TUNKU ABDUL RAHMAN UNIVERSITY COLLEGE

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

LABORATORY MARKING RUBRICS FOR BACHELOR DEGREE COURSES

STUDENT NAME: LIEW CHING CHING STUDENT ID: 19WGR06109 MARKS AWARDED:
MEMBER NAMES:
1. 3.
DATE OF EXPERIMENT: 6 AUGUST 2020
2. 4. DATE OF SUBMISSION: 21 AUGUST 2020
COURSE CODE & COURSE TITLE: BTME2213 Fluid Mechanics EXPERIMENT TITLE: FM1 FLOW OVER IMMERSED BODIES

MARKING RUBRIC
NUM MARKING CRITERIA Weightage RUBRICS SCORES
1 PARTICIPATION / TEAM WORK NA 0-1 2-3 4
JOINING AS MEMBER ACTIVELY PLAY THE ROLE AS A TEAM MEMBER ACTIVELY LEADING THE TEAM NA

2 METHOD APPLIED / USAGE OF NA 0-1 2-3 4

INSTRUMENT REQUIRE ATTENTION AND ASSISTANCE PROPER METHOD WITH ROOM FOR METHOD APPLIED ASSURE THE ACCURACY OF NA
FROM THE LECTURER IMPROVEMENT WITH ADVICE FROM THE THE RESULTS
LECTURER
3 TROUBLESHOOTING NA 0-1 2-3 4
REQUIRE ATTENTION AND ASSISTANCE PROPER METHOD WITH ROOM FOR METHOD APPLIED ASSURE THE ACCURACY OF
NA
FROM THE LECTURER IMPROVEMENT WITH ADVICE FROM THE THE RESULTS
LECTURER
4 INTRODUCTION/ THEORY/ 20 0-1 2-3 4
LITERATURE REVIEW QUANTITY AND QUALITY OF CONTENTS ARE QUANTITY AND QUALITY OF CONTENTS ARE QUANTITY AND QUALITY OF CONTENTS ARE
LOW MODERATE EXCELLENT
5 OBJECTIVE 5 0-1 2-3 4
DEMONSTRATES POOR UNDERSTANDING DEMONSTRATES BASIC UNDERSTANDING AND DEMONSTRATES GOOD UNDERSTANDING AND
AND UNABLE TO FORMULATE APPROPRIATE FORMULATION OF RESEARCH OBJECTIVES. ABLE TO FORMULATE APPROPRIATE RESEARCH
RESEARCH OBJECTIVES. OBJECTIVES.
6 METHODOLOGY Refer to 0-1 2-3 4
Lab THE PROPOSED METHODS ARE NOT ABLE TO THE PROPOSED METHODS ARE ABLE TO ADDRESS THE PROPOSED METHODS ARE NOT ABLE TO NA
Manual SOLVE ALL THE ANTICIPATED PROBLEMS SOME OF THE ANTICIPATED PROBLEMS. ADDRESS THE ANTICIPATED PROBLEMS.
7 RESULT AND DISCUSSION 50 0-1 2-3 4
- CALCULATION DATA SHOWN WITHOUT PROPER DATA AND CALCULATION SHOWN BUT IMPROPER COMPLETE DATA AND CALCULATION SHOWN
- DISCUSSION CALCULATION, DISCUSSION AND DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION WRITTEN. WITH PROPER DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
CONCLUSION. WRITTEN.
8 CONCLUSION 10 0-1 2-3 4
ONLY SUMMARIZING ISSUES AND KEY PRESENTS CONCLUSION ON KEY ISSUES AT PRESENT AN ACCURATE SUMMARY OF
ASPECTS ARE NEGLECTED. SUPERFICIAL LEVEL WITH MINOR ERRORS. WORKS DONE AND ABLE TO RELATE
FINDINGS TO RESEARCH OBJECTIVES.
9 REFERENCE 5 0-1 2-3 4
INADEQUATE LIST OF REFERENCES OR MINOR INADEQUACIES IN REFERENCES OR REFERENCE SECTION COMPLETE,
FAILURE TO FOLLOW REQUIRED FORMAT. INCONSISTENCIES IN FORMAT. COMPREHENSIVE AND FOLLOWS REQUIRED
FORMAT.
10 PRESENTATION (GRAMMAR, 10 0-1 2-3 4
LANGUAGE, LAYOUT, FORMAT) POOR GRAMMAR AND PRESENTATION MODERATE LEVEL OF GRAMMAR AND EXCELLENT GRAMMAR USAGE AND
PRESENTATION PRESENTATION
IF 0 MARK IS AWARDED TO ANY CRITERIA, PLEASE SPECIFY THE REASON:
FM1 FLOW OVER IMMERSED BODIES

