Chapter 2 - Biological Molecules
Chapter 2 - Biological Molecules
AS LEVELS
CHAPTER 2
BIOLOGICAL MOLECULES
2010 –2022
Compiled by
Nadeem Iqbal Awan
M. Phil (Biotechnology)
Pakistan International School (English Section)
Riyadh, KSA
2
Cambridge A Levels
1 (a) Fig. 1.1 shows the breakdown of a molecule of sucrose.
Fig. 4.1
(a) (i) Explain what is meant by the term primary structure.
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(ii) The molecular structure of the first two amino acids of lysozyme, lysine and valine, is shown below.
Use the space to show how these amino acids become linked in a condensation reaction.
[3]
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(b) Proteins, such as the enzyme lysozyme, have a secondary structure and a tertiary structure.
(i) Describe the secondary and tertiary structure of an enzymatic protein, such as lysozyme.
secondary …………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
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tertiary ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
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(ii) State why it is important for enzymes, such as lysozyme, to possess a tertiary structure.
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(c) Some people have a rare disease caused by a single change in the DNA nucleotide sequence of the
gene coding for lysozyme. The change leads to the formation of an insoluble protein that has a different
structure to the normal soluble lysozyme molecule.
Suggest how a change in the gene can lead to the differences observed between the normal lysozyme
and the changed lysozyme.
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[Total: 13]
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Fig. 3.1
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(a) With reference to Fig. 3.1, state
(i) which two levels of protein structure are shown
1. ...................................................................................................................................................................
2. ...............................................................................................................................................................[2]
(ii) the name of the structures responsible for holding the two polypeptide chains together.
...................................................................................................................................................................[1]
(b) Many people with diabetes need to take regular injections of insulin. Insulin in the form shown in Fig.
3.1 cannot be taken by mouth as it would be hydrolysed by proteases in the gut.
In the space below, draw a diagram to show how the peptide bond between glutamine 15 and leucine 16
in polypeptide chain A could be hydrolysed and show the products of the hydrolysis.
[3]
[Total: 6]
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Fig. 5.1
(i) Name the sub-unit molecule of cellulose.
.................................................................................................................................................................. [1]
(ii) Name the bonds that attach the sub-unit molecules together within cellulose.
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(b) Cellulose has high mechanical strength which makes it suitable for the cell walls of plants.
Explain how cellulose has such a high mechanical strength making it suitable for the cell walls of plants.
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Plant cell walls consist of cellulose that is embedded in a matrix of compounds, such as pectins and
proteins. Cell wall material is synthesised inside the cell and transported to the cell surface membrane as
shown in the drawing made from an electron micrograph in Fig. 5.2.
Fig. 5.2
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(c) Locate the parts of the cell labelled in Fig. 5.2 which apply to each of the following statements. You
must only give one letter in each case. You may use each letter once, more than once or not at all. The
first answer has been completed for you.
[4]
(d) Enzymes known as expansins are found in the matrix of cell walls to help the growth of cells.
Use the information in Fig. 5.2 to describe how proteins made by the ribosomes reach the matrix of the
cell wall.
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[Total: 11]
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Fig. 5.1
[Total: 7]
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3 Fig. 3.1 shows a molecule of haemoglobin.
Fig. 3.1
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(a) Explain how a molecule of haemoglobin shows the four levels of organisation of protein molecules.
primary structure ...........................................................................................................................................
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secondary structure ......................................................................................................................................
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tertiary structure ............................................................................................................................................
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quaternary structure .....................................................................................................................................
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(c) Collagen is a fibrous protein found in many tissues in animals.
(i) State the function of collagen in the walls of arteries.
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(ii) State one way in which the structure of collagen differs from the structure of haemoglobin.
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[Total: 6]
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4 (a) Fig. 4.1 shows the structure of deoxyribose sugar.
Fig. 4.1
State the differences between the structure of deoxyribose shown in Fig. 4.1 and the ring structure of α-
glucose.
You may use the space below to help you in your answer.
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(b) Match the biological macromolecule with the type of bond that is formed when the molecule is
synthesised. Choose from the list below.
amylose cellulose triglyceride protein amylopectin mRNA
[4]
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3 Cholera is a disease caused by the bacterium Vibrio cholerae. The disease symptoms are caused by a
toxin, produced by the bacterium, interacting with proteins in the cell surface membranes of epithelial
cells in the human intestine.
The cholera toxin is a protein and is composed of two subunits, A and B. Subunit A is made from one
polypeptide and subunit B is made from five identical polypeptides.
Fig. 3.1 shows the structure of the cholera toxin.
