In the instrumentation plan, the researcher specified how the data
will be analyzed. The researcher now analyzes the data according to the plan. The results of this
analysis are then reviewed and summarized in a manner directly related to the research
questions. In the obesity study, the researcher compares the measurements of weight,
percentage of body fat, and cholesterol that were taken at the first meeting of the subjects to
the measurements of the same variables at the final program session. These two sets of data
will be analyzed to determine if there was a difference between the first measurement and the
second measurement for each individual in the program. Then, the data will be analyzed to
determine if the differences are statistically significant. If the differences are statistically
significant, the study validates the theory that was the focus of the study. The results of the
study also provide valuable information about one strategy to combat childhood obesity in the
community.
As you have probably concluded, conducting studies using the eight steps of the scientific
research process requires you to dedicate time and effort to the planning process. You cannot
conduct a study using the scientific research process when time is limited or the study is done
at the last minute. Researchers who do this conduct studies that result in either false
conclusions or conclusions that are not of any value to the organization.
Types of Variables :

Variable : Any characteristic which is subject to change and can have more than one value
such as age, intelligence, motivation, gender, etc.

• Dependent Variable:

Variable affected by the independent variable. It responds to the independent

variable.

 Independent Variable:
Variable that is presumed to influence other variable. It is the presumed cause, whereas
the dependent variable is the presumed effect.

Example 1
You are interested in …
“How stress affects mental state of human beings?”
Independent variable ---- Stress
Dependent variable ---- mental state of human beings

You can directly manipulate stress levels in your human subjects and measure how
those stress levels change mental state.
 Example 2
Promotion affects employees’ motivation
Independent variable ----- Promotion
Dependent variable ----Employees motivation

Other Names for Dependent and Independent Variables

Dependent Variable
Explained,Predictand, Regressand,Response,Outcome,Controlled

Independent Variable
Explanatory,Predictor, Regressor, Stimulus, Covariate, Control

 Intervening/Mediating Variable
It is a variable whose existence is inferred but it cannot be measured.

Example 1
o Determining the effect of video clips on learning ability of students of M.B.A.
o The association between video clips and learning ability
needs to be explained.
o Other variables intervene Such as anxiety, fatigue, motivation, improper diet,
etc.

It is caused by the independent variable and is itself a cause of the dependent variable.

Example 2
Higher education typically leads to higher income
• Higher education --- independent variable
• Higher income --- dependent variable
• Better occupation --- intervening variable
It is causally affected by education and itself affects income.

 Organismic Variable
Any characteristic of the research participant/individual under study that can be used
for classification.
Such as personal characteristics of gender, height, weight, age, etc. in
behavioral sciences.

 Control/Constant variable
It is variable that is NOT allowed to be changed unpredictably during an experiment.
As they are ideally expected to remain the same, they are also called C O N S T A N T V
ARIABLE
 Example

An example of a constant variable is the voltage from a power supply.

If you are examining “How electricity affects experimental subjects” you should keep
the voltage constant, otherwise the energy supplied will change as the voltage will be
changed.
 Interval Variable
Interval variables have a numerical value
These have order and equal intervals.
They allow not only to rank order the items that are measured but also to
quantify and compare the magnitudes of differences between them.

Example
Suppose you have a variable such as monthly income that is measured in rupees, and
we have three people who make
 Rs. 10,000
 Rs. 15,000 and
 Rs. 20,000
 Ratio Variable
A ratio variable is similar to an interval variable with one difference: the ratio makes
sense.

Example
Let’s say respondents were being surveyed about their stress levels on a scale of 0-10.
A respondent with a stress level of 10 should have twice the stress experienced as a
respondent who selected a stress level of 5.
Age, height, and weight are also good examples of ratio variables. Someone who is 6’.0”
tall is twice as tall as someone who is 3’.0” tall.

 Nominal/Categorical Variable
They can be measured only in terms of whether the
individual items belong to certain distinct categories
We cannot quantify or even rank/order the categories:
Nominal data has no order
One cannot performarithmetic (+, -, /, *)or logical operations (>, <, =) on the
nominal data.

Example
Gender: (Dichotomous Variable) Male ,Female.
Marital Status: Unmarried, Married, Divorcee, Widower .
 Ordinal Variable
An ordinal variable is a nominal variable, but its different states are ordered in a
meaningful sequence.
Ordinal data has order but the intervals between scale points may be uneven.
Because of lack of equal distances, arithmetic operations are impossible, but logical
operations can be performed on the ordinal data.
A typical example of an ordinal variable is the socio-economic status of families.
We know 'upper middle' is higher than 'middle' but we cannot say 'how much
higher'.

Example
A questionnaire on the time involvement of scientists in the 'perception and
identification of research problems'.
The respondents were asked to indicate their involvement by selecting one of the
following codes:
1 = Very low or nil 2 = Low
3 = Medium
4 = Great
5 = Very great
Here, the variable 'Time Involvement' is an ordinal variable with 5 states.

 Dummy Variable
A qualitative variable can be transformed into quantitative variable(s), called dummy
variable.
Description
Gender
Variable
gender
Code f- female m-male

 Preference Variable
Preference variables are specific discrete variables whose values are either in a
decreasing or increasing order.
For example,
In a survey, a respondent may be asked to indicate the importance of the following
FIVE sources of information in his research and development work, by using the code
[1] for the most important source and [5] for the least important source:

 Multiple Response Variable

Multiple response variables are those which can assume more than one value
 Example
A typical example is a survey questionnaire about the use of computers in
research.
The respondents were asked to indicate the purpose(s) for which they use
computers in their research work. The respondents could score more than one
category.
1. Statistical analysis
2. Lab automation/ process control
3. Data base management, storage and retrieval
4. Modeling and simulation
5. Scientific and engineering calculations
6. Computer aided design (CAD)

 Extraneous Variable
Extraneous variables are undesirable variables that influence the relationship
between the variables an experimenter is examining.

Example
An educational psychologist has developed a new learning strategy and is
interested in examining the effectiveness of this strategy.
The experimenter randomly assigns students into two groups. All of the students
study text materials on a biology topic for thirty minutes. One group uses the new
strategy and the other uses a strategy of their choice.
Then all students complete a test over the materials. Extraneous variable ---
pre-knowledge of the biology topic.

 Validity & Reliability

Validity :
Validity is the extent to which a test measures, what it is supposed to measure.
The question of validity is raised in the context of the three points:
The form of the test,
The purpose of the test and
The population for whom it is intended.

 Ty p e s o f Validity
1. External Validity:
External validity occurs when the causal relationship discovered can be generalized
to other people, time and contexts.
Correct sampling will allow generalization and hence give external validity.

2. Internal validity:
Internal validity occurs when it can be concluded that there is a causal relationship
between the variables being studied.
It is related to the design of the experiment.
 3. Content Validity:
When we want to find out if the entire content of the behavior/construct/area is
represented in the test we compare the test task with the content of the behavior.
This is a logical method, not an empirical one.
Example, if we want to test knowledge on American Geography it is not fair to have
most questions limited to the geography of New England.

4. Face Validity:
Face validity occurs where something appears to be valid. This depends very much
on the judgment of the observer.

5. Test Validity:
a) Criterion: Correlation with the standards.
b) Predictive: Predicts future values of criterion.
c) Concurrent: Correlates with other test.

6. Construct Validity:
Construct validity accurately represent reality.
a) Convergent: Simultaneous measure of same construct correlate.
b) Discriminant: Doesn’t measure what it shouldn’t.

FACTORS AFFECTING VALIDITY:

 Environmental factors: Some environmental factors such as room temperature, lighting
and noice can influence the error rate.
 Research factors: The researcher can influence the results of the study in many ways.
 Instrumentation factors: An inadequate sampling of items is the other common source
of instrumentation errors.
 Subject factors: Any changing physical, emotional or psychological state of the subject
could introduce error into the measurement process.

Reliability:
Reliability is the degree to which a test consistently measures
whatever it measures.
When a measurement procedure yields consistent scores when the phenomenon being
measured is not changing.
Degree to which scores are free of “Measurement Error. Consistency of the measurement.

Types of Reliability
1. Stability Reliability:
Test-retest:
Test-retest reliability is the degree to which scores are consistent over time. It indicates
score variation that occurs from testing session to testing session as a result of errors of
measurement.
Same test- different Times
Only works if phenomenon is unchanging
Example: Administering the same questionnaire at 2 different times

2. Equivalence Reliability:
a) Inter-item reliability: (internal consistency)
The association of answers to set of questions designed to measure the same concept
Cronbach’s alpha is a statistic commonly used to measure inter-item reliability which is
based on the average of all the possible correlations of all the split 1/2 s of set of
questions on a questionnaire.

b) Parallel form of Reliability

Split-Half Reliability:
Especially appropriate when the test is very long. The most commonly used method to
split the test into two is using the odd-even strategy.
Since longer tests tend to be more reliable, and since split-half reliability represents the
reliability of a test only half as long as the actual test.
C) Inter observer Reliability:
Correspondence between measures made by different observers.

FACTORS INFLUENCING RELIABILITY

 Time interval between testing: testing with shorter intervals resulting in the higher
reliability coefficient
 Condition under which measure: Favorable conditions will give high reliability
coefficient
 Length of test: The longer the test, higher the reliability due to the fact that longer test
will provide more adequate sample of the behavior being measured
 Difficulty of the test: tests that are too easy or too difficult for the group members
taking it will tend to provide score of low reliability

Relationship between Validity & Reliability

 Necessary but not sufficient.
 Reliability is prerequisite for measurement of validity.
 One needs reliability but it is not enough.

M e a s u r e m e n t s a n d S o u r c e s of E r r o r s:
Measurement:
Measurement is the process of determining or finding the size, quantity or degree of
something .
The principle dimensional measurement is length; secondary measurement is angle and
curvature. You can describe shape without describing size, but not the reverse.
Length :Meter - m
Measurement Methods

Methods of measurement:

1.Direct method. compare the quantity directly with the primary or secondary standard.

Measuring Instruments Types

1. Angle measuring Instruments: e.g. Angle gauges; Divided scales; Sine bar with slip
gauges; Autocollimator; and Tool Maker Microscope.
2. Length measuring Instruments: ex: Steel rule; Caliper; Micrometer; and comparators.
3. Instruments for surface finish: surface roughness measurements.
4. Instruments for deviations: Coordinate
Measuring Machine (CMM).
Measurements Errors
Is the difference between the true value of the size and the value found by measurement.

Errors pertains to measurement not to an instrument.

Error = True Size – Actual Size

True Size: is the theoretical size obtained through measurement. This type of size is free from
any type of error. It is the guide for measuring many properties such as accuracy of an
instrument.

Actual Size: is a measured size with permissible error. It refers to the minimum acceptable size
of a sample.

There are two general categories of error:

systematic (or bias) errors and random (or precision) errors.

Systematic errors (also called bias errors)

They are consistent, repeatable errors. For example, suppose the first two millimeters of a
ruler are worn off, and the user is not aware of it. Everything he or she measures will be too
short by two millimeters – a systematic error.

Systematic Errors Sources

Systematic errors arise for many reasons. Here are just a few:
Calibration Errors: due to nonlinearity or errors in the calibration method.
Loading or Intrusion Errors: the sensor may actually change the very thing it is trying to
measure.
Spatial Errors: arise when a quantity varies in space, but a measurement is taken only at one
location (e.g. temperature in a room - usually the top of a room is warmer than the bottom).
Human Errors: arise if a person consistently reads a scale on the low side, for example.
Defective Equipment Errors: arise if the instrument consistently reads too high or too low due
to some internal problem or damage.

Random Errors
They are unrepeatable, inconsistent errors, resulting in scatter in the output data.
The random error of one data point is defined as the reading minus the average of readings.