Objective

1. To obtain drag force and drag coefficient for aerofoil body.

2. To obtain pressure distribution as a function of the angle to the direction of flow.

Theory

There are various aspects of the flow over bodies that are immersed in a fluid. For instance, the flow
of air around airplanes, automobiles, and falling snow flakes, or the flow of water around submarines
and fish. In these situations, the object is completely surrounded by the fluid and the flows are termed
external flows. External flows involving air are often termed aerodynamics in response to the
important external flows produced when an object such as an airplane flies through the atmosphere.
When body moves through a fluid, an interaction between the body and fluid occurs. This effect can
be described in terms of the forces at the fluid–body interface. The fluid force lift and drag on surface
vehicles such as cars, trucks, bicycles. It may greatly decrease the fuel consumption of vehicles by the
correctly shape designing of the vehicles.

Thrust force is produced by a momentum which pushes object moves forward. The opposite direction
to the thrust force exactly known as drug force which also known as resistance. In a vertical
component pointing downward is always due to gravity which is the weight of an object (mg) whereas
the opposite way will be lift force. In order to make the object lift, the lift force must overcome the
weight of the body. Drag force is summation of different form of resistance, which the three main
form that may observed includes pressure drag (form drag), skin drag, and induced drag.

Lift Force

Thrust force Drag Force

Weight

Pressure Drag
Pressure drag is caused by change of pressure in two region and then acting over a surface. It is often
referred to as form drag because of its strong dependency on the shape or form
of the object. In other words, pressure drag may contribute by the air particles being more compressed
on the front-facing surfaces, which means having maximum pressure due to stagnation point where
obtain from Bernoulli equation and more spaced out on the back surfaces. The pressure at this front-
facing surface is exactly higher than our free stream surface. Therefore, while the air is passing
through the disk-liked object, the flow will easily separate as the object is not streamline, which
means the boundary layer is not attached on the solid surface. Hence, causing back flow at the back
surface of the object called as wake region. This wake region produces eddies (back flow) or swirl
which called turbulent flow as shown in Figure 1.1. Velocity of eddies motion is extremely small as
compared to the free stream velocity. When refer to Bernoulli equation, there are pressure energy,
kinetic energy and potential energy which assumed as a constant as following equation:
 𝑃 𝑣2
+ +𝑧=𝐶
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔

Since potential energy is assumed as negligible due to its elevation is about the same and the kinetic
energy is tends to omit as it is extremely small in the wake region. In other words, this eddies will
consume the pressure and then convert into heat energy. Hence, this causing the pressure drop
significantly. When the pressure behind the object is reduced, the pressure at front site is higher than
behind. As the object is not streamline, it is having large cross section area, the back flow region is
very large and resulting the significant change of pressure due to the pressure drop in the wake region.
Therefore, it contributes to the pressure drag significantly. For this, force can be calculated simply
using the following formula:
𝐹 = ∆𝑃 ∗ 𝐴

Wake region
(Back flow region)

Figure 1.1 Pressure drag (not streamline). Source: Nuclear Power (2020).

As studied from Howthingsfly (2020), the more the object is streamlined, the smaller the cross section
area, the smaller the wake creates. The wake region has less pressure than the region in front of the
object, thus generated a backward force. When looking to Figure 1.2, although the three shapes
having with same diameter, the teardrop is more streamline, which it has a rounded front and tapered
tail, a shape that slips through the air more smoothly and helps reduce pressure drag.

Figure 1.2 Wake produced by different shape of objects. Source: Howthingsfly (2020).
Skin Drag
Skin drag is mainly occurs only on the surface of body. The flow is parallel to the solid surface as it is
passing through the solid surface, which will create skin drag at the surface of the object. Skin drag is
mainly caused by the shear stress which is multiply of the product of dynamic viscosity and the
velocity gradient with the parallel area as formula below:

𝜕𝑢
𝑆𝑘𝑖𝑛 𝐷𝑟𝑎𝑔 = 𝜏𝐴 = 𝜇 𝐴
𝜕𝑦

When investigating the drag force onto an aerofoil body, the aerofoil is assumed as a thin object as
shown in Figure 1.3. Hence, a streamline generated at the surface of the object when flow passing
through it, which known as skin drag. The back flow region for the thin object is very small, and
resulting the change of pressure (pressure drop) at the back flow region is minimized. In other words,
the pressure drag is usually minimum when flow passing through a very thin or teardrop object as
shown in Figure 1.2 and the skin drag been the dominant.

