energies

Review
Solar Photovoltaic Tracking Systems for Electricity
Generation: A Review
Sebastijan Seme 1,2 , Bojan Štumberger 1,2 , Miralem Hadžiselimović 1,2 and
Klemen Sredenšek 1, *
1 Faculty of Energy Technology, University of Maribor, Hočevarjev trg 1, 8270 Krško, Slovenia;
sebastijan.seme@um.si (S.S.); bojan.stumberger@um.si (B.Š.); miralem.h@um.si (M.H.)
2 Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, University of Maribor, Koroška Cesta 46,
2000 Maribor, Slovenia
* Correspondence: klemen.sredensek@um.si




Received: 10 July 2020; Accepted: 12 August 2020; Published: 15 August 2020


Abstract: This paper presents a thorough review of state-of-the-art research and literature in the field
of photovoltaic tracking systems for the production of electrical energy. A review of the literature
is performed mainly for the field of solar photovoltaic tracking systems, which gives this paper
the necessary foundation. Solar systems can be roughly divided into three fields: the generation
of thermal energy (solar collectors), the generation of electrical energy (photovoltaic systems),
and the generation of electrical energy/thermal energy (hybrid systems). The development of
photovoltaic systems began in the mid-19th century, followed shortly by research in the field of
tracking systems. With the development of tracking systems, different types of tracking systems,
drives, designs, and tracking strategies were also defined. This paper presents a comprehensive
overview of photovoltaic tracking systems, as well as the latest studies that have been done in recent
years. The review will be supplemented with a factual presentation of the tracking systems used at
the Institute of Energy Technology of the University of Maribor.

Keywords: solar energy; photovoltaic tracking system; tracking strategies; drive system; degree
of freedom

1. Introduction
Climate change and the exponential growth of energy demand are calling for a huge expansion of
renewable energy sources around the world. Currently, the installed capacity of all photovoltaic systems
(PV) worldwide is greater than the sum of all other renewable energy systems, which amounted to
102.4 GW in 2018 and 125 GW in 2020 [1]. Solar energy is an inexhaustible source of energy and will play
an important role in the future. However, the density of solar radiation varies from location to location
and thus, the use of solar energy. The use of solar energy can be encouraged in several ways, such as
monitoring or subsidies, as well as through solar systems that follow the sun’s path—called tracking
solar systems. The main goal of tracking systems is to increase the energy yield, which according to
previously conducted research and studies ranges between 22% and 56% compared to a fixed solar
system. However, it also depends on the driving system, degree of freedom, control system, and other
parameters such as weather conditions or location. The generated electrical energy from photovoltaic
systems depends mainly on solar radiation reaching the photovoltaic modules, as well as the materials
used [2], the temperature [3], and the inverter. The power density of solar radiation reaching the earth’s
surface cannot be directly influenced, as it depends mainly on the location and the conditions in the
atmosphere. However, the photovoltaic system can be oriented so that the rays fall perpendicular to
the observed surface of the photovoltaic module and thus optimize the production of electrical energy.

Energies 2020, 13, 4224; doi:10.3390/en13164224 www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

Energies 2020, 13, 4224 2 of 24

The influence of the temperature of the photovoltaic modules on the conversion efficiency is extremely
important [4,5], as are the types of photovoltaic modules and their applicability [6]. In addition to the
type of technology and other influences on photovoltaic modules, the efficiency of the conversion of
solar radiation into electrical energy mainly depends on the impedance adjustment, which is (in other
words) called the maximum power point tracking (MPPT). The optimization of electrical parameters
to achieve the maximum production of electrical energy from a photovoltaic system using the MPPT
algorithm is also extremely important. The photovoltaic tracking systems that follow the trajectories
of the sun’s rays ensure that the power density of the solar radiation is perpendicular to the normal
of the module surface. The tracking is achieved by proper control and use of the tracking system
drive assembly. Photovoltaic tracking systems receive the energy of the sun’s rays directly on the
photovoltaic modules and are further divided according to the number of degrees of freedom. The most
common are single-axis [7] and dual-axis [8] photovoltaic tracking systems. Single-axis photovoltaic
tracking systems follow the trajectories of the sun by moving around one axis, most commonly from
east to west, while dual-axis photovoltaic tracking systems can move in two axes, from north to south
and from east to west. Dual-axis photovoltaic tracking systems can be more precise than single-axis
photovoltaic tracking systems but are more expensive because of the additional rotating axis. In some
cases, investing in dual-axis photovoltaic tracking systems can be non-feasible, as their energy yield is
only a few percentage points higher than that of a single-axis tracking system.
Control systems, called closed-loop [9] and open-loop [10] control tracking systems, are mostly
used to actuate the drive assemblies of a single-axis or dual-axis photovoltaic tracking system. The main
difference between open-loop and closed-loop tracking systems is that the former tracking system
uses a photosensor (light-dependent resistor (LDR)) for its operation, which sends a signal to the
control unit, while the latter system uses an algorithm loaded in the processor of the controller.
The combination of both closed-loop and open-loop tracking systems is the so-called hybrid control
tracking system. An example of a dual-axis tracking system with a hybrid tracking system is presented
in [11]. In addition to ensuring the required accuracy of the tracking system, it is also necessary to
minimize electrical losses caused by the movement of the drive assembly. The researchers in [12]
present the optimal inclination and azimuth angle for a fixed photovoltaic system, while the researchers
in [13] deal with the best solution for the photovoltaic tracking system. Since active photovoltaic
tracking systems use electrical energy for their operation, it is necessary to optimize their consumption.
Similarly, the researchers in [14] present the optimal tracking of the azimuth tracking system by the
trajectory of the sun, with the aim of maximizing the electrical energy production of a PV system with
a minimum number of shifts. Optimization is determined for one day, by comparing the characteristics
obtained at different numbers of movements. The results should provide an answer to the question
of when and by how many degrees it would be necessary to change the azimuth angle in order to
maximize electrical energy production.
Several authors deal with the design [15], simulation [16], and optimization [17] of tracking
systems, using dynamic (multi-body) models of tracking systems together with dynamic models of
powertrains and controls, otherwise called virtual prototypes [18]. In doing so, they use known models
for the calculation of solar radiation, while the tools are used for the design and continuous control of
single-axis tracking systems.
Photovoltaic tracking systems represent higher investment costs, but at the same time require
more knowledge in management and maintenance compared to the classic fixed photovoltaic system.
To this end, so-called virtual laboratories have been established, which primarily reduce the cost of
learning equipment and reduce the risk of damage to the system during teaching/learning process.
According to certain studies, learning in a new virtual environment is also more effective [19].
Many different papers [20–29] have been written in recent years reviewing the literature in the
field of tracking PV systems, covering everything from the classification of photovoltaic tracking
systems, the use of individual components, to the MPPT algorithm. A significant contribution
of this paper is a comprehensive review of scientific articles and reports by 2020 and a review of
Energies 2020, 13, 4224 3 of 24

important specifications of commercial systems used for market purposes. The paper is divided
into seven chapters, namely: introduction, solar systems (basic division between photovoltaic,
solar thermal, and photovoltaic/thermal systems), classification based on the driving system (passive
and active tracking systems), classification based on degree of freedom (single and dual-axis tracking
systems—comprehensive review), classification based on control system (open- and closed-loop
tracking systems—comprehensive
Energies 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW review), commercial photovoltaic tracking systems for
3 ofelectricity
25
generation, and conclusion.
tracking systems), classification based on degree of freedom (single and dual-axis tracking systems—
2. Solarcomprehensive
Systems review), classification based on control system (open- and closed-loop tracking
systems—comprehensive review), commercial photovoltaic tracking systems for electricity
Solar systems
generation, use
and solar energy (or electromagnetic wave energy of the sun’s rays) to produce
conclusion.
electrical and/or thermal energy [30]. In terms of energy production, we divide the solar systems into:
2. Solar Systems
• Direct Solar
generation
systemsofuse
electrical energy:
solar energy photovoltaic wave
(or electromagnetic modules,
energy of the sun’s rays) to produce
• Direct generation
electrical of heat:
and/or thermal solar[30].
energy collectors,
In terms of energy production, we divide the solar systems into:
• Direct
 generation
Direct generationof electrical
of electrical energy
energy: and modules,
photovoltaic indirect generation of thermal energy:

photovoltaic/thermal
Direct generation (PV/T)
of heat: hybrid collectors.
solar collectors,
 Direct generation of electrical energy and indirect generation of thermal energy:
Figurephotovoltaic/thermal
1 presents a classification of collectors.
(PV/T) hybrid the use of solar systems using a particular load-bearing
construction, which can be used as a construction for the PV system at different slopes and orientations,
Figure 1 presents a classification of the use of solar systems using a particular load-bearing
or can be used to improve the production of electrical
construction, which can be used as a construction andfororthe
thermal energy.
PV system at Therefore, the load-bearing
different slopes and
constructions can be
orientations, divided
or can into:
be used to improve the production of electrical and or thermal energy. Therefore,
the load-bearing constructions can be divided into:
• Fixed systems, and
 Fixed systems, and
• Tracking

systems.
Tracking systems.