Other Sources of Errors

There are many other errors, which all have technical names, as defined here:
Zero Error: The instrument does not read zero when the input is zero. Zero error is a type of
bias error that offsets all measurements taken by the instrument, but can usually be corrected
by some kind of zero offset adjustment.
Linearity Error: The output deviates from the calibrated linear relationship between the input
and the output. Linearity error is a type of bias error, but unlike zero error, the degree of error
varies with the magnitude of the reading.
Sensitivity Error: The slope of the output vs. input curve is not calibrated exactly in the first
place. Since this affects all readings by the instrument, this is a type of systematic or bias error.
Resolution Error: The output precision is limited to discrete steps (e.g., if one reads to the
nearest millimeter on a ruler, the resolution error is around +/-1mm). Resolution error is a type
of random or precision error.
Environmental factors: Be aware of errors introduced by your immediate
working environment. You may need to take account for or protect your experiment
from vibrations, drafts, changes in temperature, electronic noise or other effects from nearby
apparatus.
Reading Error: describes such factors as parallax, interpolation, or optical resolution.
Loading Error: results from the change of the measurement instrument when it is being used.
Effect of support.
Dirt.
Errors due to Vibrations.
Metallurgical Effects.
Contact Point Penetration.
Errors due to Deflection.
Errors due to Looseness.
Errors due to Wear in Gauges.
Errors due to Location.
Errors due to Poor Contact.
Errors due to Impression of Measuring Stylus.
UNIT III
“HYPOTHESIS”..
One of the most important considerations when beginning your research work and formulating
the research problem is constructing the hypothesis. Generally, hypothesis provides clarity so
that you cafocus on a research problem. However, this is not essential for a study or research
work. A researcher can conduct a valid investigation without constructing a hypothesis.
However, it is always good to construct a hypothesis as it will help to narrow down your focus
of research. The significance of a hypothesis lies in its ability to bring direction and specificity to
your research work. To explore better, let us see an example. Let’s say you are conducting a
research in the area of Web Services for business applications. Your programming impression is
that interoperability and user-friendly platforms result in multiple supports using Web Services.
You may want to find out why such a condition is needed in business applications. Therefore, by
narrowing the choices, based on your knowledge in the field, you design a study based on your
hunch and curiosity. This leads to some hypotheses made to find the cause of the condition.

DEFINITION OF A HYPOTHESIS:

As a researcher, we never know the outcome prior to the research work but we will have
certain assumptions on how the end results will be. Based on our hunch and curiosity, we will
test it by collecting information that will enable us to conclude whether our assumptions are
right. Assumption based on curiosity or a hunch is a hypothesis or an idea about a situation,
phenomenon or relationship that we do not know. Researchers call these factors hypotheses
and they become the basis of an inquiry.

Definition by Bailey (1978) A hypothesis is a proposition in testable form and predicts a

particular relationship between two or more variables. If a researcher thinks that a relationship
exists, he should first state it as a hypothesis and then test the hypothesis in the field.

Definition by Grinnell (1988) Hypothesis is written in such a way that it can be proven or
disproven by valid and reliable data. From these definitions, we can see that a hypothesis is
based on a tentative proposition and its validity is unknown. We will explore the functions of a
hypothesis in the next section.

THE FUNCTIONS OF A HYPOTHESIS:

A hypothesis has several functions:

 Enhance the objectivity and purpose of a research work;

 Provide a research with focus and tells a researcher the specific scope of a research
problem to
 investigate;
 Help a researcher in prioritising data collection, hence providing focus on the study; and
 Enable the formulation of theory for a researcher to specifically conclude what is true
and what is not.

CHARACTERISTICS OF HYPOTHESIS :
There are number of considerations to keep in mind while constructing hypothesis, as
they are important for verification.
• The most important condition for a valid hypothesis is that it should be
empirically verified.
• A hypothesis ultimately has to confirm or refuge, otherwise, it will remain more
supposition I.e. it must be capable empirically tested under the condition of
available technique.
• Hypothesis should be simple, specific, and conceptually clear.
• It is desirable that hypothesis is selected must be in continuation with the theory
already involved I.e. the hypothesis selected should be related to the body of a
theory.
• Hypothesis should be capable of verification.
• It should be related to the body of knowledge.
• Hypothesis should be operation able.
• It should be testable within reasonable time and allowed to be refutable.
• It should be non contradictory one.
• Hypothesis should be logically simple in a way.

FUNCTIONS OF HYPOTHESIS :
While some researchers believe that to conduct a study requires a hypothesis, having a
hypothesis is not essential. However, a hypothesis is important in terms of bringing
clarity to the research problem. Specially, the functions of hypothesis are following:

• The formulation of a hypothesis provides a study with focus. It tells what

specific aspects of a research problem to investigate.
• A hypothesis tells what data to collect and what not to collect, thereby
providing focus to the study.
• As it provides a focus, the construction of a hypothesis enhances objectivity
in a study.
• A hypothesis may enable to add to the formulation of theory. It enables to
specifically conclude what is true or what is false.

Types of Hypotheses :

There are different types of hypotheses:

• Simple Hypothesis: This predicts the relationship between a single independent variable
(IV) and a single dependent variable (DV)
• Complex Hypothesis: This predicts the relationship between two or more independent
variables and two or more dependent variables.

• Directional Hypothesis: These are usually derived from theory. They may imply that
the researcher is intellectually committed to a particular outcome. They specify the
expected direction of the relationship between variables i.e. the researcher predicts not
only the existence of a relationship but also its nature.

• Non-directional Hypothesis: Used when there is little or no theory, or when findings of

previous studies are contradictory. They may imply impartiality. Do not stipulate the
direction of the relationship.

• Associative and Causal Hypotheses:

• Associative Hypotheses: Propose relationships between variables - when one variable
changes, the other changes. Do not indicate cause and effect.
• Causal Hypothesis: Propose a cause and effect interaction between two or more
variables. The independent variable is manipulated to cause effect on the dependent
variable. The dependent variable is measured to examine the effect created by the
independent variable.

• Null Hypotheses: These are used when the researcher believes there is no relationship
between two variables or when there is inadequate theoretical or empirical information
to state a research hypothesis ….
Any statistical hypothesis which is under test is usually a hypothesis of no difference and
is called Null Hypothesis.
According to Prof. R.A. Fisher, “Null hypothesis is the hypothesis which is tested for
possible rejection under the assumption that is true.”
In simple words, the null hypothesis asserts that there is no true difference in sample and
the population in the particular matter under consideration and difference found is
accidental or unimportant arising out of the fluctuations of sampling.
• Null Hypothesis denoted by H0.
Null hypotheses can be: simple or complex; associative or causal.
• Alternative Hypotheses:
Any hypothesis which is complementary to the null hypothesis is called as alternative
hypothesis as usually denoted by H1 .
The alternative hypothesis cannot be tested directly; it is accepted by exclusion if the
test of statistical significance rejects the null hypothesis.
TESTING OF HYPOTHESIS:

The process of testing of hypothesis is as:

Phase 1

Formulating assumption i.e. stating the research question. It is the first step in research
problem in which the researcher recognizes the population interest, related variables and
defining the parameters. Specify null and alternative hypothesis- The second step is specifying
the type of hypothesis. The null hypothesis is used for the population and alternative
hypothesis is use in terms of direction in case of greater or less.

Phase 2

Collect the required data i.e. calculating test statistics Another step is to calculate the statistic
view in analogous pattern by using the parameters of null hypothesis. In the fourth step, the
probability value is calculated which is examined as if the significant value is more than the null
hypothesis is not rejected and vice versa. Phase 3 Analysis data to draw conclusions about the
assumption i.e. true or false. The final step is the conclusion in which descriptions are made.
This step consists of two statements; first statement is about the null and alternative
hypothesis and second statement is about the proposed research questions while determining
the first statement.

In system of logic, J.S Mill advocated two means of arriving at logical conclusions in the testing
of hypothesis:

A. The method of agreement.

B. The negative canon of agreement. Mill mentioned that where lack or certain phenomena are
always or nearly always found with lack of other phenomena. It maybe concluded that there is
a casual relationship between them.

A Good Hypothesis Should……

• Hypothesis have logical consistency.
• Hypothesis should be testable.
• Hypothesis should be stated in clear and and precise.
• Hypothesis should be limited in scope and must be specific.
• Hypothesis should be stated in advance.
SIGNIFICANCE OF HYPOTHESIS:
Hypothesis has a very important and significant place in research although it occupies a very
small place in the body of a thesis. The aimless collection of a data is not likely to lead a
researcher anywhere. Significance of hypothesis can more specifically state as below:

• Hypothesis provides directions to the research.

• It defines what is relevant and hat is irrelevant.
• It sensitizes the investigator to certain aspects.
• It spells the difference between fruitful and fruitless reasons.
• It is guide to the thinking process.
• It place clear and specific goals before.
• It serves the functions linking together related facts and information and organizing
them into one comprehensible whole.
• Hypothesis further enables the researcher to clarify the procedures and methods to be
used.
• It serves as a framework for drawing conclusion. It makes possible the interpretation of
data or provisional guess.
Thus, Hypothesis provides the objectives for setting conclusion in a meaningful way.

TYPES OF DATA:
INTRODUCTION
o Data collection is a term used to describe a process of preparing and
collecting data.

o Systematic gathering of data for a particular purpose from various sources, that
has been systematically observed, recorded, organized.

o Data are the basic inputs to any decision making process in business.

PURPOSE OF DATA COLLECTION

The purpose of data collection is..
 to obtain information.
 to keep on record.
 to make decisions on about important issues,
 to pass information on to others.
CLASSIFICATION OF DATA
• TYPES
PRIMARY DATA
SECONDARY DATA

PRIMARY DATA:
• The data which are collected from the field under the control and supervision of
an investigator.
• Primary data means original data that has been collected specially for the
purpose in mind.
• This type of data are generally afresh and collected for the first time.
• It is useful for current studies as well as for future studies.
• For example: your own questionnaire.

Primary Research Methods & Techniques

Quantitative and Qualitative Information
o Quantitative: Based on numbers – 56% of 18 year olds drink alcohol at least four
times a week - doesn’t tell you why, when, how.
o Qualitative: More detail – tells you why, when and how!

o Quantitative Research
• Numerical.
• Statistically reliable.
• Projectable to a broader population.

Quantitative Research Categories

Sampling Methods
o Random Samples : Equal chance of anyone being picked.
 May select those not in the target group – indiscriminate.
 Sample sizes may need to be Large to be representative.
 Can be very expensive.
o Stratified or Segment Random Sampling
 Samples on the basis of a representative strata or segment.
 Still random but more focussed.
 May give more relevant information.
 May be more cost effective.
o Quota Sampling
• Again – by segment.
• Not randomly selected.
• Specific number on each segment are interviewed, etc.
• May not be fully representative.
• Cheaper method.
Qualitative Research Categories
Qualitative Research
• In-depth, insight generating.
• Non-numerical.
• ‘Directional’.
Common Techniques
• Personal interviews (depth, one-on-one).
• Focus groups (8-12) and mini-groups (3-6).

• METHODS
• OBSERVATION METHOD
Through personal observation
• PERSONAL INTERVIEW
Through Questionnaire
• TELEPHONE INTERVIEW
Through Call outcomes, Call timings
• MAIL SURVEY
Through Mailed Questionnaire

Advantages & Disadvantages of Primary Data

Advantages:
• Targeted Issues are addressed.
• Data interpretation is better.
• Efficient Spending for Information.
• Decency of Data.
• Proprietary Issues.
• Addresses Specific Research Issues.
• Greater Control.

Disadvantages:
• High Cost.
• Time Consuming.
• Inaccurate Feed-backs.
• More number of resources is required.

SECONDARY DATA:
• Data gathered and recorded by someone else prior to and for a purpose other
than the current project.
• Secondary data is data that has been collected for another purpose.
• It involves less cost, time and effort.
• Secondary data is data that is being reused. Usually in a different context.
• For example: Data from a book.
SOURCES
INTERNAL SOURCES
Internal sources of secondary data are usually for marketing application:
• Sales Records.
• Marketing Activity.
• Cost Information.
• Distributor reports and feedback.
• Customer feedback.

EXTERNAL SOURCES
External sources of secondary data are usually for Financial
application:
• Journals
• Books
• Magazines
• Newspaper
• Libraries
• The Internet.

Advantages & Disadvantages of Secondary Data

Advantages:
• Ease of Access.
• Low Cost to Acquire.
• Clarification of Research Question.
May Answer Research Question.

Disadvantages:
o Quality of Research.
o Not Specific to Researcher’s Needs.
o Incomplete Information.
o Not Timely.

Data Collection Flow:

Preparation of Schedule and Questionnaire

Schedule…
• The term “schedule” will be used. It has a clear meaning: The instrument used
to gather survey information through personal interview.
• Schedule information includes factual information, opinions and attitudes, and reasons
for behavior, opinions, and attitudes.
• An inexpensive way to gather data from a potentially large number of respondents.
• Comparatively an expensive way to gather data, actually filled by the
enumerators/researchers responsible.
• The schedule is a pro forma which contains a list of questions filled by the research
workers or enumerators, specially appointed for the purpose of data collection.
• Enumerators go to the informants with the schedule, and ask them the questions from
the set, in the sequence and record the replies in the space provided.
• There are certain situations, where the schedule is distributed to the respondents, and
the enumerators assist them in answering the questions.