Fig. 3.1
1 (b) As shown in Fig. 1.1, liver cells contain many storage granules of glycogen.
Describe the molecular structure of glycogen and explain how this structure makes it suitable for storage.
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[3]
Fig. 4.1
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Choose one ion to match each of the following statements. In each case write one letter from Table 2.1.
You may use each letter (A to H) once, more than once or not at all.
(i) A component of polynucleotides.
.............................................................................................................................. [1]
(ii) Ion produced by enzyme activity inside red blood cells.
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(iii) Ion used in the production of all amino acids in chloroplasts.
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(iv) Ion that diffuses through carrier proteins with sucrose into companion cells in phloem tissue.
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(v) Component of haem group in haemoglobin that binds oxygen.
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2 Keratin and chitin are two important biological molecules. Keratin is found in hair, fur and skin.
Chitin is a modified polysaccharide found in a number of different organisms, for example in fungal cell
walls and the hard outer skeletons of insects.
Fig. 2.1
Write, in each box, the biological molecules from the list below that have the samefeature.
Each box may contain one, or more than one, biological molecule. The first box has been completed as
an example.
amylopectin
cellulose
collagen
haemoglobin
mRNA
triglyceride
[5]
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Fig. 3.1
(a) (i) Complete Fig. 3.1 to show how a molecule of α-glucose is added to the amylose. [3]
(ii) Name the bond that forms between glucose molecules in polysaccharides, such as amylose.
.................................................................................................................................................................. [1]
[3]
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5 (d) Papain is a globular protein with a tertiary structure but no quaternary structure.
(i) State how many polypeptides there are in a molecule of papain.
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(ii) Explain how the tertiary structure of the protein results in papain being globular.
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Fig. 1.1
(a) Give the letter, A to D, of the molecule in Fig. 1.1 which:
(i) is a nucleotide ...........................
(ii) can form peptide bonds ...........................
(iii) contains ester bonds. ........................... [3]
(b) Some of the molecules in Fig. 1.1 can form polymers.
(i) Name a polymer which can be formed only from many molecules of C.
...................................................................................................................................................................[1]
(ii) State one way, visible in Fig. 1.1, in which the part labelled 1 of molecule A differs from the part
labelled 2.
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3 There are many types of amino acids, but only twenty that are polymerised to make polypeptides and
proteins in animals.
(a) Name the type of chemical reaction that occurs when two amino acids form a dipeptide.
.................................................................................................................................................................. [1]
(b) Fig. 3.1 shows two amino acids, glycine and valine. Use the space below to make a drawing to show
what happens when these two molecules join together to form a dipeptide.
Fig. 3.1
[4]
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Fig. 4.2
(i) With reference to Fig. 4.2 and the parts labelled P and Q, explain the term secondary structure.
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5 Fig. 5.1 shows a diagram of the molecular structures of tristearin (a triglyceride) and
phosphatidylcholine (a phospholipid).
Fig. 5.1
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(a) Table 5.1 shows a structural difference between the two molecules shown in Fig. 5.1.
Complete Table 5.1 with two further structural differences other than in numbers of different types of
atoms.
Table 5.1
[2]
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5 (c) Water has many significant roles to play in cells and living organisms.
Complete Table 5.2 below by stating the property of water that allows each of the following to take place.
Table 5.2
[3]
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4 Many microorganisms can digest cellulose by using a group of enzymes collectively known as
cellulases. Cellobiose is the disaccharide produced during cellulose digestion.
The cellulase known as β-glucosidase completes the digestion of cellulose by hydrolysing the cellobiose
molecule to produce two β-glucose molecules.
[2]
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5 (b) Chlamydomonas live in water and obtain minerals, such as magnesium ions, from the water.
(i) State one role of magnesium ions in photosynthetic organisms.
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(ii) State two properties of water which make it possible for organisms such as Chlamydomonas to live in
water.
1 ....................................................................................................................................................................
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2 ....................................................................................................................................................................
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2 Fig. 2.1 is a diagram of the structure of a protein channel for ions in a cell surface membrane.
Fig. 2.1a shows the channel when open and Fig. 2.1b shows the same channel when closed.
4 Glycogen is a highly branched polysaccharide molecule that is stored in the liver, kidney and muscles
of mammals.
Fig. 4.1 shows a small part of a molecule of glycogen.
Fig. 4.1
(a) (i) Name the bond at X.
...................................................................................................................................................................[1]
(ii) State the advantages for a mammal of having a storage molecule that is highly branched.
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(iii) State two ways in which the structure of cellulose differs from the structure of glycogen.