As refer to Figure 1.3, when the angle of the object start changing, it results the free stream velocity
passing through the object with larger cross section, which means, it became thicker facing to the
flow. When the flow passing through a thick object, the flow is easily separate. It can be say the
separation of flow occurs earlier compared to the thin object as the separation point of thin object is
usually at the end of the object whereas the separation point of think object is shifted earlier. Hence,
the back flow region of the thick object is wider, and produce a very low pressure at this region. In
this situation, the pressure drag become dominant drag force. To conclude these, pressure drag is the
dominant drag force of thick object and skin drag is dominant drag force for thin object.

Figure 1.3 Flow field through aerofoil body. Source: Flight Literacy (2020, 1).
Induced Drag
Induced Drag is formed due to lift such like wingtip vortices. It is the result of pressure
equalization between the high pressure under the wing and low pressure above the wing. Therefore,
the high pressure region tends to overflow to the upper surface as the aircraft move forwards This
pressure differential triggers the rollup of airflow of the wing resulting in swirling air masses trailing
downstream of the wingtips. After the rollup is completed, the wake consists of two counter rotating
cylindrical vortices as shown in Figure 1.4.

Figure 1.4 Vortex generation. Source: Flight Literacy (2020, 2).

Generally, drag force can be evaluate by equation

1
𝐷 = 𝜌𝑈∞ 2 𝐴𝐶𝐷
2

Where D is drag force, 𝜌 is density which referring to the medium passing through the object, 𝑈∞ is
free stream velocity which the velocity passing through the object, A is area which referring to the
shear area (A=CL) since skin drag as dominant as shown in Figure1.5 and 𝐶𝐷 is coefficient of
1
drag. 2 𝜌𝑈∞ 2 is dynamic pressure in undistributed stream.

Span Length, L
Cord Length, C

Figure 1.5 Cord and span of aerofoil. Source: Avallone, F (2020).

Pressure coefficient is the difference between local static pressure and free stream static pressure, non-
dimensionalized by the free-stream dynamic pressure. At any point in the flow where the local
pressure coefficient is defined as

∆𝑃 𝑃𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 − 𝑃∞
𝐶𝑃 = =
1 2 1 2
2 𝜌𝑈∞ 2 𝜌𝑈∞

Before any flow passing through the aerofoil, the pressure are same along the surface. As flow started
passing through the aerofoil, the pressure varies due to the different geometry occurs.
Apparatus

Refer to lab manual.

Methodology

Refer to lab manual.

Results and Discussion

Table 1: Measurement and results.

Angle of Average Initial Load Final Difference of Drag Drag
Attack Change in Cell Load Cell Load Cell Force, D Coefficient
(Deg.) Pressure, Pa Reading, g Reading, g Reading, g (N)
-5 213.5 0.0 4.5 4.5 0.02207 0.025136
0 213.7 1.1 4.6 3.5 0.01717 0.019555
5 211.2 -0.7 4.8 5.5 0.02698 0.030728
10 207.2 9.2 21.2 12.0 0.05886 0.067036
15 205.5 5.2 29.0 23.8 0.11674 0.132956
20 203.0 5.4 43.5 38.1 0.18688 0.212839
25 201.0 -4.0 50.0 54.0 0.26487 0.301662

Figure 2.1Different point of aerofoil

Table 2: Pressure Distribution.

Manometer Reading (mm)
Angle of
Attack 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
(Deg.)
-5 172 176 177 177 177 178 179 203 195 188 184 184 183 180
0 180 181 180 180 180 180 179 194 190 186 182 182 182 179
5 194 189 186 183 181 182 178 179 180 179 179 180 180 182
10 203 192 192 187 183 184 178 169 174 174 175 177 177 182
15 210 201 193 189 186 186 179 165 171 182 173 175 176 183
20 209 202 197 194 192 192 181 165 171 172 173 175 177 190
25 205 200 197 196 196 196 185 163 169 171 172 175 176 195

Initial Manometer reading = 156mm.