How do schedules work…

 A rather expensive method as enumerators do not come cheap or research scholar
expenses often run high.
 Schedules are filled by the enumerator / researcher who can also interpret the question
if necessary.
 Needless to say, the identity of the respondents is known information collection is
both assured and punctual.
 Questionnaires and schedules are flexible in what they can measure although they each
have shortcomings in certain genres of collection.

Questionnaire
Definition….
 A questionnaire is a means of eliciting the feelings, beliefs, experiences, perceptions, or
attitudes of some sample of individuals.
 As a data collecting instrument, it could be structured or unstructured.
 An inexpensive way to gather data from a potentially large number of respondents.
 We define questionnaire as an instrument for research, which consists of a list of
questions, along with the choice of answers, printed or typed in a sequence on a form
used for acquiring specific information from the respondents.
 In general, questionnaires are delivered to the persons concerned either by post or mail,
requesting them to answer the questions and return it. Informants are expected to read
and understand the questions and reply in the space provided in the questionnaire
itself.
 Questionnaire And Schedule :
 A schedule however, takes more time as compared to a questionnaire.
 A questionnaire has less data collecting ability than a schedule.
 A questionnaire can cover a very wide field of data whereas a schedule is a problem
oriented data collecting method.
 A questionnaire take for itself and is self- explanatory, whereas schedule has to be
explained by the investigator .

Comparison Chart…

BASIS FOR COMPARISON QUESTIONNAIRE SCHEDULE

Meaning Questionnaire refers to a Schedule is a formalized set of

technique of data collection which questions, statements and spaces
consist of a series of written for answers, provided to the
questions along with alternative enumerators who ask questions to
answers. the respondents and note down
the answers.

Filled by Respondents Enumerators

Response Rate Low High

Coverage Large Comparatively small

Cost Economical Expensive

Respondent's identity Not known Known

Success relies on Quality of the questionnaire Honesty and competence of the

enumerator.

Usage Only when the people are literate Used on both literate and illiterate
and cooperative. people.

Factors affecting questionnaires..

 Length of the questionnaire.
 Reputation of the sponsoring agency.
 Complexity of the questions asked.
 Relative importance of the study as determined by the potential respondent.
 Extent to which the respondent believes that his responses are important.
 Quality and design of the questionnaire.
 Time of year the questionnaires are sent out.
Types of questionnaires
 Open or unrestricted form - calls for free response from the respondent.
 There is predetermined set of response.
 They provide true, insightful and unexpected suggestions.
 Allows for greater depth of response; is difficult to interpret, tabulate, and summarize.
 An ideal questionnaire contains open ended questions toward end of all questions.

Closed or restricted form of questionnaire…

Offers respondents a number of alternative replies, from which the subjects must choose the
one that most likely matches the appropriate answer.
Characteristic of questionnaire
 Facilitates easy statistical calculation.
 Provides easy preliminary analysis.
 Can be asked to different groups at different intervals.
 Facilitates efficient tracking of opinion.

Types of closed form of questionnaire….

 Dichotomous questions: Respondent to make a choice between two responses such as

yes/ no or male/ female

 Multiple choice question : Respondents to make a choice between more than two
response alternatives

 Cafeteria questions : Respondents to select a response that most closely corresponds

to their view.

 Rank order questions : Respondents to rank their responses from most favorable to
least favorable

 Contingency questions : A question that is asked further only if the respondent gives a
particular response to previous question.

 Rating questions: Respondent is asked to rate a particular issue on a scale that ranges
from poor to good

 Likert questions: Helps know how strongly the respondent agrees with a particular
statement.

 Bipolar questions: These questions have two extreme answers his/ her response
between two opposite ends of the scale.

 Matrix questions: It includes multiple questions and identical categories are assigned
.questions are placed along the top and list of questions down the side.
Characteristics of a good questionnaire
 Deals with a significant topic.
 Seeks only that information which cannot be obtained from other sources such as
census data.
 As short as possible, only long enough to get the essential data.
 Attractive in appearance, neatly arranged, and clearly duplicated or printed.
 Directions are clear and complete. Questions are objective, with no leading suggestions
to the desired response.
 Questions are presented in good psychological order, proceeding from general to more
specific responses.
 To easy tabulate and interpret.

Development Of A Questionnaire…
There are nine steps involved in the development of a questionnaire -
1. Decide the information required.
2. Define the target respondents.
3. Choose the method(s) of reaching your target respondents.
4. Decide on question content.
5. Develop the question wording.
6. Put questions into a meaningful order and format.
7. Check the length of the questionnaire.
8. Pre-test the questionnaire.
9. Develop the final survey form.
Sequence of questions…
 Arranged in logical sequence.
 Answer to questions not influenced by previous questions.
 Questions should flow from general to more specific.
 Questions should flow least to more sensitive.

Question construction…
 The sample -- who are you going to ask.
 The method--- how are you going to ask them.
 The questionnaire– what are you going to ask them.
 The result – what will you do with information.
 The cost – how much do you want to pay for answer.
 The time scale– By them do you need information.

Advantages of questionnaire
• Cost effective.
• Easy to analyse.
• Less time and energy need to administer.
• Reduce bias as interviewer is not present.
• Used for large sample size.
• Less instructive\ than face to face interview.

Disadvantages of questionnaire
• Not suitable for all.
• Low response rate.
• Mailed questions may filled by some one.
• Provides superficial information.
• Chances of misinterpretation.
• People can lie and answer the questions vaguely.

Questions to Avoid in a Questionnaire..

It is advisable to avoid certain types of questions while preparing a questionnaire, such as:

• Hypothetical Questions:

Questions with misleading speculation and fantasy should be avoided.

• Embarrassing Questions:

Making respondents feel uncomfortable by asking details about personal or

private issues which in turn can lead to losing trust.

 • Extreme Positive / Negative Questions:

Care must be taken in designing a question to avoid hard positive or negative

Overtones.

Data Collection through Questionnaire

This method of data collection is quite popular, particularly in case of big enquiries. It is being
adopted by private individuals, research workers, private and public organisations and even by
governments. In this method a questionnaire is sent (usually by post) to the persons concerned
with a request to answer the questions and return the questionnaire. A questionnaire consists
of a number of questions printed or typed in a definite order on a form or set of forms. The
questionnaire is mailed to respondents who are expected to read and understand the questions
and write down the reply in the space meant for the purpose in the questionnaire itself. The
respondents have to answer the questions on their own.
The method of collecting data by mailing the questionnaires to respondents is most extensively
employed in various economic and business surveys.

The merits claimed on behalf of this method are as follows:

1. There is low cost even when the universe is large and is widely spread geographically.
2. It is free from the bias of the interviewer; answers are in respondents’ own words.
3. Respondents have adequate time to give well thought out answers.
4. Respondents, who are not easily approachable, can also be reached conveniently.
5. Large samples can be made use of and thus the results can be made more dependable and
reliable.

The main demerits of this system can also be listed here:

1. Low rate of return of the duly filled in questionnaires; bias due to no-response is often
indeterminate.
2. It can be used only when respondents are educated and cooperating.
3. The control over questionnaire may be lost once it is sent.
4. There is inbuilt inflexibility because of the difficulty of amending the approach once
questionnaires have been despatched.
5. There is also the possibility of ambiguous replies or omission of replies altogether to certain
questions; interpretation of omissions is difficult.
6. It is difficult to know whether willing respondents are truly representative.
7. This method is likely to be the slowest of all.
Before using this method, it is always advisable to conduct ‘pilot study’ (Pilot Survey) for testing
the questionnaires. In a big enquiry the significance of pilot survey is felt very much. Pilot
survey is infact the replica and rehearsal of the main survey. Such a survey, being conducted by
experts, brings to the light the weaknesses (if any) of the questionnaires and also of the survey
techniques. From the experience gained in this way, improvement can be effected.
Main aspects of a questionnaire: Quite often questionnaire is considered as the heart of a
survey operation. Hence it should be very carefully constructed. If it is not properly set up, then
the survey is bound to fail. This fact requires us to study the main aspects of a questionnaire
viz., the general form, question sequence and question formulation and wording. Researcher
should note the following with regard to these three main aspects of a questionnaire:

Schedule method of Data collection

This schedule method of data collection is very much like the collection of data through
questionnaire, with little difference which lies in the fact that schedules (proforma containing a
set of questions) are being filled in by the enumerators who are specially appointed for the
purpose. These enumerators along with schedules, go to respondents, put to them the
questions from the proforma in the order the questions are listed and record the replies in the
space meant for the same in the proforma. In certain situations, schedules may be handed over
to respondents and enumerators may help them in recording their answers to various
questions in the said schedules. Enumerators explain the aims and objects of the investigation
and also remove the difficulties which any respondent may feel in understanding the
implications of a particular question or the definition or concept of difficult terms.

This method requires the selection of enumerators for filling up schedules or assisting
respondents to fill up schedules and as such enumerators should be very carefully selected. The
enumerators should be trained to perform their job well and the nature and scope of the
investigation should be explained to them thoroughly so that they may well understand the
implications of different questions put in the schedule. Enumerators should be intelligent and
must possess the capacity of cross examination in order to find out the truth. Above all, they
should be honest, sincere, hardworking and should have patience and perseverance.

This method of data collection is very useful in extensive enquiries and can lead to fairly reliable
results. It is, however, very expensive and is usually adopted in investigations conducted by
governmental agencies or by some big organizations. Population census all over the world is
conducted through this method.
EDITING

Data editing is a process by which collected data is examined to detect any errors or omissions
and further these are corrected as much as possible before proceeding further.

Editing is of two types:

1. Field Editing
2. Central Editing.
FIELD EDITING:
This is a type of editing that relates to abbreviated or illegible written form of gathered data.
Such editing is more effective when done on same day or the very next day after the interview.
The investigator must not jump to conclusion while doing field editing.

CENTRAL EDITING:

Such type of editing relates to the time when all data collection process has been completed.
Here a single or common editor corrects the errors like entry in the wrong place, entry in wrong
unit etc. As a rule all the wrong answers should be dropped from the final results.

EDITING REQUIRES SOME CAREFUL CONSIDERATIONS

 Editor must be familiar with the interviewer’s mind set, objectives and everything
related to the study.
 Different colors should be used when editors make entry in the data collected.
 They should initial all answers or changes they make to the data.
 The editors name and date of editing should be placed on the data sheet.
 Coding refers to the process of assigning numerals or other symbols to answers so
that responses can be put into limited number of categories or classes.
 Classification of responses may be done on the basis of one or more
common concepts.
 In coding a particular numeral or symbol is assigned to the answers in
order to put the responses in some definite categories or classes.
 The classes of responses determined by the researcher should be
appropriate and suitable to the study.
 Coding enables efficient and effective analysis as the responses are
categorized into meaningful classes.
 Coding decisions are considered while developing or designing the
questionnaire or any other data collection tool.
 Coding can be done manually or through computer.
UNIT IV
SAMPLING
Sampling Terminology
• Sample
• Population or universe
• Population element
• Census
Sample
Subset of a larger population.

Population
• A population is the total collection of elements about which we wish to make
some inferences.
• Any complete group
-People
-Sales territories
-Stores
Census
• Investigation of all individual elements that make up a population
• A census is a count of all the elements in a population.
Sampling
• The process of using a small number of items or parts of larger population to make a
conclusions about the whole population.
Or
• The process of testing some data based on a small sample is called sampling.
Example:
From a cup of tea, a tea-taster determines the quality of the brand of tea.

Selecting Samples
Population, sample and individual cases
 Or

SAMPLING

Definition of Sampling
Sampling is the process by which inference is made to the whole by examining a part.

THE PURPOSE OF SAMPLING

The purpose of sampling is to provide various types of statistical information of a
qualitative or quantitative nature about the whole by examining a few selected units.

ADVANTAGES OF SAMPLING
• Greater Economy
• Greater Scope
• It Takes Less Time

LIMITATIONS OF SAMPLING
• Errors due to sampling may be high for small administrative areas.
• Sampling may not be feasible for problems that require very high accuracy.