1. ...................................................................................................................................................................
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2. ...................................................................................................................................................................
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1 Statements A to E relate to biological molecules.
For each statement, identify the most appropriate term that matches the description.
A The molecule formed from a condensation reaction between fructose and glucose.
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B The name of the bond broken when two amino acids are separated by hydrolysis.
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[Total: 5]
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3 (c) The walls of the trachea and bronchi contain elastic fibres.
Elastic fibres are made of bundles of the fibrous protein elastin.
• Each molecule of elastin is a single polypeptide.
• The primary structure contains a large proportion of the amino acid glycine.
• Glycine has a hydrophobic R group.
• Glycine does not occur at regular intervals in the polypeptide.
• The polypeptide forms random coils that change shape as the elastic fibres are stretched and recoil.
• Elastin molecules are joined to each other by many covalent bonds to form a cross-linked network.
Describe two ways in which the structure of a collagen molecule differs from the structure of an elastin
molecule described above.
1 ....................................................................................................................................................................
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2 ....................................................................................................................................................................
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[Total: 2]
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6 One of the enzymes involved in glycogen synthesis is glycogen synthase. The monomer of the
glycogen polymer is α-glucose.
(a) (i) Draw the ring form of α-glucose in the space provided.
[2]
(ii) Glycogen synthase catalyses the formation of a covalent bond between two α-glucose molecules
during glycogen synthesis.
Name the type of bond formed.
...................................................................................................................................................................[1]
(iii) Glycogen branching enzyme is another enzyme that is required for glycogen synthesis.
Suggest why glycogen branching enzyme is needed in addition to glycogen synthase.
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Fig. 3.1
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(a) (i) Name the two types of covalent bond in the structure in Fig. 3.1.
...................................................................................................................................................................[1]
(ii) The primary structure of lysozyme is shown in Fig. 3.1.
Explain the meaning of the term primary structure.
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[Total: 2]
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2 (c) Amino acids synthesised in the mesophyll cells of leaves are also transported in phloem sap to
other locations where they are used to synthesise polypeptides.
Amino acids are joined by peptide bonds to form the polypeptides.
Two amino acids are shown below. Describe the formation of a peptide bond between these two amino
acids. You may use the space below.
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[Total: 2]
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3 High fructose corn syrup, made from maize, can be used as a replacement for sucrose to sweeten food
and drink products.
Commercial production of high fructose corn syrup involves the enzyme glucose isomerase, extracted
from bacteria.
(a) Fructose and sucrose are both sugars.
State two structural differences between fructose and sucrose.
1 ....................................................................................................................................................................
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.......................................................................................................................................................................
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2 ....................................................................................................................................................................
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[Total: 2]
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1 (a) Table 1.1 shows some features of four biological molecules that are all polymers.
Complete Table 1.1 by using a tick (3) to indicate the features that apply to each polymer.
Table 1.1
[4]
[Total: 4]
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6 As a result of transcription and translation, a polypeptide chain is produced. Proteins with quaternary
structure contain two or more polypeptide chains.
An antibody molecule and a haemoglobin molecule both show quaternary structure.
(a) Table 6.1 shows some features of an antibody molecule and a haemoglobin molecule.
Complete Table 6.1 to produce a summary of the features of the two molecules.
[3]
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4 (a) Complete Table 4.1 by using a tick (3) to indicate which statements apply to each of the molecules.
Use a cross (7) for statements that do not apply.
Some of the boxes have been completed for you.
[4]
[7]
Fig. 4.1
[Total: 9]
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6 (a) In the space below, draw a diagram to show a hydrogen bond between two water molecules.
[3]
(b) (i) Movement of water in xylem depends on the force of attraction between water molecules as a
result of hydrogen bonding.
State the name given to this force of attraction.
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(ii) State the property of water that results in a cooling effect as water evaporates from the surface of
organisms.
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[Total: 5]
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Fig. 4.1
(b) Many proteins that contain the amino acids shown in Fig. 4.1 are globular.
Describe how the three R groups in Fig. 4.1 can contribute to the globular structure of a protein.
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(c) An example of a globular protein is the enzyme starch phosphorylase. This enzyme catalyses the
conversion of starch to glucose-1-phosphate.
Name the type of bond that is broken when starch is converted to glucose-1-phosphate.
...................................................................................................................................................................[1]
[Total: 5]
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Fig. 2.1
(b) Compare, stating similarities and differences, the structure of the phosphatidylcholine shown in Fig.
2.1 with the structure of a triglyceride molecule.
similarities .....................................................................................................................................................