2. - Solar systems

2.2 - Thermal 2.3 - PV/T

2.1 - PV systems
systems systems
Crystalline: Thin film: Flat plate Passive:
- monocrystalline - amorf. U-pipe - air
- polycrystalline - CdS/CdTe Heat-pipe - water
- GaAs - CIS/CIGS Bowl Active:
- air
Organic - liqued
Hybrid cell - other types
Dye sensitized

Tracking
Fixed systems
system

3. - Based 4. - Based 5. - Based on

on drives on degree strategies
Active of freedom Closed-loop
Passive Single-axis Open-loop
Dual-axis Hybrid

Figure
Figure 1.1.Classification
Classification ofofsolar
solarsystems.
systems.
Energies 2020, 13, 4224 4 of 24

2.1. Photovoltaic Systems

Energies 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 25

The terminology described by IEC 61836 (Solar Photovoltaic Energy Systems—Conditions and
2.1. Photovoltaic Systems
Symbols) [31] defines photovoltaic systems as systems that convert the visible portion of the solar
radiation The terminology
spectrum directly described by IEC energy.
into electrical 61836 (Solar
The Photovoltaic
basic building Energy
blockSystems—Conditions
of each photovoltaicand system
Symbols) [31] defines photovoltaic systems as systems that convert the visible portion of the solar
is a solar cell that generates electrical power when exposed to solar radiation (IEC 60904-3 [32]).
radiation spectrum directly into electrical energy. The basic building block of each photovoltaic
Several interconnected solar cells form a module that represents the smallest environmentally protected
system is a solar cell that generates electrical power when exposed to solar radiation (IEC 60904-3
unit (IEC
[32]). 60904-3 [32] in IEC 61277
Several interconnected [33]).form
solar cells A group
a module of electrically
that represents and themechanically interconnected
smallest environmentally
modules that form an electrically and mechanically complete unit is called
protected unit (IEC 60904-3 [32] in IEC 61277 [33]). A group of electrically and mechanically a panel (IEC 61277 [33]),
intended
interconnected modules that form an electrically and mechanically complete unit is called a panel with
as a field installation unit. The field is a mechanically complete set of panels together
the load-bearing
(IEC 61277 [33]),construction,
intended as abutfieldwithout theunit.
installation foundations,
The field istracking mechanisms,
a mechanically complete setthermal control
of panels
together
elements, andwith
otherthe load-bearing
similar elements construction,
forming thebut without
unit for thethe foundations,
production tracking energy
of electrical mechanisms,
in a direct
thermal
current system control
(IECelements, and When
61277 [33]). other similar elements
the field forming
of panes the production
for the unit for the production
of electrical of energy
electricalin the
energy in a direct current system (IEC 61277 [33]). When the field of
DC system is added a DC/DC converter for impedance adjustment, a DC/AC inverter for converting panes for the production of
electrical energy in the DC system is added a DC/DC converter for impedance adjustment, a DC/AC
the DC electrical quantities into AC electrical quantities, and an algorithm for achieving the maximum
inverter for converting the DC electrical quantities into AC electrical quantities, and an algorithm for
power point, a solar power plant is obtained.
achieving the maximum power point, a solar power plant is obtained.
The photovoltaic
The photovoltaic system
systemrequires
requiresaaconsumer
consumer or an energy
or an energysink sinktoto operate.
operate. Depending
Depending on theon the
modemodeof connection of the consumer, PV systems are separated into PV systems
of connection of the consumer, PV systems are separated into PV systems that are not intended that are not intended
for parallel operation
for parallel operation with thethe
with public
publicelectricity
electricity grid andPV
grid and PVsystems
systems that
that areare connected
connected topublic
to the the public
electricity grid.grid.
electricity Photovoltaic
Photovoltaicsystems
systems that
that are
are not intendedfor
not intended forparallel
parallel operation
operation withwith the public
the public
electricity
electricity grid grid are often
are often usedused to supply
to supply electricalenergy
electrical energytotoconsumers
consumers in in hard-to-reach
hard-to-reachlocations
locations and
and to
to power remote communication stations or water pumps. Unlike grid-connected
power remote communication stations or water pumps. Unlike grid-connected PV systems, these PV PV systems, these
PV systems
systems (also stand-alone
(also called called stand-alone PV systems)
PV systems) require
require an an adequatebattery
adequate batteryandand charge
charge regulator
regulator for
for flexible operation. Figure 2 shows the basic connection of the grid-connected PV system.
flexible operation. Figure 2 shows the basic connection of the grid-connected PV system.

Photovoltaic system or
Solar power plant Grid-connection

Transformer

DC DC

DC AC

DC / DC converter DC / AC
or Impedance inverter
adjustment

Figure 2. Basic connection of the grid-connected photovoltaic (PV) system.

Figure 2. Basic connection of the grid-connected photovoltaic (PV) system.
The main elements of each grid-connected PV system are field of panels, DC/DC converter,
The main elements of each grid-connected PV system are field of panels, DC/DC converter, and
and DC/AC inverter. By properly connecting the panels into the field that are exposed to the sun,
DC/AC inverter. By properly connecting the panels into the field that are exposed to the sun,
adequate DC voltage
adequate DC voltageamplitude
amplitudeisisachieved
achieved atat the output.The
the output. TheDC/DC
DC/DC converter,
converter, on one
on the the hand,
one hand,
adjusts the output DC voltage amplitude of the field of panels to the required
adjusts the output DC voltage amplitude of the field of panels to the required input DC voltage input DC voltage
amplitude
amplitude of the DC/AC inverter; on the other hand, the DC/DC converter adjusts the impedance of of
of the DC/AC inverter; on the other hand, the DC/DC converter adjusts the impedance
the field of panels.
the field In doing
of panels. so, so,
In doing it makes
it makessure that
sure thatthe field
the fieldisisconstantly
constantlysensing such resistance
sensing such resistancethat
that the
the modules
modules in theoperate
in the panels panels operate at the maximum
at the maximum powerpower
point at point at all times.
all times. The DC/AC
The DC/AC converter
converter converts
inputconverts
DC voltageinput toDC voltage
output AC to voltage
output ACusing voltage usingcommonly
the most the most commonly
used pulse used pulsemodulation
width width
modulation (PWM). The output AC voltage of the DC/AC inverter is smoothed
(PWM). The output AC voltage of the DC/AC inverter is smoothed out by the output filter, which is a out by the output
filter, which is a bandpass sieve and transmits the voltage of the basic harmonic component. The
bandpass sieve and transmits the voltage of the basic harmonic component. The output filter can be
output filter can be connected directly to the grid or through a transformer, as shown in Figure 2. In
connected directly to the grid or through a transformer, as shown in Figure 2. In the case without a
the case without a DC/DC converter, the transformer takes care of the impedance adjustment.
DC/DC converter, the energy
The electrical transformer takes
generated bycare of the impedance
PV systems depends mainly adjustment.
on the available solar radiation
The electrical energy generated by PV systems depends
reaching the PV modules. Tracking systems ensure that the sun’s rays fall mainly onperpendicular
the availableonsolar radiation
the active
reaching theof
surface PV modules.
the PV module.Tracking systemsofensure
The efficiency that the of
the conversion sun’s
solarrays fall into
energy perpendicular on the
electrical energy η isactive
surface of the PV module. The efficiency of the conversion of solar energy into electrical energy η
Energies 2020, 13, 4224 5 of 24

is defined as (1) and is the ratio between the electrical energy generated by PV systems Pel and the
productEnergies
of the2020,
active surface
13, x FOR of the field of panels A and the power density of the solar radiation
PEER REVIEW 5 of 25 G.

P
defined as (1) and is the ratio between the electrical energy generated by PV systems Pel and the
ηPV,m+DC/AC (G, T, AM) = el (1)
product of the active surface of the field of panels A and the power
G · Adensity of the solar radiation G.
ηPV,m+DC/AC is the overall efficiency of the  PV,
conversion of solar P
m  DC/AC G , T , AM  
energy
el into electrical(1)energy (a
GA
combination of the efficiency of PV modules and efficiency of DC/AC inverter) depending on the
intensity of ηsolar is the overall
radiation
PV,m+DC/AC G, the efficiency
temperatureof theofconversion
PV modules of solar energy
T, and into electrical
air mass AM. energy (a
combination of the efficiency of PV modules and efficiency of
The efficiency of the conversion of solar energy into electrical energy depends DC/AC inverter) depending
mainly onon
thethe type
intensity of solar radiation G, the temperature of PV modules T, and air mass AM.
and quality of PV modules, temperature, connections between panels, impedance adjustment, DC/DC
The efficiency of the conversion of solar energy into electrical energy depends mainly on the
converter,
typeand
andDC/AC
quality of inverter. There
PV modules, are two ways
temperature, to increase
connections between thepanels,
density of the solar
impedance radiation that
adjustment,
reaches DC/DC
the surface of the PV modules. The first is to properly select absorbent
converter, and DC/AC inverter. There are two ways to increase the density of the solar materials that absorb
as muchradiation
solar radiation
that reaches asthe
possible—concentrating
surface of the PV modules. The mirrors
first is(CPV)—(see Figure
to properly select 3). The
absorbent second is to
materials
increasethat
theabsorb
densityas of
much solar
solar radiationby
radiation as means
possible—concentrating
of a tracking system. mirrors (CPV)—(see Figure 3). The
second is to increase the density of solar radiation by means of a tracking system.