Core Length, C = 65mm.
Span Length, L = 65mm.

213.5 + 213.7 + 211.2 + 207.2 + 205.5 + 203 + 201

𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑔 = = 207.87𝑃𝑎
7
Free stream velocity can be defined by Bernoulli equation and referring to the upstream velocity, and
is comparing it to the stagnation point (pitot tube), and velocity which both point are assumed at same
level.

𝑃∞ 𝑈∞ 2 𝑃𝑜 𝑈𝑜 2
+ + 𝑧∞ = + + 𝑧𝑜
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔 𝜌𝑔 2𝑔

Since the velocity at the stagnation point is always equal to zero, there is no kinetic energy at
stagnation point. Besides, as both of the point are at same elevation, potential energy were cancelled
out (𝑧∞ = 𝑧𝑜 ).

𝑈∞ 2 𝑃𝑜 −𝑃∞
=
2𝑔 𝜌𝑔

2(𝑃𝑜 −𝑃∞ )
𝑈∞ = √
𝜌

where the density is referring to the air passing through the aerofoil, which air density is 1.225kg/m³.
Assume average change in pressure is free stream pressure, which is equal to 207.87Pa.

2(207.87)
𝑈∞ = √ = 18.42𝑚/𝑠
1.225
__________________________________________________________________________________

𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝐶𝑒𝑙𝑙 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔, 𝑔

𝐷= × 0.5 × 9.81
1000
4.5 3.5
𝐷= × 0.5 × 9.81 = 0.02207𝑁 𝐷= × 0.5 × 9.81 = 0.01717𝑁
1000 1000
5.5 12
𝐷= × 0.5 × 9.81 = 0.02698𝑁 𝐷= × 0.5 × 9.81 = 0.05886𝑁
1000 1000
23.8 38.1
𝐷= × 0.5 × 9.81 = 0.11674𝑁 𝐷= × 0.5 × 9.81 = 0.18688𝑁
1000 1000
54
𝐷=× 0.5 × 9.81 = 0.26487𝑁
1000
__________________________________________________________________________________

In this case, shear area is taken to calculation as skin drag is as dominant. Shear Area = 4.225(10-3)m2.

1 𝐷
𝐷 = 𝜌𝑈∞ 2 𝐴𝐶𝐷 𝐶𝐷 =
2 1 2
2 𝜌𝑈∞ 𝐴
1 1
𝐷𝑦𝑛𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 = 𝜌𝑈∞ 2 = (1.225)(18.422 ) = 207.82𝑃𝑎
2 2
1 1
𝜌𝑈∞ 2 𝐴 = (1.225)(18.422 )(4.225 (10−3 )) = 0.878035𝑘𝑔𝑚/𝑠 2
2 2
 0.02207 0.01717
𝐶𝐷 = = 0.025136 𝐶𝐷 = = 0.019555
0.878035 0.878035
0.02698 0.05886
𝐶𝐷 = = 0.030728 𝐶𝐷 = = 0.067036
0.878035 0.878035
0.11674 0.18688
𝐶𝐷 = = 0.132956 𝐶𝐷 = = 0.212839
0.878035 0.878035
0.26487
= 0.301662 𝐶𝐷 =
0.878035
__________________________________________________________________________________

Graph 1: Drag Coefficient against angle of attack graph.

Drag Coefficient agianst Angle of Attack

0.25

0.212839
0.2
DRAG COEFFICIENT

0.15
0.132956

0.1

0.067036
0.05
0.025136 0.030728
0.019555
0
-10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25
ANGLE OF ATTACK (DEG.)

Table 3: Change of pressure

𝑪𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍, ∆𝒉 𝒎𝒎
Angle
of
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Attack
(Deg.)
-5 16 20 21 21 21 22 23 47 39 32 28 28 27 24
0 24 25 24 24 24 24 23 38 34 30 26 26 26 23
5 38 33 30 27 25 26 22 23 24 23 23 24 24 26
10 47 36 36 31 27 28 22 13 18 18 19 21 21 26
15 54 45 37 33 30 30 23 9 15 26 17 19 20 27
20 53 46 41 38 36 36 25 9 15 16 17 19 21 34
25 49 44 41 40 40 40 29 7 13 15 16 19 20 39

𝜌𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑔∆ℎ 1000(9.81)

𝐶𝑃 = = ∆ℎ = 47.2∆ℎ(10−3 )
1 2 207.82
2 𝜌𝑈∞
Table 4: Pressure coefficient at each point at different attack angle.