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[Total: 4]
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Fig. 2.1
(i) Name the products, A and B, of the reaction shown in Fig. 2.1.
A ........................................................................................................................................
B ........................................................................................................................................ [2]
(ii) Name the type of bond that is broken in the reaction shown in Fig. 2.1.
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(iii) State the type of reaction shown in Fig. 2.1.
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(b) When Benedict’s solution is added to a sucrose solution and put into a boiling water-bath, no change
in colour is observed.
State why no colour change is observed.
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[Total: 6]
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Fig. 4.1
(a) State the term that matches each of the descriptions given in boxes E, F, G, H and J in Fig. 4.1.
E ...............................................................................................................................................
F ...............................................................................................................................................
G ...............................................................................................................................................
H ...............................................................................................................................................
J ................................................................................................................................................ [5]
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Fig. 2.1
(a) Name the type of bond that joins the two monosaccharides in lactose.
...................................................................................................................................................................[1]
(b) The enzyme lactase catalyses the breakage of the bond between the two monosaccharides in
lactose.
(i) Name the type of reaction that breaks this bond.
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[Total: 2]
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3 (a) (iii) Outline the role of ATP in a leaf cell.
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Water is a main component of plant cells.
(b) Fig. 3.2 shows two water molecules linked by a hydrogen bond.
Fig. 3.2
Explain how hydrogen bonding occurs between water molecules.
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(c) Suggest why water is an excellent solvent for ions.
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[Total: 7]
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5 (b) The sugar component of DNA is a reducing sugar.
Outline the test for reducing sugars and describe the observations for a positive result.
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[Total: 2]
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2 (a) Proteins are macromolecules composed of many amino acids.
(i) Two amino acids are represented in the diagram in Fig. 2.1.
Complete the diagram to show how the two amino acids react together to form a dipeptide.
Fig. 2.1
[3]
(ii) State what is represented by R1 and R2 in Fig. 2.1.
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(b) Amylose and cellulose are polysaccharides.
Fig. 2.2 shows the structure of part of a cellulose molecule.
Fig. 2.2
With reference to Fig. 2.2, state how the structure of a cellulose molecule differs from the structure of
an amylose molecule.
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(c) Cellulose is the main component of plant cell walls.
Explain why cellulose is suitable as a component of plant cell walls.
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[Total: 11]
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Fig. 2.2
The molecule of carbonic anhydrase has primary, secondary and tertiary structure.
Explain the extent to which Fig. 2.2 shows the primary, secondary and tertiary structure of carbonic
anhydrase.
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[Total: 4]
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(i) Complete the column in Table 5.1 headed colour obtained after testing. [2]
[Total: 3]
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Fig. 1.1
Describe how Fig. 1.1 shows the secondary structure and tertiary structure of the antibody molecule.
secondary structure ......................................................................................................................................
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tertiary structure ............................................................................................................................................
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2 Linoleic acid is an unsaturated fatty acid that is found in some triglycerides and some phospholipids.
Phospholipids are components of cell membranes.
Fig. 2.1 shows a molecule of linoleic acid.
Fig. 2.1
(a) The composition of cell membranes of plants changes in response to changes in temperature.
At the start of the cold season there is an increase in the proportion of phospholipids with unsaturated
fatty acids in the chickpea, Cicer arietinum. Chickpea plants that do not make this change do not survive.
Suggest how the increase in the proportion of phospholipids with unsaturated fatty acids helps plants,
such as chickpea, survive decreases in temperature.
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(b) (i) State why triglycerides and phospholipids cannot be described as polymers.
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Fig. 5.1
Complete Table 5.1 by using only the molecules listed in Fig. 5.1.
• Each example can be written under one or more correct headings.
• All the examples in Fig. 5.1 should appear at least once in Table 5.1.
Table 5.1
[5]
Fig. 1.1
(a) (i) Name the parts of the amino acid molecule labelled A and B in Fig. 1.1.
A .......................................................................................................................................
B ....................................................................................................................................... [2]
(ii) Amino acids are monomers used to build proteins.
Complete Fig. 1.2 by drawing a diagram to show the formation of a peptide bond between two molecules
of glycine.
[4]
(b) Explain why an amylose molecule and a cellulose molecule have very different structures, even
though they both have glucose as the constituent monomer.
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1 Fig. 1.1 is a diagram of a molecule of haemoglobin.
Fig. 1.1
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(a) (i) Name the structure labelled A on Fig. 1.1.
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(ii) State the function of structure A.
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(b) Haemoglobin is described as a globular protein. Explain why this protein is described as globular.
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(c) The gene HBB codes for the β-globin polypeptide.