Figure 3. Concentrating PV system in municipality Pivka (Elektro Primorska d.d., Distribution unit
Figure 3. Concentrating PV system in municipality Pivka (Elektro Primorska d.d., Distribution unit
Sežana, supervision Pivka - Electricity distribution company).
Sežana, supervision Pivka - Electricity distribution company).
2.2.Thermal
2.2. Solar Solar Thermal Systems
Systems
According to technological development and research, solar thermal collectors can be divided
According to technological development and research, solar thermal collectors can be divided
into four different generations:
into four different
The firstgenerations:
generation includes flat-plate solar collectors, which are still the most numerous type
Theoffirst
solargeneration includes
collectors, usually made flat-plate solarorcollectors,
up of copper aluminum tubeswhich are still
covered with theanmost numerous
absorber plate. type
of solarFlat-panel
collectors, solar collectors
usually madeare relatively effective
up of copper orif aluminum
climatic conditions
tubes reach at least
covered with18 °C
anwith high plate.
absorber
levels
Flat-panel of sunlight.
solar collectorsTherefore, they are generally
are relatively effectivebetter suited for
if climatic locations with
conditions reachhighatamounts
least 18of◦ C solar
with high
radiation throughout the year. Because of their design, flat-plate solar collectors are less efficient in
levels of sunlight. Therefore, they are generally better suited for locations with high amounts of solar
heat management compared to other types of collectors. The problem arises in the colder periods
radiation throughout
without sufficientthe year. ofBecause
amounts of their
solar radiation. design, flat-plate
Furthermore, solar of
the installation collectors are less
flat solar panels efficient in
is more
heat management
difficult than the newer generation ones. Diez et al. [34] performed the modelling of a flat-plate solarperiods
compared to other types of collectors. The problem arises in the colder
withoutcollector
sufficient amounts
at different of solar
working radiation.
fluid flow rates,Furthermore,
using artificialthe installation
neural networks of flat solar
(ANN). Basedpanels
on the is more
difficultobtained
than theresults,
newer thegeneration
author suggestsones. that future
Diez et research studies should
al. [34] performed theinclude ANN for
modelling of modelling
a flat-plate solar
collectorother parameters
at different of the solar
working collectors,
fluid or evenusing
flow rates, the complete solar
artificial system.
neural Tong et al.(ANN).
networks [35] discovered
Based on the
that the use of Al2O3 nanofluids could improve the thermal efficiency of flat-plate solar collectors by
obtained results, the author suggests that future research studies should include ANN for modelling
at least 20%, compared to water.
other parameters of the
The second solar collectors,
generation or even
includes U-tube thecollectors,
solar complete solar
which aresystem. Tong et al. [35]
easy to manufacture, discovered
and their
that the efficiency
use of Alis 2 Ohigher
3 nanofluids could collectors,
than flat-plate improve the thermal
regardless of efficiency
the season.ofAflat-plate
U-tube solar solar collectors
collector is by at
least 20%, compared
designed on theto water.
basis of a copper tube, through which solar fluid flows into glass tubes connected in
Theseries.
second Kaya et al. [36] includes
generation present an experimental
U-tube study of thermal
solar collectors, which are performance for U-tube solar
easy to manufacture, and their
collectors using ZnO/ethylene glycol-pure water nanofluids as the working fluid. The nanofluids
efficiency is higher than flat-plate collectors, regardless of the season. A U-tube solar collector is
designed on the basis of a copper tube, through which solar fluid flows into glass tubes connected in
series. Kaya et al. [36] present an experimental study of thermal performance for U-tube solar collectors
using ZnO/ethylene glycol-pure water nanofluids as the working fluid. The nanofluids were prepared
Energies 2020, 13, 4224 6 of 24

for 1.0 vol.%, 2.0 vol.%, 3.0 vol.%, and 4.0 vol.% of volume concentration; the highest thermal efficiency
was obtained using 3.0 vol.%. Kim et al. [37] discovered that the efficiency was higher at 1.0 vol.%
of Al2O3 nanofluids than with 1.5 vol.%. It can be seen that the thermal efficiency of solar collectors
using nanofluids is not proportional.
The third generation includes heat-pipe solar collectors (HPSC) with double-layer glass tubes.
Similar to U-tube solar collectors, they are easy to manufacture, but the received solar energy is
decreased because of double-layer glass tubes that surround the absorber. Shafieian et al. [38] present
a review of the latest development, progress, and applications of HPSC. The study covers the area of
working fluids, mathematical modelling, facade-based solar water heating systems, energy efficiency,
cost-effectiveness, and future trends. Jayanthi et al. [39] performed an experimental case on HPSC
using water and R134a as working fluids. The results show an increase in thermal efficiency of up to
37.37% by using the R134a instead of water. As presented for flat-plate and U-tube solar collectors,
nanofluids play an important role in increasing thermal efficiency and other parameters of solar
collectors. Dehaj et al. [40] performed an experimental study using water and MgO nanofluids as
working fluids. Prediction methods are also used in HPSC applications. Therefore, Shafieian et al. [41]
present an analysis of different data-based and conventional theoretical methods for modelling thermal
solar collectors. The results show that the ANN method has proven to be the most accurate method for
predicting the effectiveness of HPSC.
The latest generation of solar collectors is frost resistant, highly efficient in all weather conditions,
with low thermal inertia, with heat pipe operation and with one thick layer of glass around all active
collector parts; this means that the temperature of the heating fluid rises very quickly, which allows
the collector to utilize the heat even at extremely short sunlight intervals. A similar solar collector is
represented by Gao et al. [42] with an oscillating heat-pipe collector and flat-plate structure. This type
of solar collectors overcome the poor pressure resistance of conventional solar collectors, low efficiency,
and high startup temperature.

2.3. Photovoltaic/Thermal Systems

Higher operating temperatures of solar cells also cause the more rapid degradation of electrical
properties. Lower operating temperatures, therefore, minimize the degradation of electrical properties
of the solar cells, which are achieved by an adequate discharge of waste heat from the solar cell’s surface.
The cells are cooled by exposing the surface to a cooling medium (usually water or air) which, via a heat
exchanger, absorbs the waste heat of the solar cell, thereby reducing the temperature of the solar cell.
Thus, the waste heat can be utilized, for example, in low-temperature heating systems. These types of
systems that simultaneously produce electrical and thermal energy are called photovoltaic/thermal
(PV/T) hybrid systems [43]. The advantage of PV/T modules is the significantly higher total efficiency
(electrical and thermal) of converting solar energy into useful energy on a smaller surface than in the
case of a standalone PV module or solar collector. PV/T modules can be divided based on the module
type (design of heat exchanger, flat-plate, or concentrated PV/T modules), working fluid type (air,
water, nanoparticles), or by PV material types (silicon, non-silicon).
Many methods and techniques are known for discharging waste heat from the surface of
photovoltaic modules, which differ mainly according to the selected type of cooling medium [44] (air,
water, or nanoparticles) and depending on whether additional energy is used for cooling, fan, coolant
pump, etc.,) or not (using only natural physical laws and phenomena). Therefore, we can divide the
cooling techniques of PVT modules into:

• passive cooling techniques, and

• active cooling techniques.

The most optimal cooling technique depends on many factors, including the type of photovoltaic
cells or the topology of the photovoltaic modules and the photovoltaic system as such, as well as the
geographical location and weather conditions to which the photovoltaic system is exposed.
Energies 2020, 13, 4224 7 of 24