Pressure Coefficient
Upper surface
Angle of
Attack 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
(Deg.)
-5 0.7552 0.9440 0.9912 0.9912 991.2 1.0384 1.0856
0 1.1328 1.1800 1.1328 1.1328 1.1328 1.1328 1.0856
5 0.7552 1.5576 1.4160 1.2744 1.180 1.2272 1.0384
10 2.2184 1.6992 1.6992 1.4632 1.2744 1.3216 1.0384
15 2.5488 2.124 1.7464 1.5576 1.4160 1.4160 1.0856
20 2.5016 2.1712 1.9352 1.7936 1.6992 1.6992 1.1800
25 2.3128 2.0768 1.9352 1.8880 1.8880 1.8880 1.3688

Pressure Coefficient
Lower surface
Angle of
Attack 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
(Deg.)
-5 2.2184 1.8408 1.5104 1.3216 1.3216 1.2744 1.1328
0 1.7936 1.6048 1.4160 1.2272 1.2272 1.2272 1.0856
5 1.0856 1.1328 1.0856 1.0856 1.1328 1.1328 1.2272
10 0.6136 0.8496 0.8496 0.8968 0.9912 0.9912 1.2272
15 0.4248 0.7080 1.2272 0.8024 0.8968 0.9440 1.2744
20 0.4248 0.7080 0.7552 0.8024 0.8968 0.9912 1.6048
25 0.3304 0.6136 0.7080 0.7552 0.8968 0.9440 1.8408

𝑥
Table 5: values of at each point.
𝑐
Upstream
x, mm 7.66 14.13 19.80 25.61 31.46 38.55 48.18
𝒙
0.1042 0.2174 0.3056 0.3940 0.4840 0.5931 0.7412
𝒄
Downstream
x, mm 7.31 14.1 19.05 25.08 30.86 41.92 53.58
𝒙
0.1125 0.2169 0.2931 0.3858 0.4748 0.6449 0.8243
𝒄
 𝑥
Graph 2: Pressure coefficient against graph at -5°.
𝑐

Pressure Coefficient against x/c (-5Deg.)

Upper Surface Lower Surface

2.5
2.2184

2 1.8408
Pressure Coefficient

1.5104
1.5 1.3216 1.3216 1.2744
1.1328

1
1.0384 1.0856
0.944 0.9912 0.9912 0.9912

0.7552
0.5

0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9
x/c

𝑥
Graph 3: Pressure coefficient against graph at 0°.
𝑐

Pressure Coefficient agianst x/c (0Deg.)

Upper Surface Lower Surface

2
1.7936
1.8
1.6048
1.6
1.416
1.4
1.2272 1.2272 1.2272
Pressure Coefficient

1.2 1.0856
1.18
1 1.1328 1.1328 1.1328 1.1328 1.1328
1.0856
0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9
x/c
 𝑥
Graph 4: Pressure coefficient against 𝑐 graph at 5°.

Pressure Coefficient against x/c (5Deg.)

Upper Surface Lower Surface

2
1.7936
1.8
1.6048
1.6
1.416
1.5576
1.4
1.416 1.2272 1.2272 1.2272
Pressure Coefficient

1.2 1.2744 1.0856

1.2272
1.18
1
1.0384
0.8
0.7552
0.6

0.4

0.2

0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9
x/c

𝑥
Graph 5: Pressure coefficient against 𝑐 graph at 10°.

Pressure Coefficient against x/c (10Deg.)

Upper Surface Lower Surface

2.5
2.2184

2
1.6992 1.6992
Pressure Coefficient

1.4632
1.5 1.3216
1.2744

1.0384
1.2272
1
0.9912 0.9912
0.8496 0.8496 0.8968
0.5 0.6136

0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9
x/c
 𝑥
Graph 6: Pressure coefficient against 𝑐 graph at 15°.

Pressure Coefficient against x/c (15Deg.)

Upper Surface Lower Surface

2.5488
2.5
2.124

2
Pressure Coefficient

1.7464
1.5576
1.416 1.416
1.5

1.0856
1.2272 1.2744
1

0.8968 0.944
0.8024
0.5 0.708

0.4248

0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9
x/c

𝑥
Graph 7: Pressure coefficient against graph at 20°.
𝑐

Pressure Coefficient against x/c (20Deg.)