TYPES OF SAMPLING
1. Probability Sampling:
• Simple Random Sampling
• Stratified Random Sampling
• Systematic Random Sampling
• Cluster Or Multistage Sampling
 2. Non-probability sampling:
• Convenience/ opportunity sampling.
• Purposive/ judgemental sampling
• Quota sampling
• Snowball sampling

Overview of Sampling Techniques

• SIMPLE RANDOM SAMPLING:

In which each and every item has an equal chance of selection.
Advantages
• Easy to implement with random dialing.

Disadvantages
• Requires list of population elements.
• Time consuming.
• Larger sample needed.
• Produces larger errors.
• High cost.

• SYSTEMATIC RANDOM SAMPLING:

In which one or two items are selected randomly, but other items are selected by adding
the average sampling interval to the item selected randomly.

Advantages
• Simple to design.
• Easier than simple random.
• Easy to determine sampling distribution of mean or proportion.

Disadvantages
• Periodicity within population may skew sample and results.
• Trends in list may bias results.
• Moderate cost.
 • STRATIFIED RANDOM SAMPLING:
It is the process of segregating the population into groups and select by systematic
sampling method from each strata or cell.

Advantages
• Control of sample size in strata
• Increased statistical efficiency
• Provides data to represent and analyze subgroups
• Enables use of different methods in strata

Disadvantages
• Increased error if subgroups are selected at different rates
• Especially expensive if strata on population must be created
• High cost
 • CLUSTER SAMPLING:
The population is divided into clusters like families and then simple random sampling is
applied.

Advantages
• Provides an unbiased estimate of population parameters if properly done
• Economically more efficient than simple random
• Lowest cost per sample
• Easy to do without list

Disadvantages

• Often lower statistical efficiency due to subgroups being homogeneous rather than
heterogeneous
• Moderate cost

• CONVENIENCE SAMPLING:
The process of including whoever happens to be available at the time.
It also called “accidental” or “haphazard” sampling
Advantages
 Very low cost.
 Extensively used/understood.

Disadvantages
 Variability and bias cannot be measured or controlled.
 Projecting data beyond sample not justified.
 Restriction of Generalization.
 • JUDGEMENTAL SAMPLING:
The process whereby the researcher selects a sample based on experience or knowledge of the
group to be sampled. It is also called purposive sampling.

Advantages
• There is a assurance of Quality response.
• Meet the specific objective.

Disadvantages
• Bias selection of sample may occur.
• Time consuming process.

• QUOTA SAMPLING:
The process whereby a researcher gathers data from individuals possessing identified
characteristics and quotas.

For example,
An interviewer may be told to sample 200 females and 300 males between the age of 45 and
60.

Advantages
• Used when research budget is limited.
• Very extensively used/understood.
• No need for list of population elements.

Disadvantages
• Variability and bias cannot be measured/controlled.
• Time Consuming.
• Projecting data beyond sample not justified.

• SNOWBALL SAMPLING:
The sampling procedure in which the initial respondents are chosen by probability or non-
probability methods, and

Then additional respondents are obtained by information provided by the initial respondents.

Advantages
• Low cost.
• Useful in specific circumstances & for locating rare populations.

Disadvantages
• Not independent.
• Projecting data beyond sample not justified.
What is the Appropriate Sample Design…?
• Degree of accuracy.
• Resources.
• Time.
• Advanced knowledge of the population.
• National versus local.
• Need for statistical analysis.

Population Sample Size Population Sample Size

Size Size
100 80 1,000 278

200 132 5,000 357

500 217 50,000 384

SAMPLING ERRORS
 The errors which arise due to the use of sampling surveys are known as the sampling
errors.

Two types of sampling errors..

 Biased Errors- Due to selection of sampling techniques; size of the sample.
 Unbiased Errors / Random sampling errors-Differences between the members of the
population included or not included.

 METHODS OF REDUCING SAMPLING ERRORS

• Specific problem selection.

• Systematic documentation of related research.

• Effective enumeration.

• Effective pre- testing.

• Controlling methodological bias.

• Selection of appropriate sampling techniques.

NON-SAMPLING ERRORS
Non-sampling errors refers to biases and mistakes in selection of sample.

CAUSES FOR NON-SAMPLING ERRORS

 Sampling operations
 Inadequate of response
 Misunderstanding the concept
 Lack of knowledge
 Concealment of the truth.
 Loaded questions
 Processing errors
 Sample size

MEASUREMENT AND SCALING TECHNIQUES

INTRODUCTION
As we discussed earlier, the data consists of ……

Quantitative Variables, like price, income, sales etc., and

Qualitative Variables like knowledge, performance , character etc.

The qualitative information must be converted into numerical form for further analysis.
This is possible through measurement and scaling techniques.

A common feature of survey based research is to have respondent’s feelings, attitudes,

opinions, etc. in some measurable form.

MEASUREMENT & SCALING

Before we proceed further it will be worthwhile to understand the following two terms: (a)
Measurement, and (b) Scaling.

a) Measurement: Measurement is the process of observing and recording the

observations that are collected as part of research. The recording of the observations
may be in terms of numbers or other symbols to characteristics of objects according to
certain prescribed rules. The respondent’s, characteristics are feelings, attitudes,
opinions etc.
The most important aspect of measurement is the specification of rules for
assigning numbers to characteristics. The rules for assignin numbers should be
standardized and applied uniformly. This must not change over time or objects.
 b) Scaling: Scaling is the assignment of objects to numbers or semantics according to a
rule. In scaling, the objects are text statements, usually statements of attitude, opinion, or
feeling.

ISSUES IN ATTITUDE MEASUREMENT

When a researcher is interested in measuring the attitudes, feelings or opinions of respondents
he/she should be clear about the following:
a) What is to be measured ?
b) Who is to be measured ?
c) The choices available in data collection techniques.

LEVELS OF MEASUREMENT SCALES

The level of measurement refers to the relationship among the values that are assigned to the
attributes, feelings or opinions for a variable.
Typically, there are four levels of measurement scales or methods of assigning numbers:
(a) Nominal scale,
(b) Ordinal scale,
(c) Interval scale, and
(d) Ratio scale.

 Nominal Scale is the crudest among all measurement scales but it is also the
simplest scale. In this scale the different scores on a measurement simply indicate
different categories. The nominal scale does not express any values or relationships
between variables.

The nominal scale is often referred to as a categorical scale. The assigned numbers have no
arithmetic properties and act only as labels. The only statistical operation that can be
performed on nominal scales is a frequency count. We cannot determine an average except
mode.

For example: Labeling men as ‘1’ and women as ‘2’ which is the most common way of
labeling gender for data recording purpose does not mean women are ‘twice something
or other’ than men. Nor it suggests that men are somehow ‘better’ than women.

 Ordinal Scale involves the ranking of items along the continuum of the characteristic
being scaled. In this scale, the items are classified according to whether they have more
or less of a characteristic.
 The main characteristic of the ordinal scale is that the categories have a logical or ordered
relationship. This type of scale permits the measurement of degrees of difference, (i.e.
‘more’ or ‘less’) but not the specific amount of differences (i.e. how much ‘more’ or ‘less’).
This scale is very common in marketing, satisfaction and attitudinal research.

Using ordinal scale data, we can perform statistical analysis like Median and Mode, but not the
Mean.

For example: A fast food home delivery shop may wish to ask its customers:

How would you rate the service of our staff ?

(1) Excellent • (2) Very Good • (3) Good • (4) Poor • (5) Worst •

 Interval Scale is a scale in which the numbers are used to rank attributes such that
numerically equal distances on the scale represent equal distance in the
characteristic being measured. An interval scale contains all the information of an
ordinal scale, but it also one allows to compare the difference/distance between
attributes. Interval scales may be either in numeric or semantic formats.

The interval scales allow the calculation of averages like Mean, Median and Mode and
dispersion like Range and Standard Deviation.

For example: The difference between ‘1’ and ‘2’ is equal to the difference between ‘3’ and ‘4’.
Further, the difference between ‘2’ and ‘4’ is twice the difference between ‘1’ and ‘2’.

Measuring temperature is an example of interval scale. But, we cannot say

40°C is twice as hot as 20°C.
  Ratio Scale is the highest level of measurement scales. This has the properties of an
interval scale together with a fixed (absolute) zero point. The absolute zero point allows
us to construct a meaningful ratio.

Ratio scales permit the researcher to compare both differences in scores and relative
magnitude of scores. Examples of ratio scales include weights, lengths and times.

For example: The difference between 10 and 15 minutes is the same as the difference
between 25 and 30 minutes and 30 minutes is twice as long as 15 minutes.

TYPES OF SCALING TECHNIQUES

COMPARATIVE SCALES
In comparative scaling, the respondent is asked to compare one object with another.

The comparative scales can further be divided into the following four types of scaling
techniques:
(a) Paired Comparison Scale,
(b) Rank Order Scale,
(c) Constant Sum Scale, and
(d) Q-sort Scale.

PAIRED COMPARISON SCALE:

This is a comparative scaling technique in which a respondent is presented with two

objects at a time and asked to select one object according to some criterion. The data
obtained are ordinal in nature.

For example: There are four types of cold drinks - Coke, Pepsi, Sprite, and Limca. The
respondents can prefer Pepsi to Coke or Coke to Sprite, etc.
Rank Order Scale:
This is another type of comparative scaling technique in which respondents are presented with
several items simultaneously and asked to rank them in the order of priority. This is an ordinal
scale that describes the favored and un favored objects, but does not reveal the distance
between the objects. The resultant data in rank order is ordinal data. This
yields better results when direct comparison are required between the given objects.
The major disadvantage of this technique is that only ordinal data can be generated.

Constant Sum Scale:

In this scale, the respondents are asked to allocate a constant sum of units such as points,
rupees, or chips among a set of stimulus objects with respect to some criterion.

For example: You may wish to determine how important the attributes of price, fragrance,
packaging, cleaning power, and lather of a detergent are to consumers. Respondents might be
asked to divide a constant sum to indicate the relative importance of the attributes.

The advantage of this technique is saving time.

However, main disadvantages are the respondents may allocate more or fewer points than
those specified. The second problem is respondents might be confused.
Q-Sort Scale:
This is a comparative scale that uses a rank order procedure to sort objects based on similarity
with respect to some criterion. The important characteristic of this methodology is that it is
more important to make comparisons among different responses of a respondent than the
responses between different respondents.

Therefore, it is a comparative method of scaling rather than an absolute rating scale. In this
method the respondent is given statements in a large number for describing the characteristics
of a product or a large number of brands of a product.
NON-COMPARATIVE SCALES
In non-comparative scaling respondents need only evaluate a single object. Their evaluation is
independent of the other object which the researcher is studying.
The non-comparative scaling techniques can be further divided into:
(a) Continuous Rating Scale, and
(b) Itemized Rating Scale.
Continuous Rating Scales :

It is very simple and highly useful. In continuous rating scale, the respondent’s rate the
objects by placing a mark at the appropriate position on a continuous line that runs
from one extreme of the criterion variable to the other.

Example :

Question: How would you rate the TV advertisement as a guide for buying?
Itemized Rating Scales :
Itemized rating scale is a scale having numbers or brief descriptions associated with each
category. The categories are ordered in terms of scale position and the respondents are
required to select one of the limited number of categories that best describes the product,
brand, company, or product attribute being rated. Itemized rating scales are widely used in
marketing research.
Itemized rating scales is further divided into three parts, namely
(a) Likert scale,
(b) Semantic Differential Scale, and
(c) Stapel Scale.