Energies 2020, 13,

3. Classification x FOR PEER
Based REVIEW
on the Driving System 7 of 25

The first and theBased

3. Classification moston common
the Driving classification
System of the tracking system is based on their driving
system, whichThe first and the most common classification oftracking
can be divided into active and passive systems.
the tracking system Passive
is basedtracking
on theirsystems
driving use
the pressure
system, difference
which can be ofdivided
specialinto liquids
active orandgases withtracking
passive a low boiling
systems.pointPassiveortracking
springssystems
from material
use
with formed memory
the pressure to move
difference the axes
of special liquids of or
thegases
tracking
with asystem.
low boilingThepointpressure difference
or springs is created
from material
by thewith
thermal
formed differences
memory toofmove the shaded
the axesand illuminated
of the tracking system.sidesThe
of the tracking
pressure system.
difference The tracking
is created by
the thermal differences of the shaded and illuminated sides of the
system moves until the pressure difference is in balance, which allows stretching and thus tracking tracking system. The tracking
system
in clear movesPassive
weather. until thesystems
pressureare difference
used veryis in balance,
rarely and which doallows
not need stretching and thus
additional tracking
power supply
in clear weather. Passive systems are used very rarely and do not need
to operate. Such systems are not suitable for demanding applications, as they are not sufficiently additional power supply to
operate. Such systems are not suitable for demanding applications, as they are not sufficiently precise,
precise, but they are suitable for smaller individual systems. Sánchez et al. [45] present the design
but they are suitable for smaller individual systems. Sánchez et al. [45] present the design and
and construction of a dual-axis passive solar tracker. A proposed solar tracker that has two degrees of
construction of a dual-axis passive solar tracker. A proposed solar tracker that has two degrees of
freedom, one used
freedom, for continuous
one used for continuous tracking
trackingofofthe thesun
sun and
and the otherused
the other usedtotoadjust
adjustthethe solar
solar tracker
tracker
manually
manually based on seasonal changes. The accuracy of a solar tracker is relatively low, while the priceprice
based on seasonal changes. The accuracy of a solar tracker is relatively low, while the
of the of
solar
thetracker is below
solar tracker the market
is below the marketprice price
of anyofcommercial
any commercial solarsolar
tracker. Clifford
tracker. et al.et[46]
Clifford present
al. [46]
the design
present of the
a novel
design passive solarpassive
of a novel trackersolar that tracker
is controlled
that is by a viscous
controlled by damper
a viscousand activated
damper and by
activated by
aluminum/steel aluminum/steel
bimetallic bimetallic strips.
strips. Modelling results Modelling
show anresultsincreaseshow an increase
of efficiency byof23%
efficiency
compared by to
23%systems,
fixed PV compared andto fixed PV systems,
excellent agreement and between
excellent agreement
simulationbetween simulation and
and experimental experimental
results.
results.systems are those that use electrical drives and mechanical assemblies to operate. The main
Active
Active systems are those that use electrical drives and mechanical assemblies to operate. The
components are a microprocessor, an electric motor, gearboxes, and sensors. Active tracking systems
main components are a microprocessor, an electric motor, gearboxes, and sensors. Active tracking
are further divided based on control drives, namely closed-loop, open-loop, and hybrid tracking
systems are further divided based on control drives, namely closed-loop, open-loop, and hybrid
systems. In addition
tracking systems. toIn
the closed-loop
addition to theand open-loop
closed-loop andtracking
open-loop system,
tracking active systems
system, activeare also divided
systems are
into intelligent control systems, microprocessor control systems, and
also divided into intelligent control systems, microprocessor control systems, and sensor-based sensor-based control systems.
Intelligent
controlcontrol
systems.systems use control
Intelligent artificial intelligence
systems (AI) intelligence
use artificial algorithms,(AI) fuzzy logic, orfuzzy
algorithms, neural network
logic, or
algorithms
neuralto controlalgorithms
network tracking to systems. Microprocessor
control tracking control systems
systems. Microprocessor use systems
control PIC anduse digital
PIC and signal
digital signalwhile
microcontrollers, microcontrollers,
sensor-based while sensor-based
control systems control systems use electro-optical
use electro-optical sensors and
sensors and light-dependent
resistors (LDRs). A combination of microcontroller and sensor-based control systems are control
light-dependent resistors (LDRs). A combination of microcontroller and sensor-based very often
systems
used for controlare of
verytheoften
PV used for control
tracking systems. of theOnly
PV tracking systems.
closed-loop, Only closed-loop,
open-loop, open-loop,
and hybrid systemsand are
hybrid systems are described in more detail in the paper, but the descriptions of various studies also
described in more detail in the paper, but the descriptions of various studies also mention the method
mention the method of control they use (intelligent, microcontroller or sensor-based control system).
of control they use (intelligent, microcontroller or sensor-based control system). Figure 4 shows the
Figure 4 shows the main components of the passive and active tracking systems.
main components of the passive and active tracking systems.

Sensor
Cylinder
with less
liquid

Liquide M Motor/
refrigerant actuator
Shade

Cylinder Micro-
controller
with more
liquid

(a) (b)
Figure
Figure 4. Driving
4. Driving system:
system: (a)(a) passivetracking
passive trackingsystem
system and
and(b)
(b)active
activetracking system.
tracking system.
Energies 2020, 13, 4224 8 of 24

4. Classification Based
Energies 2020, 13, on Degree
x FOR PEER REVIEW of Freedom 8 of 25

Photovoltaic systems
4. Classification Basedare
on structurally assembled for their operation and can be classified based on
Degree of Freedom
the number of directions for individual movement, called the degree of freedom. They are divided into:
Photovoltaic systems are structurally assembled for their operation and can be classified based
• on the
Fixed PV number of directions for individual movement, called the degree of freedom. They are divided
systems;
into:
• Tracking PV systems;
 Fixed PV systems;
• Single-axis tracking PV systems;
 Tracking PV systems;
• Dual-axis
 tracking PV systems.
Single-axis tracking PV systems;
 Dual-axis tracking PV systems.
Their function is not only to attach and protect but also to determine the appropriate inclination
and azimuth Their function
angle, thusisincreasing
not only to the
attach andof
yield protect but also
available to determine
solar energy thatthe appropriate
falls on theinclination
receiving surface.
and azimuth angle, thus increasing the yield of available solar energy that falls on the receiving
Thus, fixed systems are most often oriented to the south and are inclined at a certain angle (depending
surface. Thus, fixed systems are most often oriented to the south and are inclined at a certain angle
on longitude and latitude). Fixed PV systems represent the most common use of PV systems and
(depending on longitude and latitude). Fixed PV systems represent the most common use of PV
can be systems
mounted anddirectly on the roof
can be mounted of buildings
directly on the roof(at the same(at
of buildings slope as the
the same roofasof
slope thethe building).
roof of the As a
mathematical
building).basis
As afor the operation
mathematical basisoffor
a single-axis [47–49]
the operation and dual-axis
of a single-axis [47–49][8,50] photovoltaic
and dual-axis [8,50] tracking
system,photovoltaic
the anglestracking system,
presented belowthe are
angles
of presented below are
key importance of the
for key movement
importance forof the
themovement
axis of the of tracking
system.the
Theaxismost
of theimportant
tracking system.
are theThe most important
following angles,are the following
which are alsoangles,
shownwhich are also
in Figure 5: shown
zenith angle z,
in Figure 5: zenith angle z, altitude angle αs, declination angle δ, angle of incident i, latitude L, azimuth
altitude angle αs , declination angle δ, angle of incident i, latitude L, azimuth angle γ, and inclination
angle γ, and inclination angle β. The relations between the mentioned angles are described in more
angle β.detail
Theinrelations
[51]. between the mentioned angles are described in more detail in [51].

Zenith

δ
L
z
αs
αs
W
N
β
Sun
i
projection γ
S E
δ
Normal to
vertical surface Equatorial Plane

(a) (b)

Figure Figure 5. Description

5. Description of angles—(a)zenith
of angles—(a) zenith angle
angle z,z,angle
angleof of
incident i, inclination
incident angle β,
i, inclination and azimuth
angle β, and azimuth
angle γ; (b) declination angle δ and latitude L.
angle γ; (b) declination angle δ and latitude L.
4.1. Single-Axis Photovoltaic Tracking System
4.1. Single-Axis Photovoltaic Tracking System
Single-axis photovoltaic tracking systems are divided into three different types. These include
Single-axis photovoltaic
horizontal single-axis tracking
tracking systems
system, verticalare dividedtracking
single-axis into three different
system, types.
and tilted These include
single-axis
horizontal single-axis
tracking system. tracking system, vertical single-axis tracking system, and tilted single-axis
tracking

system.
Horizontal single-axis tracking system (HSAT) [52,53].
The rotating axis of the HSAT is horizontal with the ground.
• Horizontal
 single-axis
Vertical single-axis tracking system
tracking system (HSAT)
(VSAT) [52,53].
[6,53,54].
The rotating axis of the VSAT is vertical with the ground. These tracking systems rotate from
The
eastrotating axis ofthe
to west during theday
HSAT
[53]. is horizontal with the ground.
 Tilted single-axis tracking system (TSAT) [53].
• Vertical
Allsingle-axis tracking
tracking systems withsystem (VSAT)
a horizontal and[6,53,54].
vertically rotating axis are considered to be tilted
single-axis tracking systems. The tilt angles of tracking systems are often limited to decrease the
The rotating
elevated axis
end’s of the
height off VSAT is vertical
the ground withthe
and reduce thewind
ground.
profile.These tracking systems rotate from east
to west during the day [53].

• Tilted single-axis tracking system (TSAT) [53].

Energies 2020, 13, 4224 9 of 24

All tracking systems with a horizontal and vertically rotating axis are considered to be tilted
single-axis tracking systems. The tilt angles of tracking systems are often limited to decrease the
elevated end’s height off the ground and reduce the wind profile.
Energies 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 25
The polar-aligned single-axis tracking system (PASAT) is a unique version of the tilted single-axis
tracking system. The In polar-aligned
this case, single-axis tracking
the tilt angle systemto
is equal (PASAT) is a unique
the latitude version
of the of the tiltedwhich
installation, single- aligns the
axis tracking system. In this case, the tilt angle is equal to the latitude of the installation, which aligns
earth’s rotating axis with the rotating axis of the tracking system [53]. Figure 6 presents all three types
the earth’s rotating axis with the rotating axis of the tracking system [53]. Figure 6 presents all three
of single-axis
typesphotovoltaic
Energies 2020,
of tracking
13, x FOR PEER
single-axis REVIEW systems.
photovoltaic tracking systems. 9 of 25

The polar-aligned single-axis tracking system (PASAT) is a unique version of the tilted single-
axis tracking system. In this case, the tilt angle is equal to the latitude of the installation, which aligns
the earth’s rotating axis with the rotating axis of the tracking system [53]. Figure 6 presents all three
types of single-axis photovoltaic tracking systems.