Upper Surface Lower Surface

2.5016
2.5
2.1712
1.9352
2
Pressure Coefficient

1.7936
1.6992 1.6992

1.5
1.6048
1.18

1
0.9912
0.8968
0.8024
0.5 0.708 0.7552

0.4248
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9
x/c
 𝑥
Graph 8: Pressure coefficient against 𝑐 graph at 25°.

Pressure Coeffificent against x/c (25Deg.)

Upper Surface Lower Surface

2.5 2.3128
2.0768
1.9352 1.888 1.888 1.888
2
Pressure Coefficient

1.8408
1.5 1.3688

0.8968 0.944
0.708 0.7552
0.5 0.6136

0.3304
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9
x/c

The drag coefficient is a measure of the effectiveness of a streamline aerofoil body shape in reducing
the resistance to the forward motion of a body. From observation of Graph 1, drag coefficient is
minimum at 0° as it is the thinnest condition of body with flow. A streamline shape of the body
consisting low drag coefficient and allows a body to move easily move through the surrounding
viscous fluid with minimum resistance. On the other hands, the drag coefficient is highest at angle of
25° since it is relatively thick compared to others. High drag coefficient is caused by poor
streamlining of the body profile which experiencing high resistance when a body is in motion.

As study from Aerospace, Mechanical & Mechatronic Engg. (2005), pressure gradient is one of the
factors that influences a flow immensely. This able to show the shear stress which caused by viscosity
and has a retarding effect upon the flow. If there is a negative pressure gradient offered to the flow,
Favorable Pressure Gradient is termed, which is a gradient enables the flow. A positive pressure
gradient has the opposite effect and is termed the Adverse Pressure Gradient. Fluid might find it
difficult to negotiate an adverse pressure gradient. One of the severe effects of an adverse pressure
gradient is to separate the flow. As referring to Figure3.1 shown, when flow passing through a curved
surface, the geometry of the surface at the left part have a favourable gradient in pressure until
point P. The negative pressure gradient then counteract the retarding effect of the shear stress, which
is due to viscosity in the boundary layer. For the geometry considered, it is consisting an adverse
pressure gradient from point S and is starts to retard. This effect is felt more strongly in the regions
close to the solid surface where the momentum is lower than in the regions near the free stream. As
indicated in the figure, the velocity near the wall reduces and the boundary layer thickens. A
continuous retardation of flow brings the shear stress of solid surface at the point S on the wall to
zero. From this point onwards, the shear stress becomes negative and the flow reverses and eddies
region develops. It can be observed that the flow is no longer follows the contour of the body. It
means that the flow has separated. The point S where the shear stress is zero is called the point of
separation.
Figure 3.1 Flow separation over curved surface. Source: Aerospace, Mechanical & Mechatronic Engg.
(2005).

When apply pressure gradient into this experiment, there is least Adverse Pressure Gradient when the
aerofoil is at 0°. This is because when the aerofoil is at 0°, it is at the thinnest condition which means
that it has least pressure drop from the stagnation point to the end of the body. Its separation point is
about the end of the body as shown in figure 3.2 and hence it has minimum resistance and drag.
Therefore, the results of drag coefficient at 0° is lowest. In this situation, skin drag is took as the
dominant. When looking to the angle of attack at 25°, it is assumed as a very thick body facing to the
stream. This results a large pressure drop from stagnation point to the end of the body and develops a
significant pressure drag. The pressure drop is generated by the eddy which consumed the pressure to
convert it into heat energy, and hence wake region resulted. In this situation, pressure drag is assumed
as dominant. Besides, the separation point occurs earlier as the angle of attack of flow increases.

Figure 3.2 Flow field at 0° angle of attack.

