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978-1-107-61450-5 – Cambridge O Level Biology Key Stage 4 Revision Guide

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APTER
CH

1 Cell Biology
In this chapter, cell structure is considered, as well as the importance
of the cell as a basic component of all living matter. Various
adaptations of a cell are discussed together with the adaptations
that a cell can undergo in order to perform different functions.
The methods used by cells to absorb chemicals are described, as is
the action of enzymes which are chemicals released by cells.

Cell structure and organisation

The basic unit of life is the cell. The simplest living organisms have one cell only.
Such organisms are described as unicellular.

Bacteria (singular: bacterium) are examples of unicellular organisms. note

Most other living organisms have many cells, and are described as multicellular.
The cytoplasm and the
All cells have the following structural features in common. nucleus make up the
protoplasm.
1. A cell membrane, which controls the passage of substances into and out of
the cell. One of the most important of those substances is water. All other
substances which pass do so in solution. Since larger molecules are unable note
to pass through the cell membrane, it is described as partially permeable.
DNA stands for
2. Cytoplasm, a jelly-like substance in which the chemical reactions of the deoxyribonucleic acid.
cell (metabolic reactions) take place, and which contains the nucleus.

3. The nucleus contains a number of chromosomes largely made of the

note
chemical DNA. Chromosomes possess genes, which are responsible for
programming the cytoplasm to manufacture particular proteins. Plant cells undergoing cell
When a cell divides, it does so by a process called mitosis, during which each division do not have
a vacuole.
chromosome forms an exact replica (copy) of itself. The two cells formed are
thus identical both with themselves and with the original cell.

Plant cells have the following additional structures (Figure 1.1): note

1. A (large, central) vacuole, which is a space full of cell sap (and, thus, Cellulose is a tough,
sometimes called the sap vacuole), which is a solution mostly of sugars. It insoluble carbohydrate.
is separated from the cytoplasm by the vacuolar membrane.

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2. The cell wall is a ‘box’ made of cellulose in which the cell is contained.
note
3. Chloroplasts − only if the cell is involved in the process of photosynthesis.
Magnesium is a necessary These are small bodies lying in the cytoplasm. They are green in colour
component of the pigment
because of the pigment chlorophyll which they contain.
chlorophyll.

cellulose cell wall

nucleus
cell membrane
cell membrane

cytoplasm
granules (containing mitochondria)
chloroplast
(containing chlorophyll)

vacuole
cytoplasm (containing cell sap)
nucleus
(containing chromosomes)

Figure 1.1 Animal cell (liver) and plant cells (palisade mesophyll cells from a leaf)

Similarities and differences between plant and animal cells are shown in the
note
table below:
Since, in plants, the cell animal cell plant cell
membrane fits tightly
against the cell wall, it is similarities cell membrane
not usually easily visible. cytoplasm
nucleus
differences no sap vacuole sap vacuole
no cell wall cell wall

note no chloroplasts may have chloroplasts

1 µm = 1 mm never stores starch may store starch

1000
around 10−20 µm in diameter around 40−100 µm in size

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Aim: To observe animal cells

1. Cut a cube of fresh liver, in section, approximately 1.5 cm square. (Frozen liver is not suitable
as freezing damages the cells.)

2. Scrape one of the cut surfaces of the cube with the end of a spatula (the end of a teaspoon
would do).

3. Transfer the cells removed to a clean microscope slide. Add one drop of methylene blue
(a suitable stain for animal cells) and one drop of glycerine.

4. Stir the cells, stain and glycerine together and leave for 30 seconds. (This time can be
adjusted according to the depth of staining required.)

5. Carefully place a clean, dry cover slip over the preparation, and then wrap a filter paper
around the slide and cover slip.

6. Place the slide on a bench and press firmly with your thumb on the filter paper over the
cover slip. The filter paper should absorb any surplus stain and glycerine, and the slide is
then ready for viewing with a microscope (medium to high power).

The following structures (Figure 1.2) should be visible:

nucleus

cell membrane granules cytoplasm

Figure 1.2(a) Stained liver cells Figure 1.2(b) Animal cell (liver)

Cell Biology 3

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Aim: To observe plant cells

1. Peel off the dry outer leaves of an onion bulb.

2. Remove one of the fleshy leaves beneath.

3. Preferably using forceps, but fingers would do, peel away the outer skin-like covering
(epidermis) of the fleshy leaf.

4. Place three drops of dilute iodine solution on a clean, dry microscope slide. (Iodine
solution is a suitable temporary stain for plant cells.)

5. Transfer a small piece of the epidermis (a 50−75 mm square is large enough) to the iodine
solution (make sure it lies flat and is completely covered by the iodine solution).

6. Carefully place a glass cover slip on top of the preparation, remove any excess liquid with
a piece of filter paper and transfer the slide to the stage of a microscope.

The following structural features (Figure 1.3) should be visible (owing to the large size of the onion
cells, it may not be necessary to use the high power of your microscope).

cellulose cell wall

cell membrane

nucleus

cytoplasm

Figure 1.3(a) Onion cells Figure 1.3(b) Leaf epidermal cell from an onion bulb

Specialised cells, tissues and organs

In unicellular organisms, one cell must be able to carry out all the functions of
a living organism. In multicellular organisms, cells are usually modified to carry
out one main function. The appearance of the cell will vary depending on what
that main function is.

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Thus, there is a relationship between the structure and the particular function
of a cell.

Examples of this relationship are discussed here.

Root hair cell

Function
To absorb water and mineral ions (salts) from the soil.

How it is adapted to this function

The outer part of its cell wall (i.e. the part in direct contact with the soil) is in
the form of a long, tubular extension (the root hair, see Figure 1.4).