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 6.Figure 6. Single-axis

Single-axis photovoltaic
photovoltaic tracking systems:
tracking systems: (a) (a)
HSAT, (b) VSAT,
HSAT, and (c) and
(b) VSAT, TSAT.
(c) TSAT.
4.2. Dual-Axis
4.2. Dual-Axis Photovoltaic
Photovoltaic Tracking
Tracking System
System
(a)
Dual-axis photovoltaic tracking systems are(b)divided into two different (c)
types, which are
Dual-axis photovoltaic tracking systems are divided into two different types, which are classified by
classified by the azimuth of their primary axes with respect to the ground. Two common types are
Figure 6. Single-axis photovoltaic tracking systems: (a) HSAT, (b) VSAT, and (c) TSAT.
the azimuth of their primary
azimuth-altitude axes
tracking withand
system respect
tip-tiltto the ground.
tracking system. Two common types are azimuth-altitude
tracking system
4.2. and
 Dual-Axis tip-tilt tracking
Photovoltaic
Tip-tilt dual-axis tracking system.
Tracking
systemSystem
(TTDAT) [53]
A tip-tilt dual-axis
Dual-axis tracking
photovoltaic systemsystems
tracking (TTDAT)are
hasdivided
its primary
intoaxis
twohorizontal
differenttotypes,
the ground,
whichwhile
are
• Tip-tilt dual-axis tracking system (TTDAT) [53]
the secondary
classified axis
by the is normal
azimuth to theprimary
of their primaryaxes
axis.with respect to the ground. Two common types are

A tip-tilt dual-axistracking
tracking
Azimuth-altitude
azimuth-altitude system
dual-axis
system tracking(TTDAT)
system
and tip-tilt [53]has
tracking its primary axis horizontal to the ground,
system.
An azimuth-altitude
while the secondary axis is normaldual-axis
to tracking
the primary system (AADAT) has its primary axis vertical to the
axis.
• Tip-tilt dual-axis tracking system (TTDAT) [53]
ground, while the secondary axis is normal to the primary axis. Figure 7 presents different types of
A tip-tilt dual-axis tracking
tracking systems.
system (TTDAT) has its primary axis horizontal to the ground, while
• Azimuth-altitude
dual-axis dual-axis
photovoltaic tracking system [53]
the secondary axis is normal to the primary axis.
• Azimuth-altitude
An azimuth-altitude dual-axis tracking
dual-axis trackingsystem [53] (AADAT) has its primary axis vertical to the
system
An azimuth-altitude dual-axis tracking system (AADAT) has its primary axis vertical to the
ground, while the secondary axis is normal to the primary axis. Figure 7 presents different types of
ground, while the secondary axis is normal to the primary axis. Figure 7 presents different types of
dual-axis photovoltaic tracking
dual-axis photovoltaic systems.
tracking systems.

(a) (b)
Figure 7. Dual-axis photovoltaic tracking systems: (a) TTDAT and (b) AADAT.

Table 1 shows the description and key findings of recent and the most interesting studies of
single and dual-axis tracking photovoltaic systems. Some of the studies have already been presented
(a) (b)
in the introduction or will be presented under the following chapters.
Figure 7. Dual-axis photovoltaic tracking systems: (a) TTDAT and (b) AADAT.
Figure 7. Dual-axis photovoltaic tracking systems: (a) TTDAT and (b) AADAT.
Table 1 shows the description and key findings of recent and the most interesting studies of
Tablesingle
1 shows the description
and dual-axis and key findings
tracking photovoltaic systems. of recent
Some of theand thehave
studies most interesting
already studies of single
been presented
and dual-axis tracking photovoltaic systems. Some of the studies
in the introduction or will be presented under the following chapters. have already been presented in the
introduction or will be presented under the following chapters.
Energies 2020, 13, 4224 10 of 24

Table 1. Summary of some important studies focusing on single- and dual-axis PV tracking systems.

No. Description Remarks and Key Findings Reference

Single-axis tracking system: 2500 W, 3500 kg, only MPPT algorithm,
45% higher electrical energy production compared to fixed PV
1. VISUAL C# programming language, two photoresistors, H-bridge [55]
system.
drive circuit, DC motor (50 W and 24 V supply)
Single-axis tracking system: 1 m2 of surface, PLC programming,
2. two bridge rectifiers (220 V AC – 24 V DC), division of the day into 4 22% higher productivity and increase of overall efficiency by 2%. [12]
identical intervals on which the motor speed is calculated
Single-axis tracking system: A novel design of single-axis The results of the proposed tracking system show approximately
3. three-position tracking PV module (morning, noon and afternoon), 56% and 25.4% higher energy production compared to a fixed PV [56]
two photoresistors, additional low-concentration reflector system with and without the use of low-concentration reflector.
Single-axis tracking system: Novel tracking structure for Ratio of annual solar radiation incident between presented and
4. [57]
single-axis tracking system dual-axis tracking system is 96.4%.
Development of simple single-axis tracking system that is controlled
Single-axis tracking system: two LDR sensors, Programmable
5. through LDR sensors and increases the energy production by [58]
Interface Controller (PIC 16F84A) controls the H-bridge, DC motor
approximately 20%.
35.6% higher daily electrical energy production (clear weather)
Single-axis tracking system: Three-positional single-axis tracking compared to fixed PV system and 18.5–28% higher monthly electrical
6. system, DC motor (5 W), sensor for axis rotation, microprocessor energy production; The results show very similar performances of [59]
PIC18F452 the proposed tracking system compared to the dual-axis continuous
tracking system.
Single-axis tracking system: Three-positional single-axis tracking On a clear day, the increase in energy production is around 39%.The
7. system, microprocessor-based controller (rotation of the tracking installation cost is very similar to the cost of a commercial PV [60]
systems three times a day – morning, noon and afternoon). tracking system, but providing 25–37% higher energy production.
Single-axis tracking system: three light-dependent resistors (LDRs) The complete cost of the entire mechanism including the DC motor is
8. - 15 Ω in direct sunlight and 300 Ω in the shade (penumbra), DC US$ 250, while the control system cost is US$ 160. The price for the [61]
motor (12 V), reduction gearbox (ratio of 45:1). control system stays the same irrespective to the PV systems size.
Single-axis tracking system: A novel design of single-axis The comparison was made for three different cases: 1.) between the
three-position (3P) tracking polar-axis aligned compound parabolic 3P-CPC tracking system and the East-West-CPC tracking system,
9. concentrator (CPC) was presented and theoretically studied. The and 2.) between the 3P-CPC tracking system and a fixed (south [62]
control of altitude angles of CPCs is achieved by time-based or oriented) system. The results show 26–45% and 190–240% higher
sensor-based control system. annual solar gain for 3P-CPC.
Energies 2020, 13, 4224 11 of 24

Table 1. Cont.

No. Description Remarks and Key Findings Reference

Single-axis tracking system: The proposed discrete single-axis
The experimental results show that using the proposed tracking
tracking system moves only three times a day. The tracking
10. system yielded approximately 91–94% of solar energy compared to a [63]
movement and the calculation of optimal angles is based on
continuous single-axis tracking system (three times per hour).
weather-time data.
Single-axis tracking strategies: The authors present an analysis of The results for southern, central and northern Europe showed that
single-axis tracking strategies for PV systems in Europe. The method energy yields increased by 30%, 25%, and 50% compared to a fixed
11. for calculating the performance of PV modules under different PV system. The comparison was made between two different types [64]
geographic conditions is based on measurements of solar radiation of single-axis tracking system that works almost like a dual-axis
and temperature. tracking system.
Dual-axis tracking system: polycrystalline silicon PV module (383 × The experimental results show 44.89% higher efficiency using the
489 × 18 mm3 - width × height × depth), a linear actuator and DC presented system compared to fixed PV system. The installation cost
12. motor is used, microcontroller “Arduino Mega 2560” (54 digital and of the presented system is $92, from which we can conclude that the [65]
12 analogue inputs, 12 V supply), the motor is controlled by drive system is cost-effective. The costs can be reimbursed after 754 days,
using pulse width modulation (PWM). and 1130 days for electricity prices of 0.3 $/kWh and 0.2 $/kWh.
Dual-axis tracking system: Large-scale dual-axis sun tracking
A new design concept of a large-scale dual-axis tracking system. The
system with multiple row elevation structures and a vertical-axis
energy consumption of the driving system ranges between 0.4 to
rotating platform. Installation power 60 kW, 35 m diameter,
13. 0.5% of the total energy generation. New improvements can be [6]
transmission mechanism rotates the whole rotating platform, an AC
made: wireless broadcasting method for tracking signal and using
motor (750 W) with a gearbox, 22 DC motors (15 W) for elevation
open-loop and closed-loop control scheme at the same time.
movements, cylindrical pins and a double layer pin-gear.
This study successfully completed the tracking task using thermal
Dual-axis tracking system: unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) image
and full color image methods at 30 m and 100 m. This tracking
14. recognition and tracking, thermal imager and full-color camera, [66]
system also smoothly allow Google Maps to perform dynamic UAV
two-axis step motor
path tracking.
The energy consumption of the tracking system is low, with the
Dual-axis tracking system: two actuators for rotation and
highest recorded value of 14.4 Wh/day. Furthermore, the power
movement, DC motor for azimuth rotation and linear motion DC
consumed by azimuth and altitude trackers are only 0.5 mWh and
15. motor for tilt movement; PIC18f4680 (main controller – power [67]
0.23 mWh per degree, respectively. The proposed dual-axis tracking
supply 7–24 V), PIC18f4431 (Azimuth controller), PIC18f4431
system can generate 12.8% and 26.9% higher power than fixed PV
(Altitude controller), GPS sensor.
systems on a heavy and clear overcast condition.
Energies 2020, 13, 4224 12 of 24

Table 1. Cont.