State why a polypeptide, such as β-globin, is described as a polymer.
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(d) A single base change in the DNA of the gene HBB results in a change to the amino acid sequence of
β-globin. In the sequence, a single glutamic acid is replaced by valine.
Outline the effects of this change in the amino acid sequence of β-globin on the structure and function of
a haemoglobin molecule.
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Fig. 1.1
Fig. 4.2
(i) Name the type of covalent bond formed between the amino acids shown in Fig. 4.2.
...................................................................................................................................................................[1]
(ii) Fig. 4.3 shows the molecular structure of the amino acid glycine (gly).
Fig. 4.3
With reference to Fig. 4.2 and Fig. 4.3 and the function of collagen, explain how the structure of a
collagen polypeptide makes it suitable to form a collagen molecule.
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Fig. 4.2
[2]
(ii) A student carried out tests on a solution of trehalose and correctly concluded that trehalose is a non-
reducing sugar.
Outline the procedure carried out by the student and state the results that were obtained.
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2 (a) Fig. 2.1 shows the molecular structure of a triglyceride molecule.
Fig. 2.1
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(i) Draw a circle around an ester bond shown in Fig. 2.1. [1]
(ii) Name the type of reaction used to produce a triglyceride from its components.
State the number of water molecules produced during this reaction.
type of reaction ..................................................................................................................
number of water molecules produced ............................................................................... [2]
(b) Lipases are enzymes that digest triglycerides in the lumen of the human intestine. These enzymes
are released by exocytosis from intestinal epithelial cells.
(i) Underline all the terms from the list that are used to describe these lipases.
[1]
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5 A molecule of collagen consists of three identical polypeptides that form a triple helix.
The amino acid glycine forms one third of the amino acids in a collagen molecule.
Fig. 5.1A shows a polypeptide molecule during protein synthesis. A molecule of glycine is shown just
before it is added to the polypeptide.
Fig. 5.1
(a) (i) Complete Fig. 5.1B to show the molecule of glycine added to the end of the polypeptide. [2]
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(ii) State the type of reaction that occurs when glycine is added to the end of the polypeptide.
.................................................................................................................................................................. [1]
(iii) Explain the importance of glycine in a collagen molecule.
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.................................................................................................................................................................. [2]
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2 (ii) The hydrolysis of proteins in the barley seed produces amino acids that can be used in the
synthesis of the proteins required for formation of the seedling (young plant).
Fig. 2.1 is an incomplete diagram of the molecular structure of the smallest amino acid, glycine. Each
molecule of glycine has two carbon atoms.
Fig. 2.1
Complete Fig. 2.1 to show the molecular structure of glycine. [2]
(iii) Starch is a mixture of two different molecules.
Name these two molecules.
.......................................................................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................................................. [1]
Two of the enzymes synthesised by the barley seed are α-amylase and maltase. These are involved in
the hydrolysis of the stored starch during seedling formation.
In the food industry, the starch extracted from barley seeds (barley starch) is used in the production of
sugar syrups. Fig. 2.2 summarises the reactions catalysed by α-amylase in the production of maltose
syrup and by maltase in the production of glucose syrup.
Fig. 2.2
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Fig. 2.1
(a) Describe the hydrogen bonding that occurs between the water molecules shown in Fig. 2.1.
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Fig. 2.2
(i) Explain the role of hydrogen bonding in maintaining the secondary structure of proteins, such as
salivary amylase.
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.......................................................................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................................................. [1]
(ii) Explain the role of hydrogen bonding in maintaining the tertiary structure of proteins such as salivary
amylase.
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.................................................................................................................................................................. [2]
(c) Outline the importance of water as a solvent in plants.
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[Total: 9]
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1 (b) (i) Cell structure Y in Fig. 1.1 contains a large starch granule (grain).
Name the chemical reagent used to test for starch and state the colour change that will be seen if starch
is present.
reagent ..............................................................................................................................
colour change .................................................................................................................... [2]
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(ii) Starch granules contain amylose and amylopectin.
Describe the similarities and differences between the structure of amylose and the structure of
amylopectin.
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.................................................................................................................................................................. [4]
[Total: 11]
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4 In thale cress, Arabidopsis thaliana, most of the stomata are on the lower surface of the leaves.
Fig. 4.1 is a diagram of an open stoma and two guard cells. Some of the cellulose fibres in the cell wall of
the guard cells are shown.
Fig. 4.1
(a) The cellulose fibres shown in Fig. 4.1 are composed of bundles of cellulose microfibrils.
Explain how molecules of cellulose are arranged into a microfibril.
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