This root hair is

1. able to form a very close contact with the water film surrounding many soil
particles, and

2. it greatly increases the surface area of the cell (Figure 1.4(b)) available for
uptake of water and ions (also for the uptake of oxygen necessary for the
respiration of all the cells in the root).

uptake of water and ions

soil particles

root hair: greatly

increases the
surface area in
contact with the
water film containing ions water film
(a) (b)

Figure 1.4(a) A root tip showing root hairs

(b) A root hair cell

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Xylem vessels

Functions
1. To conduct water and ions (dissolved salts) from the roots to the stem,
leaves, flowers and fruits.

2. To provide support for the aerial parts of the plant.

How they are adapted to these functions

Conduction
Xylem vessels are long narrow tubes (see figure 1.5), stretching from the roots,
via the stem, to the leaves. They are stacked end to end like drain pipes.

Support
1. Their walls have been strengthened by the addition of the chemical
lignin. (As the lignin in the walls builds up, it eventually kills the xylem
vessels. There is then no layer of cytoplasm to restrict the flow of water
and dissolved salts.)

2. Xylem vessels are part of the vascular bundles, which run through the
stems of plants like iron reinforcements in concrete pillars – thus resisting
bending strains caused by the wind.

a vascular
bundle
cortex
phloem
xylem

a vascular
bundle
(a) (b)

Figure 1.5(a) Xylem tissue in a plant stem

(b) A section through a stem cut to show the arrangement of tissues in vascular bundles

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Red blood cells

Function
To carry oxygen around the body.

How they are adapted to this function

1. Their cytoplasm contains the pigment haemoglobin, which combines (in note
the lungs) with oxygen to become oxyhaemoglobin.
Iron is a necessary
2. They are small (7 µm × 2 µm) (and there are many of them) thus giving component of the pigment
them a very large surface area for oxygen absorption (Figure 1.6). haemoglobin.

3. They have a bi-concave shape, increasing their surface area for absorption
still further.

4. They are flexible, allowing them to be pushed more easily through

capillaries.

surface side view sectional

view view

7 m 2 m

Figure 1.6(a) Red blood cells − surface, side and sectional views

Cell Biology 7

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Figure 1.6(b) Photomicrograph of red blood cells

How cells combine to improve their efficiency

One cell working on its own would achieve very little in an individual plant or
animal. Thus it is usual to find many similar cells lying side by side and working
together, performing the same function.

Many similar cells working together and performing the same function
are called a tissue.

Examples of tissues

ì xylem tissue in the vascular bundles of a plant

ì muscular tissue in the intestine wall of an animal

Different types of tissue often work together in order to achieve a combined

function.

Several tissues working together to produce a particular function form an organ.

Examples of organs

ì the leaf of a plant − an organ for the manufacture of carbohydrates during

photosynthesis

ì the eye of an animal − the organ of sight

Several different organs may be necessary in order to carry out a particular

function.

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A collection of different organs working together in order to perform a

particular function is called an organ system.

Examples of organ systems

ì the sepals, petals, stamens and carpels (i.e. the flowers) of a plant −
for reproduction

ì the heart, arteries, veins and capillaries in an animal, i.e. the

circulatory system

An organism is a collection of organ systems working together.

The increasing order of cell organisation found within any living organism
is thus

cell tissues organs organ systems organisms

Movement in and out of cells

Diffusion and osmosis

For plants and animals to stay alive, chemicals must be able to move easily:

ì from one part of a cell to another

ì into and out of a cell

ì from one cell to another.

It is an advantage if this movement requires no effort (or, more correctly, no

expenditure of energy) on the part of the organism, and, so long as there is no
obstruction, chemical molecules carry out this process by diffusion.

Before diffusion can occur, there must be a concentration gradient of the

molecules, i.e. a region of their (relatively) high concentration immediately
beside a region of their (relatively) low concentration.

Diffusion can then be defined as the movement of molecules from a region

of their higher concentration to a region of their lower concentration, down
a concentration gradient.

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Examples of diffusion

1. In plants:
note ì the movement of carbon dioxide into leaves during photosynthesis.
Carbon dioxide in solution moves from the water film surrounding the
A simple demonstration mesophyll cells inside a leaf to the chloroplasts in the mesophyll cells.
of diffusion: Close all the
windows in a room, and ì the movement of water vapour from the water film surrounding the
then spray one corner of mesophyll cells inside a leaf through the intercellular spaces of the
the room with an aerosol leaf and out through the stomata (during transpiration).
fly-killer or body deodorant.
Measure the time it takes 2. In animals:
for the smell of the spray ì the movement of oxygen after it has dissolved in the moisture lining
to be detected by people the air sacs of the lungs through the walls of the air sacs (alveoli) into
sitting in different parts of
the blood.
the room.
ì the movement of carbon dioxide, in solution, from the cells through
tissue fluid into the blood in blood capillaries.

Understanding the processes of diffusion and osmosis

The movement of molecules by diffusion

Suppose a container is divided into two sections using a piece of cloth
(Figure 1.7). A dilute sugar solution, which contains a lot of water, is poured
into one side of the container. A concentrated sugar solution, which contains
less water, is poured into the other side. The container is left to stand for a few
minutes.

When checked, the concentration of the solution has changed on both sides of
the container. Each side now has the same concentration of water and sugar.

By diffusion, both the water molecules and the sugar molecules would move
down their respective concentration gradients, i.e. from high concentration to
low concentration, until both sides were at the same concentration. The pores
in the cloth would form no obstruction to the movement of the molecules in
either direction.

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