The itemized rating scales can be in the form of :

(a) graphic, (b) verbal, or (c) numeric as shown below :
Likert Scale:
Likert, is extremely popular for measuring attitudes, because, the method is simple to
administer. Likert Scale is also known as summated Rating Method and was developed by
Rensis Likert. With the Likert scale, the respondents indicate their own attitudes by checking
how strongly they agree or disagree with carefully worded statements that range from very
positive to very negative towards the attitudinal object. Respondents generally choose from
five alternatives (say strongly agree, agree, neither agree nor disagree, disagree, strongly
disagree).
• A Likert scale may include a number of items or statements. It is relatively easy to
construct. It is more reliable as each statement of respondent is included in the
instrument. It is frequently used by students having opinion on research. It is provide a
greater amount having data than any other scale.
• Disadvantage of Likert Scale is that it takes longer time to complete than other itemized
rating scales because respondents have to read each statement.
• Despite the above disadvantages, this scale has several advantages. It is easy to
construct, administer and use.
Semantic Differential Scale:
This is a seven point rating scale with end points associated with bipolar labels (such as good
and bad, complex and simple) that have semantic meaning. It can be used to find whether a
respondent has a positive or negative attitude towards an object. It has been widely used in
comparing brands, products and company images. It has also been used to develop advertising
and promotion strategies and in a new product development study.
Staple Scale:
The Staple scale was originally developed to measure the direction and intensity of an attitude
simultaneously. Modern versions of the Staple scale place a single adjective as a substitute for
the Semantic differential when it is difficult to create pairs of bipolar adjectives. The modified
Staple scale places a single adjective in the centre of an even number of numerical Values.
• Staple scale is easier to construct as it does not require bipolar adjectives.
• Administer, especially over the telephone.
SELECTION OF AN APPROPRIATE SCALING TECHNIQUE
A number of issues decide the choice of scaling technique. Some significant issues are:
1) Problem Definition and Statistical Analysis,
2) The Choice between Comparative and Non-comparative Scales,
3) Type of Category Labels,
4) Number of Categories,
5) Balanced versus Unbalanced Scale, and
6) Forced versus Non-forced Categories

Characteristics of Good Measurement Scales

1. Reliability
• The degree to which a measure accurately captures an individual’s true outcome
without error; Accuracy synonymous with repetitive consistency
2. Validity
• The degree to which a measure faithfully represents the underlying concept;
Fidelity
3. Sensitivity
• The ability to discriminate meaningful differences between attitudes. The more
categories the more sensitive (nut less reliable)
4. Generalizability
• How easy is scale to administer and interpret
Validity and Reliability
 If a measure is valid, then it is reliable.

 If it is not reliable, it can not be valid.

 If it is reliable, it may or may not be valid.

 Reliability can be more easily determined than validity

CONCLUSION
• There are four levels of measurements:

Nominal, Ordinal, Interval, and Ratio.

• The measurement scales, commonly used in marketing research, can be divided into

two types;

Comparative and Non-comparative scales.

• A number of scaling techniques are available for measurement of attitudes. There is no

unique way that you can use to select a particular scaling technique for your research

study.
UNIT V
CODING:
A code is a system of signals.
Therefore, Coding is a method of transmitting messages between the sender and receiver
without a third person understanding it.

Data Coding
• Data coding in research methodology is a preliminary step to analyzing data.
• The data that is obtained from surveys, experiments or secondary sources are in raw
form. This data needs to be refined and organized to evaluate and draw conclusions.
• Data coding is not an easy job and the person or persons involved in data coding must
have knowledge and experience of it.

What is it….??
• Coding is the process of converting the respondent’s answers into numerical values or
assigning numbers to the various categories or classes of variable to be used in data
analysis.
• “Coding is the translation of data into labeled categories suitable for computer
processing”

• Codes may be based on….

• Actions, behaviors.
• Themes, topics.
• Ideas, concepts.
• Terms, phrases.
• Keywords.
• Code only relevant data.
(Not all data must be coded)

How do we do that…??
• Distinguish between nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio data to code
– What is nominal data…..?
• Has no order.
Example - Male (1) Female (2)
– What is ordinal data?
• Has order but the interval between data has no meaning.
Example- Priority ranking of mode of transportation
– What is interval data?
• Has order and meaning between the data, but no starting point.
Example- Year of birth of respondent, or
 - Times of start/end of activities in time use diary.
– What is ratio data?
• Has order, meaning between data and a distinct starting point.
Example- Distance of trips, age of respondent
(can be obtained from interval data i.e. year of birth to yield age)

• Sources of Codes (usually both below)…

– A Priori Codes
• Previous research
• Previous theory
• Research question
• Your intuition of the data or setting
– Grounded Codes
(Suspend your ideas about the phenomenon and let your data determine your thinking)

Types of Grounded Codes …

Open coding:
Basically, you read through your data several times and then start to create
tentative labels for chunks of data that summarize what you see happening (not based on
existing theory – just based on the meaning that emerges from the data). Record
examples of participants’ words and establish properties of each code .

Axial coding:
Axial coding consists of identifying relationships among the open codes. What
are the connections among the codes ?

Selective coding:
Figure out the core variable that includes all of the data. Then reread the
transcripts and selectively code any data that relates to the core variable you identified.
• When coding, continually ask yourself questions about the data.
For Example…
• What is going on (context) ?
• What are people doing ?
• Toward what are persons orienting their thoughts ?
• What is the person saying ?
• What do these things take for granted ?
• How does context affect the statements ?

Coding Examples…..

An initial coding list from this might be:

-Feeling
- living alone
-Independence
-Relationship with parents
The analyst has used a highlighter to identify words that refer to feelings and these words
suggest that the passage about living alone is actually about the emotions and feelings
associated with living alone.

What’s Next…???
• When devising a coding scheme, think about how the data will be used computationally
in the analysis.
• Think about each question asked,
why you asked the question and
what data you want to get from the answer.
Before you Start Coding
• It is necessary to make sure that each respondent has their own code.
• Label everything with the unique identifier for each respondent… the envelopes, diary
and the questionnaire!!!!!

Code Categories
• In selecting coding categories, it is wise to use categories that have been used in
previous surveys like the census or transportation surveys with which you might make
comparisons later on (or just for extra guidance). Do a little research!
• For each question, the coding frame should consist of mutually exclusive and exhaustive
categories so that every possible answer will fit into one and only one category.

Coding is done by using…

» Code Book,
» Code Sheet and
» Computer Card.
Code Book…
» Coding is done on the basis of the instructions given in
» the code book. The code given in the code book. The
» code book gives a numerical code for each variables.
» It explains how to assign numerical codes for response
» categories received in the questionnaire. Its also
» indicates the location of a variable on computer card.
Code Sheet…
» Code sheet is a sheet used to transfer data from original source(i.e.
questionnaire/schedule, etc.) to card. They are prepared by researcher for
assigning codes to answer received.
» Code sheets are like computer cards. These sheets are given to key-punchers who
then transfer the data to cards.

Computer Card….
» Computer card has 80 columns horizontally and 9 columns vertically (from the top
to bottom of the card).It is used for storing data or ‘talking’ to computers. Coding
uses categories that are mutually exclusive and uni-dimensional.
» The first 3 or 4 columns in the card (depending on the total number of the
respondents) are left blank for respondent’s identification number.
» The data is then transferred from questionnaire to computer cards by using a key-
punch machine.
» The key punch machine does not type letters or numbers on the cards but it
perforates them leaving a hole over a particular in a specific column. Data are
then considered machine readable .
» However, now a days, cards are not used for transforming data from the
questionnaire but the pre coded item on the questionnaire/interview schedule is
directly typed into the computer through the computer terminal.
General Guideline:
• The coding is necessary for efficient analysis of data.
• Thus, field work is done with pre coded questions.
• However, sometimes when questions are not pre coded, coding is done after the field
work.
• It may be noted that any error in coding should be eliminated altogether or at least
reduced to minimum possible level.

EDITING: See unit IV last content

TABULATION
The mass of data collected has to be arranged in some kind of concise and logical order.
Tabulation summarizes the raw data and displays data in form of some statistical tables.
Tabulation is an orderly arrangement of data in rows and columns.

OBJECTIVE OF TABULATION:
1. Conserves space & minimizes explanation and descriptive statements.
2. Facilitates process of comparison and summarization.
3. Facilitates detection of errors and omissions.
4. Establish the basis of various statistical computations.

 Tabulation is the process of summarizing raw data and displaying the same in compact
form( i.e., in the form of statistical tables ) for further analysis.
 Tabulation is an orderly arrangement of data in columns and rows.
BASIC PRINCIPLES OF TABULATION..
1. Tables should be clear, concise & adequately titled.
2. Every table should be distinctly numbered for easy reference.
3. Column headings & row headings of the table should be clear & brief.
4. Units of measurement should be specified at appropriate places.
5. Explanatory footnotes concerning the table should be placed at appropriate places.
6. Source of information of data should be clearly indicated.
7. The columns & rows should be clearly separated with dark lines.
8. Demarcation should also be made between data of one class and that of another.
9. Comparable data should be put side by side.
10. The figures in percentage should be approximated before tabulation.
11. The alignment of the figures, symbols etc. should be properly aligned and adequately
spaced to enhance the readability of the same.
12. Abbreviations should be avoided.

Various Kinds of Charts and Diagrams

Used in Data Analysis
Types of Graphs
• Bar Graph
• Circle Graph
• Line Graph
• Line Plot Graph
• Venn Diagram
• Pictograph
Bar Graph
Definition: a graph that shows data using horizontal or vertical bars.

Advantages:
• Easy to read
• Compares multiple sets of data

Disadvantages
• Not best for showing trends
Circle Graph
Definition: A graph that shows data in the form of a circle.

Advantages:
• Shows percentages
• Shows how a total is divided into parts

Disadvantages
• Not best for showing trends
Line Graph
Definition: A graph that shows data in the form of a line.

Advantages:
• Shows change over time
• Helps you see trends

Disadvantages
• Not easy to use to compare different categories of data

Pictograph
Definition: A graph that displays data using symbols or pictures.

Advantages:
• Compares multiple sets of data
• Visually appealing

Disadvantages
• Hard to read when there are parts of pictures.
Line Plot Graph
Definition: A graph that uses symbols above a number line to display data.

Advantages:
• An easy way to organize data
Disadvantages
• Only good for one group of data and cannot be used to compare different categories of
data or show trends.

Venn Diagram
Definition: Circles that show relationships among sets.

Advantages:
• Shows comparisons and contrasts easily.

Disadvantages
• Does not show trends
Significance of diagrams and graphs

Diagrams and graphs are extremely useful

because of the following reasons :

1. They give a bird’s eye view of the entire data and, therefore, the information
presented can be easily understood. It is a fact that as the number and magnitude of
figures increases they become more confusing and their analysis tends to be more
strenuous. Pictorial presentation helps in proper understanding of the data as it gives
an interesting form to it. The old saying ‘A picture is worth 10,000 words’ is very true.
The mind through the eye can more readily appreciate the significance of figures in
the form of pictures than it can follow the figures themselves.

2. They are attractive to the eye. Figures are dry but diagrams delight the eye. For this
reason diagrams create greater interest than cold figures. Thus, while going through
journals and newspapers, the readers generally skip over the figures but most of them
do look at the diagrams and graphs. Since diagrams have attraction value, they are
very popular in exhibitions, fairs, conferences, board meetings and public functions.

3. They have a great memorizing effect. The impressions created by diagrams last much
longer than those created by the figures presented in a tabular form.

4. They facilitate comparison of data relating to different periods of time of different

regions. Diagrams help one in making quick and accurate comparison of data. They
bring out hidden fact and relationship and can stimulate as well as aid analytical
thinking and investigation.

PARAMETRIC TESTS :
Statistical Test-
• These are intended to decide whether a hypothesis about distribution of one or more
populations should be rejected or accepted. These may be:
 Parametric Test
 Non Parametric Test

These tests the statistical significance of the :

 Difference in sample and population means.
 Difference in two sample means.
 Several population means.
 Difference in proportions between sample and population.
 Difference in proportions between two independent populations.
 Significance of association between two variables.
System for Statistical Analysis-

 State the Research Hypothesis.

 State the Level of Significance.

 Calculate the test statistic.

 Compare the calculated test statistic with the tabulated values.

 Decision.

 Statement of Result.

Parametric Tests:
• Used for Quantitative Data.
• Used for continuous variables.
• Used when data are measured on approximate interval or ratio scales of measurement.
• Data should follow normal distribution.

1. t - test (n<30) –
 t -test for one sample
 t -test for two samples
I. Unpaired two samples
II. Paired two samples
2. ANOVA (Analysis of Variance) –
I. ONE WAY
II. TWO WAY

3. Pearson’s r Correlation

4. Z test for large samples (n>30)

STUDENT’S t-TEST:
Developed by Prof W.S Gossett in 1908, who published statistical papers under the pen
name of ‘Student’. Thus the test is known as Student’s ‘t’ test.

Indications for the test:-

1. When samples are small
2. Population variance are not known.
Uses-
o Two means of small independent samples.
o Sample mean and population mean.
o Two proportions of small independent samples.

Assumptions made in the use of ‘t’ test-

1. Samples are randomly selected.
2. Data utilised is Quantitative.
3. Variable follow normal distribution.
4. Sample variances are mostly same in both the groups under the study.
5. Samples are small, mostly lower than 30.
6. A t-test compares the difference between two means of different groups to determine
whether that difference is statistically significant.
7. Student’s ‘t’ test for different purposes…
1. ‘t’ test for one sample
2. ‘t’ test for unpaired two samples
3. ‘t’ test for paired two samples
 ONE SAMPLE t -TEST -
 When compare the mean of a single g r o u p of observations with a specified value.
 In one sample t-test, we know the population mean. We draw a random sample from
the population and then compare the sample mean with the population mean and
make a statistical decision as to whether or not the sample mean is different from the
population.