No. Description Remarks and Key Findings Reference

Due to tetrahedron geometry, the LDRs possesses the maximum
Dual-axis tracking system: three light-dependent-resistors set in a
16. wide Field of View (FOV) of 289.4◦ . The results show very small error [68]
tetrahedron, PID microprocessor, servo-motor.
for single light source of 1.67◦ and 5.4◦ for multiple light sources.
Dual-axis tracking system: Comparison between novel sensorless
The tracking error is 0.43◦ and 0.14◦ for sensorless and sensor-based
and sensor-based dual-axis tracking system. Sensorless:
tracking system, respectively. Sensor-based tracking system receives
17. microcontroller MC68HC11A8, DC/PWM converter, azimuth and [69]
better results for average daily solar energy compared to sensorless
altitude gear box, stepper motors 1 and 2. Sensor-based: Same as
tracking system.
sensorless, but with additional irradiance sensor.
Dual-axis tracking system: The proposed dual-axis tracking system The presented tracking system can be used in various applications,
is based on picture processing of bar shadow and consists of two DC such as the regulation of solar panels on space stations and satellites,
18. [70]
motors (12 V DC), AVR microcontroller, LDR sensors and or for processing the image of the sun, because of a simple computer
analog/digital converter (ADC). control system.
Dual-axis tracking system: The authors present low-cost dual-axis The experimental results of irradiance were compared with
tracking system consisting of a pyrheliometer for direct solar Kipp/Zonen and two Eppley pyrheliometers mounted at INTRA sun
19. radiation measurements, two stepper motors for axis movement, a tracking systems. The advantage of the proposed model is the [71]
central processing unit (CPU), position sensor and solar radiation external installation of electronics, which enables easier and more
sensor. flexible upgrading of the mechanical part of the tracking system.
Dual-axis tracking system: The author presents continuous
The experimental results show 46.46% higher gain compared to a
dual-axis tracking system consisting of two electronic circuits
fixed photovoltaic system under clear weather conditions. However,
(comparators and solar intensity level), four relays, two
20. the efficiency of tracking system is reduced significantly in case of [72]
phototransistors, two AC Siemens motors (0,37 kW/1370 rpm and
cloudy weather conditions (low intensity of solar radiation), due to
0,75 kW/915 rpm), gearbox MOTOVARIO and C+ programming
sensor-based technology.
language.
Dual-axis tracking system: The proposed tracking system works
The proposed tracking system can increase power output by 25–45%
based on processing images of a bar shadow. It consists of
compared to a fixed PV system, with accuracy of 2◦ . The accuracy or
21. shadow-casting object, a webcam, stepper motor, Arduino UNO [73]
tracking error is within the limits of the stepper motor, which was
microcontroller and other components that are common with other
used to reduce costs and prevent the use of complicated drives.
dual-axis tracking systems.
Dual-axis tracking system: Sensorless dual-axis tracking system The tracking error of the proposed dual-axis tracking system is
controlled by MPPT unit. It consists of a microcontroller remarkable (0.11◦ ) that it is less than the tracking errors of other
22. [74]
MC68HC11A8, DC-PWM converter, azimuth and altitude gear box, presented tracking systems. An increase of energy efficiency reaches
MPPT controller, and stepper motor 1 and 2. values from 28.8% to 43.6%, depending on the seasons.
Energies 2020, 13, 4224 13 of 24

Table 1. Cont.

No. Description Remarks and Key Findings Reference

Dual-axis tracking system: It consists of 50 W monocrystalline
silicon PV module, four PV cells are used as sensors and installed at
The proposed fuzzy logic-based controller can achieve the highest
all four corners, two DC motors for altitude and azimuth movement,
efficiency and results confirm reliable performance at all times. The
23. controller, which collects the data from PV cells and calculates the [75]
fuzzy logic-based controller allows the interaction of multiple
error, and fuzzy controller, which collects the data of errors and
outputs and inputs.
calculate the suitable signal (duty cycle (D) for the PWM) for DC
motors.
Dual-axis tracking system: The author presents two tracking The proposed tracking system uses both sensor-based and
strategies. Both types of mechanisms consist of connecting rods, time-based control for optimal operation at different weather
24. linear actuators for different movements, DC motors, drive circuit for conditions. The accuracy test indicates that the tracking error is [76]
DC motors microprocessor ARM S3C2440X, analogue to digital within 0.15◦ , while the other strategy might have higher tracking
converter and signal processing unit. error, but its annual average cosine loss is estimated to be below 1.3%.
Dual-axis tracking system: The tracking system is controlled via a The experimental study was conducted for 37.6◦ latitude, where
programmable logic control (PLC) and uses the following 42.6% more energy was obtained from the proposed tracking system
25. components: amorphous (KA 64) PV module, actuator motors with when compared to the fixed PV system. This type of tracking system [77]
voltage power supply 24 V DC and control voltage of 2–10 V DC, is superior to sensor-based tracking systems because LDR sensors do
PLC control unit Siemens S7 200 and analog module EM 232. not detect the sun in cloudy weather conditions.
The experimental results of daily solar energy were compared with a
Dual-axis tracking system: The authors present a dual-axis tracking
single-axis tracking system from other studies. The results of
system with PLC control system. The PLC system uses the already
single-axis tracking system ranged from 19.7% to 24.5%, while the
26. known programming functional language from other studies and [78]
results for proposed system were almost double (41.34%). Both
consists of two types of movement: forward (from sunrise to noon)
tracking systems were compared to a fixed photovoltaic system tilted
and backward (from noon to sunset).
at 32◦ .
Dual-axis tracking system: The proposed tracking system consists
The experimental results of the proposed system show a 24% and
of two AC motors, 80 W PV module, driver circuit for motor
27. 20% increase in energy production for clear and cloudy weather [79]
movement, two multiplexers, counter, logic circuit, PIC16F974
conditions.
microcontroller and four phototransistors.
Dual-axis tracking system: The proposed tracking system is
controlled by time-date microcontroller based on solar maps. Solar The advantage of the proposed tracking system is the solar map,
28. maps can accurately predict the movement of the sun without any which is loaded in the microcontroller, and makes it easier to use the [80]
use of sensors, thus making it easier to avoid the reduction of energy tracking system in any location without additional settings.
production during bad weather.
Dual-axis tracking system: The authors presents a novel design of a
The experimental results show 30–45% higher energy production
dual-axis tracking system, which consists of a microcontroller with
29. compared to a fixed photovoltaic system with an average intensity of [81]
analog/digital converter (ADC) AT89C51, driver circuit ULN2003,
solar radiation (1100 W/m2 ).
two stepper motors and LDR sensors.
Energies 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 15 of 25
Energies 2020, 13, 4224 14 of 24
Energies 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 15 of 25