From the observation of Graph 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, it can be seen that the pressure coefficient varied
greatly under different attack angle. Most of the pressure coefficient of the upper surface of aerofoil
are much lower than the pressure coefficient at the lower surface. Thus, lift force of the airfoil is in the
upward direction. We can also see that the difference of pressure coefficient between upper surface
and lower surface is large at the front edge and become lower as nearer to the rear edge. From Graph
2 and 3, it can be observed that when the attack angle is smaller or equal to zero degree, the pressure
coefficient at the lower surface is larger than the pressure coefficient at the upper surface. When the
angle of attack is at 5°, the pressure coefficient difference at upper surface and lower surface is very
close to each other where sometimes the pressure coefficient at the lower surface is larger vice versa
as shown in Graph 4. When the attack angle is more than zero degree, the upper surface has larger
pressure coefficient compared to lower surface. However, when comes to point 13, the values of
pressure coefficient start to intersect each other and the lower surface becomes larger pressure
coefficient. As the angle of attack increases, the overall difference of pressure coefficient between
upper and lower surface increases. The pressure coefficient difference at 0° is the least. This implies
that is almost no lifting force is generated at zero degree angle of attack. It might due to the pressure
drop is low and the skin drag is acting as dominant.

From Graph 2 and 3, it is observed that at point 4, 5, 6 (at upper surface), and point 10, 11, 12, 13 (at
lower surface, the pressure coefficients are steady. It may because the surface at these points are
almost at the same elevation at each surface, and thus the pressure at these points are similar at each
surface. As the point comes nearer to the end, the difference of pressure coefficient becomes smaller
unless upon it intersected each other.
As study from Mohamed A. Fouad Kandil (2020), theoretically the pressure coefficient of the aerofoil
at upper surface was negative and the lower surface was positive, thus the lift force of the airfoil is in
the upward direction. However, the pressure coefficient is calculated by the change in water level in
manometer and the pressure is always only pushing up the water to become higher at different
position. Therefore, it has no the positive and negative sign in this experiment. Figures 3.3-3.8 below
are the theoretically pressure distribution of aerofoil at different attack angles.

Figure 3.3 Pressure distribution at -5°.

Figure 3.4 Pressure distribution at 0°.

Figure 3.5 Pressure distribution at 5°.

 Figure 3.6 Pressure distribution at 10°.

Figure 3.7 Pressure distribution at 15°.

Figure 3.8 Pressure distribution at 20°.

In this experiment, the possible errors occurred during the experiment is random error. Random error
occurs due to chance, which is always consisting some variability when a measurement is made. It
may be caused by slight fluctuations in an instrument, the environment, or the way of taking
measurement. In order to address the random errors, replication is encourage to apply in the
experiment which is repeating a measurement many times and taking the average. Moreover, systemic
error also a source of possible error in experiment. Systematic error gives measurements that are
consistently different from the true value in nature. It often due to limitations of either the instruments
or the procedure. Systematic error is one form of bias. Bias is often caused by instruments that
consistently offset the measured value from the true value, like the scale that always reads slightly
different over the real value. Instrumental error happens when the instruments being used are
inaccurate. In addition, human error is due to carelessness or to the limitations of human ability. For
example, the eye level of the operator does not perpendicular to the reading scale on the manometer.
Error cannot be completely eliminated, but it can be reduced by being aware of common sources of
error. Common sources of error include instrumental, environmental, procedural, and human. All of
these errors can be either random or systematic depending on how they affect the results.

Conclusion

In this experiment, there are two types of drag force involved, which are pressure drag and skin drag.
Pressure drag may contribute by the air particles being more compressed on the leading edge which is
direct meet with the stream where it having maximum pressure and experiencing pressure drop at the
rear edge. This pressure drop is due to it is converted into heat energy by eddy. When there is
significant pressure drop, pressure drag to be dominant. Otherwise, skin drag is dominant. Skin drag is
mainly occurs only on the surface of body. As the flow is parallel to the solid surface as it is passing
through the solid surface, skin drag is generated at the surface of the object. The separation is occurs
at the end of the body and thus it has minimum resistance and drag. As the attack angle increases, the
drag coefficient increases. This is because when the attack angle is at zero degree, the pressure
difference will be the least; as the attack angle increases, the pressure difference will also increases
followed by the drag coefficient increases. For study of pressure coefficient in this experiment, the
aerofoil at zero degree angle of attack, the static pressure is little higher on the lower surface than on
the upper surface. From the pressure coefficient graphs, it is seen that as the angle of attack increases
the difference of pressure coefficient also increases and it is much larger on the leading edge than the
trailing edge. There is consist of some possible source of error to carry out this experiment such as
random error, systemic error, instrumental error, and human error. To maximize the accuracies of
result in the experiment, replication is suggested to apply in the experiment and be aware on every
single step to avoid mistake.

Reference

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