Calculation-

• Now we compare calculated value with table value at certain level of significance
(generally 5% or 1%).
• If absolute value of ‘t’ obtained is greater than table value then reject the null hypothesis
and if it is less than table value, the null hypothesis may be accepted.

EXAMPLE-
Research Problem : Comparison of mean dietary intake of a particular group of individuals with
the recommended daily intake.
DATA: Average daily energy intake (ADEI) over 10 days of 11 healthy women.

sub 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

ADEI 5260 5470 5640 6180 6390 6515 6805 7515 7515 8230 8770
(KJ)

Mean ADEI value = 6753.6 SD ADEI value = 1142.1

When can we say about the energy intake of these women in relation to a recommended
daily intake of 7725 KJ ?
Research Hypothesis-
State null hypothesis and alternative hypothesis:
H0 =there is no difference between population mean and sample mean.

OR
H0 :µ = 7725 KJ
H1 =there is a difference between population mean and sample mean.

OR
H1 : µ ≠ 7725 KJ

Set the level of significance

α = .05, .01 or .001
Calculate the value of proper statistic

sample mean – hypothesized mean

T= --------------------------------------------
standard error of sample mean

6753.6 – 7725
T= -------------------- = - 0.2564

1142.1/ 11

State the rule for rejecting the null hypothesis:

Reject H0 if t ≥ +ve Tabulated value

OR
Reject H0 if t ≤ - ve Tabulated value Or we can say that p<.05

In the above example we have seen t=- .2564 which is less then 2.23
P value suggests that the dietary intake of these women was significantly less than the
recommended level (7725 KJ)

TWO SAMPLE ‘t’ TEST-

Unpaired Two sample ‘t’- test -
 Unpaired t- test is used when we wish to compare two means.
 Used when the two independent random samples come from the normal populations
having unknown or same variance.
 We test the null hypothesis, that the two population means are same i.e µ 1= µ2 against
an appropriate one sided or two sided alternative hypothesis.
Assumptions:
 The samples are random & independent of each other
 The distribution of dependent variable is normal.
 The variances are equal in both the groups.

FORMULA –

Test statistic is given by….

Mean1 – Mean2
t= -----------------
SE (Mean1 –mean2)

SE (Mean1 –mean2) = S [1/n1+1/n2]

(n1-1)S12 + (n2-1)S22
S= -------------------------------
(n1+n2-2)

Where S12 and S22 are respectively called SD’s of first and second group.

Research Problem-

A study was conducted to compare the birth weights of children born to 15 non-smoking with
those of children born to 14 heavy smoking mothers.

Non-smoking Heavy smoking

mothers (n=15) mothers (n=14)

3.99 3.18

3.79 2.84

3.60 2.90

3.73 3.27

3.21 3.85

3.60 3.52

4.08 3.23
 3.61 2.76

3.83 3.60

3.31 3.75

4.13 3.59

3.26 3.63

3.54 2.38

3.51 2.34

2.71

Research Hypothesis :

State null hypothesis and alternative hypothesis.

H
0=
There is no difference between the birth weights of children born to non-smoking
and smoking mothers.

H
1=There is a difference between the birth weights of children born to non-smoking
and smoking mothers

Set the level of significance

α = .05, .01 or .001

Calculate the value of proper statistic.

State the rule for rejecting the null hypothesis.

Decision

If we reject the null hypothesis so we can say that children born to non-smokers are
heavier than children born to heavy smokers.
PAIRED TWO-SAMPLES t –TEST-

Used when we have paired data of observations from one sample only, when each
individual gives a pair of observations.

Same individuals are studied more than once in different circumstances- measurements
made on the same people before and after interventions.

Assumptions-

The outcome variable should be continuous.

The difference between pre-post measurements should be normally distributed.

FORMULA-

d
t = ---------
SD/ √n

Where…d = difference between x1 and x2. d = Average of d.

SD = Std. deviation for the difference, n = sample size

Research Problem-

A study was carried to evaluate the effect of the new diet on weight loss. The study
population consist of 12 people have used the diet for 2 months; their weights before
and after the diet are given.

Patient Weight (Kgs)

no.

Before Diet After Diet

1 75 70

2 60 54

3 68 58

4 98 93

5 83 78

6 89 84

7 65 60
 8 78 77

9 95 90

10 80 76

11 100 94

12 108 100

Research Hypothesis

State null hypothesis and alternative hypothesis

H0 = There is no reduction in weight after Diet.
H1= There is reduction in weight after Diet.

Further Analysis through Statistical software SPSS as same as previous example.

Decision
If we reject the null hypothesis then there is a statistically significant reduction in weight

How do we compare more than two groups means ??

Example :

Treatments :A, B, C & D Response:BP level

How does t-test concept work here ?

A versus B A versus C A versus D

B versus C B versus D C versus D

so the chance of getting the wrong result would be: 1 - (0.95 x 0.95 x 0.95 x0.95) = 26%

Instead of using a series of individual comparisons we examine the differences among

the groups through an analysis that considers the variation among all groups at once.

i.e. ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE.

Analysis of Variance (ANOVA):
Given by Sir Ronald Fisher.

The principle aim of statistical models is to explain the variation in measurements.

The statistical model involving a test of significance of the difference in mean values of
the variable between two groups is the student’s,’t’ test. If there are more than two
groups, the appropriate statistical model is Analysis of Variance (ANOVA).

Assumptions for ANOVA-

1. Sample population can be easily approximated to normal distribution.

2. All populations have same Standard Deviation.

3. Individuals in population are selected randomly.

4. Independent samples.

ANOVA compares variance by means of a simple ratio, called F-Ratio

Variance between groups

F = -------------------------------
Variance within groups

The resulting F statistics is then compared with critical value of F (critic), obtained from
F tables in much the same way as was done with ‘t’
If the calculated value exceeds the critical value for the appropriate level of α, the null
hypothesis will be rejected.

A F test is therefore a test of the Ratio of Variances F Tests can also be used on their
own, independently of the ANOVA technique, to test hypothesis about variances.

In ANOVA, the F test is used to establish whether a statistically significant difference

exists in the data being tested.

ANOVA can be ..

 ONEWAY
 TWO WAY
One Way ANOVA..
If the various experimental groups differ in terms of only one factor at a time- a
one way ANOVA is used.
e.g. A study to assess the effectiveness of four different antibiotics on S Sanguis.

Two Way ANOVA..

If the various groups differ in terms of two or more factors at a time, then a Two
Way ANOVA is performed .
e.g. A study to assess the effectiveness of four different antibiotics on S Sanguis in
three different age groups.

Comparison Chart ..
BASIS FOR
ONE WAY ANOVA TWO WAY ANOVA
COMPARISON

Meaning One way ANOVA is a Two way ANOVA is a statistical technique

hypothesis test, used wherein, the interaction between factors,
to test the equality of influencing variable can be studied.
three of more
population means
simultaneously using
variance.

Independent One Two

Variable

Compares Three or more levels of Effect of multiple level of two factors.

one factor.

Number of Need not to be same Need to be equal in each group.

Observation in each group.

Design of Need to satisfy only All three principles needs to be satisfied.

experiments two principles.
Pearson’s Correlation Coefficient :

• Correlation is a technique for investigating the relationship between two quantitative,

continuous variables .

• Pearson’s Correlation Coefficient(r) is a measure of the strength of the association

between the two variables.

Assumptions Made in Calculation of ‘r’-

1. Subjects selected for study with pair of values of X & Y are chosen with random
sampling procedure.

2. Both X & Y variables are continuous.

3. Both variables X & Y are assumed to follow normal distribution.

Steps-

 The first step in studying the relationship between two continuous variables is to draw
a scatter plot of the variables to check for linearity.

 The correlation coefficient should not be calculated of the relationship is not linear.

 For correlation only purposes, it does not matter on which axis the variables are
plotted.

 However, conventionally, the independent variable is plotted on X axis and dependent

variable on Y-axis

 The nearer the scatter of points is to a straight line, the higher the strength of
association between the variables.

Types of Correlation-

 Perfect Positive Correlation r=+1

 Partial Positive Correlation 0<r<+1
 Perfect negative correlation r=-1
 Partial negative correlation 0>r>-1
 No Correlation.
Z Test:

This test is used for testing significance difference between two means (n>30).

Assumptions to apply Z test ..

 The sample must be randomly selected

 Data must be quantitative
 Samples should be larger than 30
 Data should follow normal distribution
 Sample variances should be almost the same in both the groups of study .
• If the SD of the populations is known, a Z test can be applied even if the sample is
smaller than 30.

Indications for Z Test..

 To compare sample mean with population mean

 To compare two sample means
 To compare sample proportion with population proportion
 To compare two sample proportions .

Steps..
1. Define the problem.
2. State the null hypothesis (H0) & alternate hypothesis (H1).
3. Find Z value .

Observed mean-Mean
Z= ----------------------
Standard Error
 4. Fix the level of significance.
5. Compare calculated Z value with the value in Z table at corresponding degree
significance level.
 If the observed Z value is greater than theoritical Z value, Z is significant, reject null
hypothesis and accept alternate hypothesis.

Z - PROPORTIONALITY TEST..

Used for testing the significant difference between two proportions,

P1 - P2
z = ---------
SE ( P1 - P2)

Where, P1 = Prop. rate for Ist population P2 = Prop. rate for IInd population
Where, SE (P1 - P2) is defined SE of difference .

One tailed and Two tailed Z tests..

Z values on each side of mean are calculated as +Z or as -Z.
A result larger than difference between sample mean will give +Z and result smaller
than the difference between mean will give –Z.

E.g. for two tailed:

In a test of significance, when one wants to determine whether the mean IQ of
malnourished children is different from that of well nourished and does not specify
higher or lower, the P value of an experiment group includes both sides of extreme
results at both ends of scale, and the test is called two tailed test.
E.g. for single tailed:
In a test of significance when one wants to know specifically whether a result is larger
or smaller than what occur by chance, the significant level or P value will apply to
relative end only e.g. if we want to know if the malnourished have lesser mean IQ than
the well nourished, the result will lie at one end ( tail )of the distribution, and the test is
called single tailed test.

Conclusion..
 Tests of significance play an important role in conveying the results of any research &
thus the choice of an appropriate statistical test is very important as it decides the fate
of outcome of the study.
 Hence the emphasis placed on tests of significance in clinical research must be
tempered with an understanding that they are tools for analyzing data & should never
be used as a substitute for knowledgeable interpretation of outcomes.
NON-PARAMETRIC TESTS:
• Also known as distribution-free tests because they are based on fewer assumptions
(e.g., they do not assume that the outcome is approximately normally distributed).
• Parametric tests involve specific probability distributions (e.g., the normal distribution)
and the tests involve estimation of the key parameters of that distribution (e.g., the
mean or difference in means) from the sample data.
• There are some situations when it is clear that the outcome does not follow a normal
distribution. These include:
 when the outcome is an ordinal variable or a rank,
 when there are definite outliers or
 when the outcome has clear limits of detection.

Non-parametric Methods..
 Sign Test
 Wilcoxon Signed-Rank Test
 Mann-Whitney-Wilcoxon Test
 Kruskal-Wallis Test

How to assign the ranks..?

Ordered observed 0 2 3 5 7 9
data

ranks 1 2 3 4 5 6

Ordered observed 0 2 3 7 7 9
data

ranks 1 2 3 4.5 4.5 6

Ordered observed 0 2 3 7 7 7
data

ranks 1 2 3 5 5 5
1. Sign Test:
 A common application of the sign test involves using a sample of n potential
customers to identify a preference for one of two brands of a product.
 The objective is to determine whether there is a difference in preference between the
two items being compared.
 To record the preference data, we use a plus sign if the individual prefers one brand
and a minus sign if the individual prefers the other brand.
 Because the data are recorded as plus and minus signs, this test is called the sign test.

Example:Butter Taste Test..

Sign Test: Large-Sample Case…
As part of a market research study, a sample of 36
consumers were asked to taste two brands of butter and indicate a preference. Do the data
shown below indicate a significant difference in the consumer preferences for the two
brands?
18 preferred Amul Butter (+ sign recorded)
12 preferred Mother Dairy Butter (_ sign recorded)
6 had no preference .