5. Classification Based on Control System

5.
5. Classification
ClassificationBased Basedon onControl
ControlSystem
System
As mentioned in Chapter 3, active tracking systems can be classified into three categories: closed-
loopAs As mentioned
mentioned
control system, inopen-loop
in Section3,3,active
Chapter active
control tracking
tracking
system, systems
systems
and can
can be
hybrid be classified
classified
control intoopen-loop
into three
system. The three categories:
categories: closed-
control
closed-loop
loop control
system control
[82–89] system, system,
uses open-loop open-loop control
control algorithm
a mathematical system,
system, and and
forhybrid hybrid control
control system.
determining system.
the position The
The open-loop open-loop
control
of the tracking
control
system system
[82–89] [82–89]
uses uses
a a mathematical
mathematical algorithm
algorithm for for determining
determining the
photovoltaic system. The position of the modules can be determined precisely, as the relative position the position
position of
of the
the tracking
tracking
photovoltaic
of the sun is system.
photovoltaic system.The
precisely The position
positionof
determined of the
forthe
anymodules
modules
location canonbe
can be determined
determined
earth using the precisely,
relationsas
precisely, the
the relative
asbetween the position
relative position
sun and
of
of the
the sun
sun is
isprecisely
precisely determined
determined for any
for any location
location on earth
on using
earth usingthe relations
the
the earth (description of angles in Chapter 4). The algorithm is loaded into the microprocessor and between
relations between the sun
the and
sun the
and is
earth
based (description
the earth date andoftime
on (description angles in Section
of control
angles in 4). The
Chapter
without algorithm
the4).use
The is loaded
ofalgorithm
feedback is into the
to loaded
evaluate microprocessor
into the microprocessor
results and is based
[30]. Therefore, and
they is
on date
based on
cannot and
correct time
date the control
anderrors without
time control the
without
that occur use
during of feedback
thetheuse to evaluate
of feedback
tracking results
to evaluate
process. [30]. Therefore,
results [30].
The closed-loop control they
Therefore, cannot
system they[90–
correct
cannot the errors
correct the that occur
errors thatduring
occur the
during tracking
the process.
tracking The
process. closed-loop
The control
closed-loop
97] is based on a feedback control system from sensors (light dependent resistors) and moves the axes system
control [90–97]
system [90–is
based
97]the
of on
PVa tracking
is based feedback
on a feedbackcontrolcontrol
system system
after from
system
the sensors
sensor from (light
sensors
detects thedependent
(light resistors)
dependent
position of and
resistors)
the sun. The moves the axes
and moves
closed-loop theofaxes
the
control
PV tracking
of the PVsystems
tracking system
tracking after
aresystem the sensor detects
after the sensor
more expensive the position
detects the
than open-loop of the
position
because sun. The
of the
of the closed-loop
sun. The
additional control
closed-loop
sensor tracking
devices.control
In the
systems
tracking are more
systems expensive
are more than
expensiveopen-loop
than because
open-loop of the
because additional
of
event of a change in weather, closed-loop systems can consume more energy than is produced bythe sensor
additional devices.
sensor In the
devices. event
In the
the
of a
event change
of a in
change weather,
in closed-loop
weather, systems
closed-loop can
systems consume
can more
consume energy
more than
energy
PV system, so the combination of both systems offers additional benefits and is called a hybrid control is
than produced
is produced by the
by PV
the
system,
PV system,
tracking so the
system combination
so the[98–106].
combination of both systems
of bothof
Schematics systems offers additional
offersand
closed-loop additional benefits
open-loopbenefits and is
and is
tracking called
calledare
system a hybrid
a hybrid control
control
presented in
tracking
tracking system
system
Figures 8 and 9. [98–106].
[98–106]. Schematics
Schematics of
of closed-loop
closed-loop and
and open-loop
open-loop tracking
tracking system
system are
are presented
presented in
in
Figures 8 and
Figures 8 and 9. 9.

Figure 8. Schematics of open-loop photovoltaic tracking system.

Figure 8. Schematics of open-loop photovoltaic tracking system.
Figure 8. Schematics of open-loop photovoltaic tracking system.

Figure 9. Schematics
Figure 9. Schematics of
of closed-loop
closed-loop photovoltaic
photovoltaic tracking
tracking system.
system.
Figure 9. Schematics of closed-loop photovoltaic tracking system.
Figure 10 shows some interesting examples of dual-axis closed-loop and open-loop tracking
Figure 10 shows some interesting examples of dual-axis closed-loop and open-loop tracking
systems that are
Figure installed at theinteresting
Institute of Energy Technology, University of Maribor, Slovenia.tracking
The PV
systems that10
areshows some
installed at the Institute examples
of Energy of dual-axis
Technology, closed-loop
University ofand open-loop
Maribor, Slovenia. The
tracking
systems systems presented
thatsystems
are installed in Figure
at the in 10
Institute are further divided into large, medium, and small-scale PV
PV tracking presented Figureof10Energy Technology,
are further divided University of Maribor,
into large, medium, Slovenia.
and The
small-scale
tracking systems.
PV tracking Table
tracking systems. 2 shows
systems presented the description
in Figure and key
10 are furtherfindings of recent and most interesting studies
PV Table 2 shows the description anddivided into large,
key findings medium,
of recent and small-scale
and most interesting
of closed-loop,
PV tracking open-loop,
systems. Table and hybrid
2 shows control
the photovoltaic
description tracking systems.
studies of closed-loop, open-loop, and hybrid controland key findings
photovoltaic of recent
tracking and most interesting
systems.
studies of closed-loop, open-loop, and hybrid control photovoltaic tracking systems.
Energies 2020, 13, 4224 15 of 24
Energies 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 16 of 25

(a)

(b)

(c)
Figure 10. Different examples of (a) open-loop and (b), (c) closed-loop dual-axis tracking systems.
Figure 10. Different examples of (a) open-loop and (b), (c) closed-loop dual-axis tracking systems.

Large-scale PV tracking systems (see Figure 10a) are those systems (commercial) that are
Large-scale PV tracking systems (see Figure 10a) are those systems (commercial) that are connected
connected to the grid and produce electrical energy. Their powers range from a few kWp to a few
to the grid and produce electrical energy. Their powers range from a few kWp to a few MWp of
MWp of installed power. Large-scale PV tracking systems are most often used in the literature for
installed power. Large-scale PV tracking systems are most often used in the literature for analyses
analyses between different types of systems (comparison of fixed systems with single-axis and two-
between
axisdifferent
systems).types
Most of systems
often, (comparison
researchers of fixed use
in the literature systems with single-axis
medium-scale and(see
PV systems two-axis
Figure systems).
10b)
Most for
often, researchers
different researchinstudies
the literature use medium-scale
(comparison PV systems
of different powertrains, (seestrategies,
control Figure 10b) forIndifferent
etc.,). the
research studies
literature, it (comparison
is also possibleof
todifferent powertrains,
find small-scale control
PV tracking (see strategies,
Figure 10c) etc.,). In which
systems, the literature,
are low- it is
cost and are
also possible intended
to find for educational
small-scale purposes
PV tracking (training
(see Figuretoolkits) in higherwhich
10c) systems, education
are institutions.
low-cost and are
intended for educational purposes (training toolkits) in higher education institutions.
Energies 2020, 13, 4224 16 of 24

Table 2. Summary of some important studies focusing on closed -loop, open-loop, and hybrid control tracking systems.

No. Description Remarks and Key Findings Reference

Closed-loop tracking system: The proposed study presents a
dual-axis tracking system (closed-loop) using the sun-position The results show that the implementation of the sun position algorithm in the
1. algorithm uploaded in an 8-bit microcontroller. The sun-positing sun tracking system helps to increase the efficiency of the optical tracking [90]
algorithm requires real-time measurements that can be obtained with system and fixed system (using LDRs) by 2.1% and 13.9%, respectively.
a real-time clock (RTC).
Closed-loop tracking system: The proposed study presents
The results show that the proposed cascade algorithm is better than the PI
closed-loop control algorithm with an inner-outer loop cascade
controller without an internal loop in terms of maximum tracking error (MTE)
conceived for solar tracking systems applied to high concentration
and filtered mean square error (FMSE). The proposed cascade algorithm
2. photovoltaic (HCPV) systems. The DC motors are regulated through [91]
produces an FMSE of 1.14 versus a value of 14.47 for the PI controller. In
the inner loop for angular position through a nonlinear
contrast, the proposed cascade controller has an MTE of 0.014◦ against a value
proportional-proportional integral (NP-PI) controller, while the outer
of 0.134◦ for PI controller.
loop tracks the sun using a proportional integral (PI) controller.
The results show that increasing the tracking frequency consequently reduces
Open-loop tracking system: The proposed study presents an the misfit angle between the normal of the PV module and incident sunlight
open-loop solar tracking strategy for HCPV systems using variable the normal of the PV module, but this increases the consumption of the
3. tracking frequency. The tracking frequency control code is required additional energy of the motor drive. An example was made for the [82]
programmed according to the solar velocity in different times and summer solstice, on which the solar tracking step period was increased from
dates. 4 min to 9 min from 6.00 a.m. to 12.00 a.m. and reduced from 9 min to 4 min
from 12.00 a.m. to 6.00 p.m.
Open-loop and closed-loop tracking system: The proposed study
compares closed-loop and open-loop tracking system. The The simulation was made with different tracking parameters for five different
closed-loop tracking system uses LDRs, while the open-loop tracking latitudes. The results show an average gain of 33.0% for the closed-loop
4. system uses an algorithm that works on the basic relationship tracking system and 28.5% for the open-loop tracking system. Minor [84]
between the sun and the observed surface. The open-loop tracking difference was observed between the proposed open-loop tracking system
system was also compared to control the system using fixed time compared to control system using fixed time intervals.
intervals.
Energies 2020, 13, 4224 17 of 24

Table 2. Cont.