The analysis is based on a sample size of 18 + 12 = 30.

Example: Butter Taste Test.
H0: No preference for one brand over the other exists.
Ha: A preference for one brand over the other exists.
Sampling Distribution

Example:Butter Taste Test..

Rejection Rule
Using 0.05 level of significance, Reject H0 if z < -1.96 or z > 1.96
Test Statistic
z = (18 - 15)/2.74 = 3/2.74 = 1.095
Conclusion ..
Do not reject H0. There is insufficient evidence in the sample to conclude that a difference in
preference exists for the two brands of butter.

2. Wilcoxon Signed-Rank Test:

 The Wilcoxon test is used when we are unwilling to make assumptions about the
form of the underlying population probability distributions, but we want compare
paired samples.
 Analogous to the dependent t-test we are interested in the difference in two
measurements taken from each person.
 The rank sum of the positive (T+) and negative (T−) differences are calculated, the
smallest of these is used as the test statistic to test the hypothesis.
 Two assumptions underlie the use of this technique.
 The paired data are selected randomly.
 The underlying distributions are symmetrical.
Small-Sample Case (n ≤15)..
• When sample size is small, a critical value against which to compare T can be found by
table, to determine whether the null hypothesis should be rejected. The critical value is
located by using n and α.
• If the observed value of T is less than or equal to the critical value of T, the decision is to
reject the null hypothesis.

Problem:
 The survey by American Demographics estimated the average annual household
spending on healthcare. The U.S. metropolitan average was $1,800. Suppose six
families in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, are matched demographically with six families in
Oakland, California, and their amounts of household spending on healthcare for last
year are obtained. The data follow on the next page.
A healthcare analyst uses α = 0.05 to test to determine whether there is a significant difference
in annual household healthcare spending between these two cities.

STEP 1.
The following hypotheses are being tested.
H0: Md= 0
Ha: Md≠ 0

STEP 2.
Because the sample size of pairs is six, the small- sample Wilcoxon matched pairs signed ranks
test is appropriate if the underlying distributions are assumed to be symmetrical.

Step 3.
calculated T = 3 is greater than critical T = 1 (at α=0.05,
the decision is to accept the null hypothesis.

Conclusion:
there is no significant difference in annual household healthcare spending between Pittsburgh
and Oakland.
Large-Sample Case (n >15)..
For large samples, the T statistic is approximately normally distributed and a z score can be used
as the test statistic.

Problem: Suppose a company implemented a quality- control program and has been operating
under it for 2 years. The company’s president wants to determine whether worker
productivity significantly increased since installation of the program. Use a non parametric
statistics for the following data at α=0.01.

STEP 1.
The following hypotheses are being tested.
H0: Md= 0
Ha: Md≠ 0
STEP 2.
Wilcoxon matched-pairs signed rank test to be applied on the data to test the difference in
productivity from before to after.

STEP 3.
Computes the difference valuesand because zero differences are to be eliminated, deletes
worker 3 from the study. This reduces n from 20 to 19, then ranks the differences regardless of
sign.
STEP 4.
This test is one tailed. The critical value is z =-2.33. Here calculate z is less than critical z, hence
we reject the null hypothesis.

Conclusion:
The productivity is significantly greater after the implementation of quality control at this
company.

3. Mann-Whitney-Wilcoxon Test (U test):

• Also known as Wilcoxon rank sum test.
• It is a nonparametric counterpart of the t test used to compare the means of two
independent populations.
• The following assumptions underlie the use of the Mann-Whitney U test.
1. The samples are independent.
2. The level of data is at least ordinal.
• The two-tailed hypotheses being tested with the Mann-Whitney U test are as follows.
H0: The two populations are identical.
Ha: The two populations are not identical.
• Computation of the U test begins by arbitrarily designating two samples as group 1 and
group 2. The data from the two groups are combined into one group, with each data
value retaining a group identifier of its original group. The pooled values are then
ranked from 1 to n.
• W 1 and W2 are the sum of the ranks of values from group 1 and group 2 respectively.
• Small sample case: when both n1 and n2 ≤10
• Large sample case: when both n1 and n2 >10

Small sample..

• The test statistic is the smallest of these two U values.

• Determine the p-value for a U from the table.
• Note: For a two-tailed test, double the p-value shown in the table.
 • Because U2 is the smaller value of U, we use U = 3 as the test statistic. Because it is the
smallest size, let n1= 7; n2= 8.
STEP 7.
• from table find a p-value of 0.0011. Because this test is two tailed, we double the table
p-value, producing a final p-value of .0022. Because the p- value is less than α = 0.05,
the null hypothesis is rejected.
• The statistical conclusion is that the populations are not identical.

Large-Sample Case..
• For large sample sizes, the value of U is approximately normally distributed and hence
compute a z score for the U value. A decision is then made whether to reject the null
hypothesis. A z score can be calculated from U by the following formulas.
3. Kruskal Wallis Test..
Like the one-way analysis of variance, the Kruskal-Wallis test is used to determine whether
c ≥3 samples come from the same or different populations.

The Kruskal-Wallis test is based on the assumption that the c groups are independent and
that individual items are selected randomly. The hypotheses tested by the Kruskal-Wallis
test follow.
H0 :The c populations are identical.
Ha: At least one of the c populations is different.
 Advantages of Nonparametric Tests..
• Used with all scales.
• Easier to compute
— Developed originally before wide computer use
• Make fewer assumptions.
• Need not involve population parameters.
• Results may be as exact as parametric procedures.

Disadvantages of Nonparametric Tests:

• May waste information
— If data permit using parametric procedures
— Example: converting data from ratio to ordinal scale
• Difficult to compute by hand for large samples.
• Tables not widely available.
What is the difference between a parametric and a nonparametric test..?
 Introduction to Statistical Software's…
Introduction..
• Now a days computers are widely used for varied purposes in various fields like
educational, industrial, transport, medical, commercial, social, financial, administrative
etc….
• Computers are ideally suited for data analysis concerning large research projects.
• Computers can perform many statistical calculations with less of time and effort. It has
become possible because of ready availability of various software packages which
researchers generally make use if in solving various simple and complicated problems of
analytical and quantitative nature.
• A statistical Package is a suite of computer programs that are specialized for statistical
analysis.

Available Statistical Packages..

Proprietary
 Excel
 MATLAB
 SPSS
 MINITAB
 SAS
 STATA
 STATISTICA
What is Used…? (Academia)..

Figure ….Use of data analysis software in academic publications as measured by hits

on Google Scholar.

What is Used? (Survey)..

What is Used? (Job Market)..

Self Service Analytical Tools..

Microsoft Excel…

COST
• Individual License for Microsoft Office Professional $350.
• Microsoft Office University Student License: $99.
• Volume Discounts available for large organizations and universities.
• Free Starter Version available on some new PCs.
PRO
• Nearly ubiquitous and is often pre-installed on new computers.
• User friendly.
• Very good for basic descriptive statistics, charts and plots.
CON
• Costs money.
• Not sufficient for anything beyond the most basic statistical analysis.
MATLAB..
MATLAB is targeted towards engineers and scientists. It provides extensive
mathematical computations and advanced graphics in addition to statistical testing.
MATLAB is available in mainframe, desktop and student package. MATLAB is registered
trademark of the Math work.

Minitab…
MINITAB may be one of the most popular software programs introduced to students.
MINITAB offers an extensive list of statistical test. It is available in a desktop or
(windows) student packages.

COST
$1,495 per single user license.
CON
• Costs Money.
• Not suitable for very complicated statistical computation and analysis.
• Not often used in academic research.
PRO
• Easy to learn and use.
• Often taught in schools in introductory statistics courses.
• Widely used in engineering for process improvement.
SPSS…
SPSS-Statistical Product and Service Solutions
Formally knows as Statistical Packages for Social Sciences (SPSS).

Application of SPSS Program in Business Research…

On starting the SPSS program, a screen will appear that looks like a blank EXCEL Sheet.
There are some basic windows in SPSS that act as the user interface namely the data
editor view comprising the data view and the data variable view, the output view, the
draft output view , the script view and the syntax view.
– The Data View : It displays the actual entered data and any new variable created.
– The Variable View : To go to the variable view click the variable view tab at the
bottom of the data window. This window contains the definitions of each
variable in the data set including its name, type, label, size, alignment etc.
– The Output View: It shows the results of the queries made by the user.
– The Draft View : It gives a view of the output as it is generated for printing.
– The Syntax View : This show the actual step or code used for a particular
analysis.
Entering Data into SPSS :
• Data can be directly typed in the EXCEL. Sheet opened for the first time. Data should be
numerically coded. To define the data format, variable labels and value labels for each
variables, double-click on the heading of the respective columns. Enter the data in the
relevant boxes/cells and save this file with this file save as option in the file menu.
• Data can be also be imported from an existing EXCEL file.
• SPSS is a comprehensive statistical program. It is available in Unix, desktop (Windows
and Macintosh) and student packages.

• SPSS originally was released in its first version in 1968 after being founded by Norman
H. Nie and C. Hadlai Hull. It is used by market researchers, Survey Companies,
Government, Education researchers, Marketing Organizations and others. In 2009 SPSS
re-branded its software packages as PASW- Predictive Analysis Software.

Statistics included in the SPSS are:

• Descriptive Statistics: Cross Tabulation , Frequencies, descriptive, Explore, Descriptive
Ratio Statistics.
• Bivariate Statistics : Mean, t-test, ANOVA , Correlation, Non-parametric test.
• Prediction for numerical outcomes: Liner Regression.
• Prediction for identifying groups: Factor Analysis, Cluster Analysis, Discriminant
Analysis.

COST
• From $1000 to $12000 per license depending on license type.

CON
• Very expensive.
• Not adequate for modeling and cutting edge statistical analysis.
PRO
• Easy to learn and use.
• More powerful then Minitab.
• One of the most widely used statistical packages in academia and industry.
• Has a command line interface in addition to menu driven user interface.
• One of the most powerful statistical package that is also easy to use.
SAS ….
STATISTICAL ANALYSIS SYSYEM…

COST
• Complicated pricing model.
• $8,500 first year license fee.

CON
• Very expensive.
• Not user friendly.
• Step learning curve.
• Relatively poor graphics capabilities.

PRO
• Widely accepted as the leader in statistical analysis and modeling.
• Widely used in the industry and academia.
• Very flexible and very powerful.
 Libre Office Calc…

• Libre Office Calc is the spreadsheet component of the Libre Office software package.
• After forking from OpenOffice.org in 2010, Libre Office Calc under went a massive re-
work of external reference handling to fix a large number of defects in formula
calculations involving external references, and to boost data caching performance
especially when referencing large data ranges.
• Additionally Calc now supports 1 million rows in a spreadsheet with macro references to
each cell.
• Calc is capable of opening and saving most spreadsheets in Microsoft Excel file
format. Calc is also capable of saving spreadsheets as PDF files.
• As with the entire Libre Office suite, Calc is available for a variety of platforms,
including Linux OS X , Microsoft Windows ,and Free BSD Available under the Mozilla
Public License , Calc is free and open source software.
• Capabilities of Calc include:
• Ability to read/write Open Document (ODF), Excel (XLS),
• CSV and several other formats.
• Support for a large number of functions, including those for
• imaginary numbers, as well as financial and statistical functions.
• Supports 1 million rows in a spreadsheet, making Libre Office
• spreadsheets more suitable for heavier scientific or financial
• spreadsheets. However, the number of columns is restricted to at
• most 1024, much lower than Excel's limit of 16384.

PRO
• Very similar to Microsoft Excel in functionality and look and feel (earlier versions).
• User friendly.
• Very good for basic descriptive statistics, charts and plots.
 • Inter-operable with Microsoft Office.

COST
• Free.
CON
• Not sufficient for anything beyond the most basic statistical analysis.

EpiInfo…

• Epi Info is public domain statistical software for epidemiology developed by Centers for
Disease Control and Prevention (CDC).
• Epi Info has been in existence for over 20 years and is currently available for Microsoft
Windows. The program allows for electronic survey creation, data entry, and analysis.
Within the analysis module, analytic routines include t-tests, ANOVA, nonparametric
statistics, cross tabulations and stratification with estimates of odds ratios, risk ratios,
and risk differences, logistic regression (conditional and unconditional), survival analysis
(Kaplan Meier and Cox proportional hazard), and analysis of complex survey data. The
software is in the public domain, free, and can be downloaded from
http://www.cdc.gov/epiinfo. Limited support is available.
PRO
o Consists of multiple modules to accomplish various tasks beyond just statistical
analysis.
o Ability to rapidly develop a questionnaire.
o Customize the data entry process.
o Quickly enter data into that questionnaire.
o Analyze the data.
COST
• Free
CON
o Not a dedicated statistical package
o Not as powerful as commercial alternative for performing advanced analysis and
modeling.
PSPP…

COST
• Free
PRO
o Aims as a free SPSS alternative with an interface that closely resembles SPSS.
o User friendly.
o Good enough for basic statistical analysis.

CON
o Lacks many advanced statistical tests and features that are present in SPSS.
o Last version released in 2010.
o Not very well known nor widely used.

R….

R provides a wide variety of statistical and graphical techniques, including linear and nonlinear
modeling, classical statistical tests, time-series analysis, classification, clustering, and others. R
is easily extensible through functions and extensions, and the R community is noted for its
active contributions in terms of packages. There are some important differences, but much
code written for S runs unaltered. Many of R's standard functions are written in R itself, which
makes it easy for users to follow the algorithmic choices made.
R is highly extensible through the use of user-submitted packages for specific functions or
specific areas of study. Due to its S heritage, R has stronger object-oriented programming
facilities than most statistical computing languages. Extending R is also eased by its permissive
lexical scoping rules.

PRO
• Widely used and accepted in industry and academia.
• Very powerful and flexible.
• Very large user base.
• Lots of books and manuals.
• Several User Interface Shells available.
COST
• Free / Open Source.
CON
• Not user friendly.
• Requires steep learning curve.

Dataset…
The Dataset and Story Library
DASL (pronounced "dazzle") is an online library of data files and stories that illustrate the use of
basic statistics methods. We hope to provide data from a wide variety of topics so that statistics
teachers can find real-world examples that will be interesting to their students. Use DASL's
powerful search engine to locate the story or data file of interest.

STATA…
Statistics for Data Analysis means STATA is a comprehensive statistical program. It is available
in a Windows, DOS, Macintosh and Unix format.

STATISTICA….
STATISTICA is a comprehensive statistical program offered by Stat Soft. It is available in a
Windows, Macintosh and Student version.

Conclusion..
o Statistical analysis is an integral part of any study and publication.
o While commercial statistical software may cost an arm and a leg, free
alternatives do exists.
o While some free alternatives don't measure up, others are growing and
expending rapidly and may overtake commercial software in features and
popularity.
PREPARING A RESEARCH REPORT :
“Research report is a research document that contains basic aspects of the research project”.

Research report is the systematic, articulate, and orderly presentation of research work in a

written form.

We can also define the term as:

Research report is a research document that contains basic aspects of the research project.

In the same way, we can say:

Research report involves relevant information on the research work carried out. It may be
in form of hand-written, typed, or computerized.

• Preparation of a comprehensive written research report is an essential part of a valid

research experience, and the student should be aware of this requirement at the outset
of the project.
• Interim reports may also be required, usually at the termination of the quarter or
semester. Sufficient time should be allowed for satisfactory completion of reports,
taking into account that initial drafts should be critiqued by the faculty advisor and
corrected by the student at each stage.
• Guidelines on how to prepare a professional-style research report are not routinely
available. For this reason, the following information on report writing and format is
provided to be helpful to undergraduate researchers and to faculty advisors.

Difference Between Research Report & Research Proposal..

Research Report ..
• A research report is prepared after a study is completed.
• A research report communicates what was actually done in a study, and what
resulted.
• A research report is a primary source.
• It reports the methods and results of an original study performed by the
researcher.

Research Proposal..
• A research proposal is Prepared before a study begins.
• A research proposal communicates a researcher's plan for a study.
• An article is a secondary source.
• It does not report original research by the author.
 • The significance of Research report is considered a major component of the research
study for the research task remains incomplete till the report has been presented
and/or written.
• As a matter of fact even the most brilliant hypothesis, highly well designed and
conducted research study, and the most striking generalizations and findings are of little
value unless they are effectively communicated to others.
• The purpose of research is not well served unless the findings are made known to
others. Research results must invariably enter the general store of knowledge.
• All this explains the significance of writing research report. There are people who do not
consider writing of report as an integral part of the research process. But the general
opinion is in favor of treating the presentation of research results or the writing of
report as part and parcel of the research project.
• Writing of report is the last step in a research study and requires a set of skills
somewhat different from those called for in respect of the earlier stages of research.
This task should be accomplished by the researcher with utmost care; he may seek the
assistance and guidance of experts for the purpose.
• Research report is considered a major component of the research study for the
research task remains incomplete till the report has been presented and/ or written.
• The purpose of research is not well served unless the findings are made known to
others.
• The task of report writing must be accomplished by the researcher with utmost care
and he may seek the assistance and guidance of the experts.

Organization of the Research Report

Report Most scientific research reports, irrespective of the field, parallel the method of
scientific reasoning.
That is: the problem is defined, a hypothesis is created, experiments are devised to test the
hypothesis, experiments are conducted, and conclusions are drawn. This framework is
consistent with the following organization of a research report:
• Title Abstract Introduction
• Experimental Details or Theoretical Analysis
• Results Discussion
• Conclusions and Summary
• References

Title and Title Page

The title should reflect the content and emphasis of the project described in the report. It
should be as short as possible and include essential key words. The author's name (e.g., Mary B.
Chung) should follow the title on a separate line, followed by the author's affiliation (e.g.,
Department of Chemistry, Central State College, Central, AR 76123), the date, and possibly the
origin of the report (e.g., In partial fulfillment of a Senior Thesis Project under the supervision of
Professor Danielle F. Green, June, 1997). All of the above could appear on a single cover page.
Acknowledgments and a table of contents can be added as preface pages if desired.

Abstract
The abstract should, in the briefest terms possible, describe the topic, the scope, the principal
findings, and the conclusions. It should be written last to reflect accurately the content of the
report. The length of abstracts vary but seldom exceed 200 words. A primary objective of an
abstract is to communicate to the reader the essence of the paper. The reader will then be the
judge of whether to read the full report or not. Were the report to appear in the primary
literature, the abstract would serve as a key source of indexing terms and key words to be used
in information retrieval. Author abstracts are often published verbatim in Chemical Abstracts.

Introduction
"A good introduction is a clear statement of the problem or project and why you are studying
it." (The ACS Style Guide. American Chemical Society, Washington, DC, 1986.) The nature of the
problem and why it is of interest should be conveyed in the opening paragraphs. This section
should describe clearly but briefly the background information on the problem, what has been
done before (with proper literature citations), and the objectives of the current project. A clear
relationship between the current project and the scope and limitations of earlier work should
be made so that the reasons for the project and the approach used will be understood.

Experimental Details or Theoretical Analysis

This section should describe what was actually done. It is a succinct exposition of the laboratory
notebook, describing procedures, techniques, instrumentation, special precautions, and so on.
It should be sufficiently detailed that other experienced researchers would be able to repeat
the work and obtain comparable results. In theoretical reports, this section would include
sufficient theoretical or mathematical analysis to enable derivations and numerical results to be
checked. Computer programs from the public domain should be cited. New computer programs
should be described in outline form. If the experimental section is lengthy and detailed, as in
synthetic work, it can be placed at the end of the report or as an appendix so that it does not
interrupt the conceptual flow of the report. Its placement will depend on the nature of the
project and the discretion of the writer.

Results
In this section, relevant data, observations, and findings are summarized. Tabulation of data,
equations, charts, and figures can be used effectively to present results clearly and concisely.
Schemes to show reaction sequences may be used here or elsewhere in the report.

Discussion
The crux of the report is the analysis and interpretation of the results. What do the results
mean? How do they relate to the objectives of the project? To what extent have they resolved
the problem? Because the "Results" and "Discussion" sections are interrelated, they can often
be combined as one section.
Conclusions and Summary
A separate section outlining the main conclusions of the project is appropriate if conclusions
have not already been stated in the "Discussion" section. Directions for future work are also
suitably expressed here. A lengthy report, or one in which the findings are complex, usually
benefits from a paragraph summarizing the main features of the report - the objectives, the
findings, and the conclusions. The last paragraph of text in manuscripts prepared for
publication is customarily dedicated to acknowledgments. However, there is no rule about this,
and research reports or senior theses frequently place acknowledgments following the title
page.

References
Literature references should be collated at the end of the report and cited in one of the formats
described in The ACS Style Guide or standard journals. Do not mix formats. All references
should be checked against the original literature.

Preparing the Manuscript

The personal computer and word processing have made manuscript preparation and revision a
great deal easier than it used to be. Students should have the opportunity to use a word
processor and have access to graphics software which allows numerical data to be graphed,
chemical structures to be drawn, and mathematical equations to be represented. These are
essential tools of the technical writer. All manuscripts should routinely be checked for spelling
(spell check programs are helpful), and all manuscripts should be carefully proofread before
being submitted. Preliminary drafts should be edited by the faculty advisor before the report is
presented in final form.

Two Useful Texts

Writing the Laboratory Notebook, Kanare, Howard M., American Chemical Society, Washington,
DC, 1985. This book describes among other things the reasons for note keeping, organizing and
writing the notebook with examples, and provides photographs from laboratory notebooks of
famous scientists. The ACS Style Guide, Dodd, J. S., Ed; American Chemical Society, Washington,
DC, 1997. This volume is an invaluable writer's handbook in the field of chemistry. It contains a
wealth of data on preparing any type of scientific report and is useful for both students and
professional chemists. Every research laboratory should have a copy, and it should be as
accessible as the Handbook of Chemistry and Physics. It gives pointers on the organization of a
scientific paper, correct grammar and style, and accepted formats in citing chemical names,
chemical symbols, units, and references. There are useful suggestions on constructing tables,
preparing illustrations, using different type faces and type sizes, and giving oral presentations.
In addition, there is a brief overview of the chemical literature, the way in which it is organized
and how information is disseminated and retrieved. A list of other excellent guides to technical
writing is also provided. See also The Basics or Technical Communicating. Cain, B. E.; ACS
Professional Reference Book American Chemical So.
• The research report should be long enough to cover the subjects but short enough to
maintain the interest.
• The report should not be dull, it should sustain the reader’s interest.
• The report should possess the features of simplicity and avoiding vagueness.
• Readers of the report are more interested in acquiring a quick knowledge of the main
findings and the report should provide a ready availability of the findings with the help
of charts, graphs and statistical tables.
• Charts
o Translate numerical information into visual form so that relationships may be
easily grasped.
o Chart elements:
 Figure number
 Title
 Explanatory legends
 Source and footnotes

• Using tables effectively

o Pictures or diagrams used to clarify complex points or
• emphasize a message
o Should always be interpreted in the text. Creating tables
o Numerical information
 Table number
 Title
 Footnotes and source notes
• Abstract terminology and technical language should be avoided in a research report.
• The report must provide a readily availability of the findings.
• The layout of the report must be in accordance with the objectives of the research
problem.
• The report should be original in nature.
• The contents of the report should be well thought out
• keeping in view the objective of the research problem.
• The grammatical mistakes should be avoided and the report should be prepared strictly
in accordance with the techniques of composition of report. Writing such as the use of
quotations, foot notes, proper punctuations and the use of abbreviations in the foot
notes etc.
• Logical analysis should be the very basis of preparing a
• research report.
• The report should also suggest the policy implication relating to the problem under
consideration and should help us in future forecasting.
• All the technical data should be appended in the report.
• A list of bibliography of various sources consulted for the research study should be
prepared and be given in the report.
• A good report should also possess an index of subjects and authors as well. It should be
appended at the end of the report.
• Report should be attractive in shape, neat and clean whether typed or printed.
• Calculated confidence limits must also be mentioned in the report and the various
limitations experienced by the researcher in his study should be stated in the report.
• A good report should also mention the objective of the study the nature of the problem
the methods and analysis techniques used. All these things should be given in the form
of introduction in the report.
• Appendices should be properly listed in all respect in order to avoid any confusions.
• Bibliography of sources of consulted is a must and it should be very carefully and
chronologically arranged.
• The objective of the study, the nature of the problem, the methods employed and the
analysis techniques adopted must all be clearly stated in the beginning of the report in
the form of introduction.
• The limitations related to the study must also be clearly indicated in the research
report.
• In spite of all has been stated above ,one should always keep in view the fact report-
writing is an art which is learnt by practice and experience , rather than by mere
doctrination.