No. Description Remarks and Key Findings Reference

Closed-loop tracking system: The paper presents implementation
and design of dual-axis tracking system with only one DC motor
The advantages of the proposed closed-loop tracking system are cost-effective
using optical sensor-based technology. The sensor-based controller
control system, PV inverter, movement of both axes (azimuth and altitude)
consists of LDRs, comparator (basic operational amplifier) and
5. simultaneously, and satisfactory tracking accuracy. The results show that with [92]
differential amplifier. The imbalance in voltage generated by the
the help of the proposed closed-loop tracking system, energy production is
LDRs is amplified, which generate the error voltage. The error
increased by 28.31% for a partly cloudy day.
voltage is, therefore, compared in comparator with a specific
threshold.
Open-loop tracking system: The proposed study presents a novel
The advantages of the proposed open-loop tracking systems are simplicity,
open-loop tracking strategy to increase the PV efficiency by
generality, and performance. The results show the operation of the presented
increasing the rate of solar radiation utilization. The tuning of the
6. system, without the need to use complicated and expensive technologies. The [89]
controller is achieved by a parametric optimization, using response
proposed tracking system can be used for any type of tracking load-bearing
surface methodology techniques and design of experiments, in a
construction.
multiple regression.
The performance of the presented system was evaluated by the standard
Hybrid control tracking system: The proposed study presents the
tracking error, tracking accuracy, the performance ratio and maximum
simulation, modelling and design of dual-axis tracking system with a
generated power. The results of the above evaluations are as follows: 23.3%
7. hybrid controlled tracking system. The system uses a multi-Degree [101]
more generated power, 95–97% performance ratio (compared to classical
of Freedom Simplified Universal Intelligent Proportional Integral
closed-loop and open-loop tracking systems), 0.12◦ of tracking error and 0.18◦
Differential controller (MDOF SUI PID).
of average azimuth error.
The analysis of the proposed system was made for tracking errors, calculation
Hybrid control tracking system: The proposed paper presents a
errors and solar time algorithm error. The maximum calculation errors of hour
hybrid PV tracking system that uses GPS and photodiodes as part of
8. angle, altitude angle, declination angle, and azimuth angle are 0.12, 0.47, 0.51, [104]
the closed-loop system and orientation algorithm as part of the
and 0.91 respectively, which show that the proposed tracking system has good
open-loop system.
accuracy.
Energies 2020, 13, 4224 18 of 24
Energies 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 19 of 25

6. Commercial Photovoltaic Tracking Systems

6. Commercial Photovoltaic Tracking Systems
As already presented in Section 5, photovoltaic tracking systems can be divided also on
As already presented in Chapter 5, photovoltaic tracking systems can be divided also on large-
large-scale, medium-scale, and small-scale photovoltaic tracking systems. The emphasis was made
scale, medium-scale, and small-scale photovoltaic tracking systems. The emphasis was made on
on medium-scale and small-scale tracking systems which are mainly presented in research studies.
medium-scale and small-scale tracking systems which are mainly presented in research studies.
Therefore, a brief presentation of large-scale or commercial type of tracking systems will also be
Therefore, a brief presentation of large-scale or commercial type of tracking systems will also be
provided, covering everything from different types of components to installation prices worldwide.
provided, covering everything from different types of components to installation prices worldwide.
Commercial and research photovoltaic tracking systems do not differ much from each other in terms of
Commercial and research photovoltaic tracking systems do not differ much from each other in terms
components, but rather in terms of size and robustness. The most commonly used components for a
of components, but rather in terms of size and robustness. The most commonly used components for
control system are a programmable logic controller (PLC), a variable frequency drive (VFD), a global
a control system are a programmable logic controller (PLC), a variable frequency drive (VFD), a
positioning system (GPS), an inclinometer, a GMT clock and a multi slave system (microcontroller,
global positioning system (GPS), an inclinometer, a GMT clock and a multi slave system
communication bus, etc.,). Furthermore, the components of the drive system are mostly DC/stepper
(microcontroller, communication bus, etc.,). Furthermore, the components of the drive system are
motors with mounted gearbox or belt/chain drive, linear actuators and hydraulic cylinders, but it
mostly DC/stepper motors with mounted gearbox or belt/chain drive, linear actuators and hydraulic
also depends on the number of moving axles [107]. According to various reports and studies,
cylinders, but it also depends on the number of moving axles [107]. According to various reports and
the most commonly used types of single-axis and dual-axis tracking systems are TSAT and TTDAT.
studies, the most commonly used types of single-axis and dual-axis tracking systems are TSAT and
For utility-scale layouts, it is necessary to ensure the optimal position between the tracking systems,
TTDAT. For utility-scale layouts, it is necessary to ensure the optimal position between the tracking
due to shading. At the same time, excessive dispersion of tracking systems can drastically affect the
systems, due to shading. At the same time, excessive dispersion of tracking systems can drastically
price of land and consequently the entire project, as on average tracking system needs 35–40% more
affect the price of land and consequently the entire project, as on average tracking system needs 35-
working area compared to a fixed photovoltaic system [108]. In addition, it should be noted that the
40% more working area compared to a fixed photovoltaic system [108]. In addition, it should be noted
prices of both commercial fixed and commercial tracking systems are lower each year, due to the
that the prices of both commercial fixed and commercial tracking systems are lower each year, due
reduction of production costs and the abolition of certain subsidies. Figure 11 shows the installation
to the reduction of production costs and the abolition of certain subsidies. Figure 11 shows the
costs for residential (from 3 kW to 10 kW), commercial (from 10 kW to 2 MW), utility-scale fixed
installation costs for residential (from 3 kW to 10 kW), commercial (from 10 kW to 2 MW), utility-
(>2 MW), and utility-scale photovoltaic tracking systems (>2 MW).
scale fixed (>2 MW), and utility-scale photovoltaic tracking systems (>2 MW).

Figure 11. Installation costs for (a) residential, (b) commercial, (c) utility-scale fixed and (d) utility-scale
Figure 11. Installation costs for (a) residential, (b) commercial, (c) utility-scale fixed and (d) utility-
tracking photovoltaic system (U.S. market).
scale tracking photovoltaic system (U.S. market).
Figure 11 shows a drastic decline in the installation costs for photovoltaic systems between 2010
Figure
and 2018 11 shows
[109]. a drastic
It can also decline
be seen that in
thethe installation
installation costsoffor
costs photovoltaicphotovoltaic
a utility-scale systems between 2010
tracking
and 2018
system [109]. Itequal
are almost can also beinstallation
to the seen that thecostsinstallation
of a classiccosts
fixedofphotovoltaic
a utility-scale photovoltaic
system. tracking
The installation
system are almost equal to the installation costs of a classic fixed photovoltaic system. The installation
cost of a dual-axis tracking system shown in Figure 10a was 2.11 €/Wp in 2015, which is very similar
to market prices in the U.S. (1.84 €/Wp).
Energies 2020, 13, 4224 19 of 24

cost of a dual-axis tracking system shown in Figure 10a was 2.11 €/Wp in 2015, which is very similar to
market prices in the U.S. (1.84 €/Wp ).

7. Conclusion and Future Trends in Solar Photovoltaic Systems

Photovoltaic tracking systems represent an area in which a great deal of research has been done.
However, the field itself is so wide that there is always space for innovations or improvements. One of
the primary reasons for the production and development of photovoltaic tracking systems is the low
efficiency of photovoltaic modules and, consequently, the lower generation of electrical energy. Systems
that improve the yield of conventional PV systems are photovoltaic tracking systems, PV systems
with concentrating mirrors (CPV), and photovoltaic/thermal hybrid systems (PV/T). Each of these
systems has the potential to increase the yield of electrical energy. However, no innovative system
containing the properties of all three systems was found in the literature. Given that the installation
of conventional fixed systems is less expensive and much more widespread throughout the world,
additional state subsidies should be introduced to enable the wider use and installation of photovoltaic
tracking systems. In Slovenia, legislation prescribes that one does not need a building permit for
the installation of photovoltaic tracking systems, which is an advantage over the installation of fixed
PV systems that are not installed on household facilities. A review of the literature on photovoltaic
tracking systems is classified according to the driving system, the degree of freedom and the control
system. Based on the reviewed literature, we can highlight the most important findings:
• Single-axis and dual-axis photovoltaic tracking system, with appropriate control systems,
the electrical energy can increase from 22–56%, compared to fixed PV system.
• Combinations of microprocessor- and sensor-based control systems represent the most commonly
used control method as well as the most efficient.
• Active tracking systems use electrical drives to move the axis, which can consume a huge amount
of electrical energy because of improper control systems. Therefore, it is necessary to optimize
the power consumption of electrical drives, which can be done by reducing the number of
motor movements.
• Sensor-based photovoltaic tracking systems are more expensive because of additional sensor
devices, but provide lower tracking error (0.14◦ ), compared to sensorless photovoltaic tracking
systems (0.43◦ ).
• Electric motors used in PV tracking applications are exposed to weather conditions and are
therefore designed to withstand strong winds, and high temperatures and humidity. The most
commonly used electric motor is permanent magnet brushless DC motors as they are easy
to maintain.
• Novel innovative tracking systems will include dynamic weather forecasting and cooling of the
PV system with wind or water.

Funding: This research received no external funding.

Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest. The funders had no role in the design of the
study; in the collection, analyses, or interpretation of data; in the writing of the manuscript, or in the decision to
publish the results.

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