CHAPTER TWO

VEHICLE AERODYNAMICS

2.1 Introduction

The constant need for better fuel economy, greater vehicle performance, reduction in wind noise level
and improved road holding and stability for a vehicle on the move, has prompted vehicle
manufacturers to investigate the nature of air resistance or drag for different body shapes under
various operating conditions.

Aerodynamics is the study of a solid body moving through the atmosphere and the interaction which
takes place between the body surfaces and the surrounding air with varying relative speeds and wind
direction.

The main objectives of vehicle aerodynamics are:

✓ Avoidance of flow separation

✓ Reducing drag and wind noise
✓ Producing down force to improve traction and cornering abilities
✓ Minimizing noise emission and preventing undesired lift forces and other causes of
aerodynamic instability at high speed.
✓ Enhancement of performance and fuel economy

Body styling has to accommodate passengers and luggage space, the functional power train, steering,
suspension and wheels etc. thus vehicle design will conflict with minimizing the body surface drag
so that the body shape finally accepted is nearly always a compromise.

2.2 Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics

Fluid mechanics is the study of fluids either in motion (fluid dynamics) or at rest (fluid statics). Both
gases and liquids are classified as fluids. The essence of the subject of fluid flow is a compromise
between theory and experiment. Since fluid flow is a branch of mechanics, it satisfies a set of well
documented basic laws, and thus a great deal of theoretical treatment is available. However, the
theory is often frustrating because it applies mainly to idealized situations, which may be invalid in
practical problems. The two chief obstacles to a workable theory are geometry and viscosity. The
basic equations of fluid motion are too difficult to enable the analyst to attack arbitrary geometric
configurations. Thus, most textbooks concentrate on flat plates, circular pipes, and other easy
geometries. It is possible to apply numerical computer techniques to complex geometries, and
specialized textbooks are now available to explain the new computational fluid dynamics (CFD).

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2.2.1 Classification of Fluid Motions

I. Viscous and Inviscid Flows

If there is a drag force on a moving object due to friction of the air as it flows over the object, the
flow is called viscous flow. But in the case of inviscid flow there is no friction of the air as it flows
over an object.

If the Reynolds number is large, viscous effects will be negligible (but will still have important
consequences), at least in most of the flow; if the Reynolds number is small, viscous effects will be
dominant. Finally, if the Reynolds number is neither large nor small, no general conclusions can be
drawn.

II. Laminar and Turbulent Flows

A laminar flow is one in which the fluid particles move in smooth layers, or laminas; a turbulent flow
is one in which the fluid particles rapidly mix as they move along due to random three-dimensional
velocity fluctuations. In order to differentiate whether the flow is laminar or turbulent Reynolds
number is used.
𝝆𝑽𝑳
𝑹𝒆 =
𝝁
Where Re is Reynolds number, p and µ, are the fluid density and viscosity, respectively, and V and L
are the typical or "characteristic" velocity and size scale of the flow respectively.

Figure 2.1: Reynolds number

For an external flow the Reynolds number range for laminar and turbulent flow is:

Laminar flow 103 < Re < 106

Turbulent flow 106 < Re

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 III. Compressible and Incompressible Flows

Flows in which variations in density are negligible are termed incompressible; when density
variations within a flow are not negligible, the flow is called compressible. The most common
example of compressible flow concerns the flow of gases, while the flow of liquids may frequently
be treated as incompressible.

IV. Internal and External Flows

Flows completely bounded by solid surfaces are called internal or duct flows. Flows over bodies
immersed in an unbounded fluid are termed external flows. Both internal and external flows may be
laminar or turbulent, compressible or incompressible.

2.2.2 Boundary layer (BL)

Air has viscosity, that is, there is internal friction between adjacent layers of air, whenever there is
relative air movement, consequently when there is sliding between adjacent layers of air, energy is
dissipated. When air flows over a solid surface a thin boundary layer is formed between the main
airstream and the surface.

Figure 2.2: Boundary layer velocity gradient

Any relative movement between the main airstream flow and the surface of the body then takes place
within this boundary layer via the process of shearing of adjacent layers of air. When air flows over
any surface, air particles in intimate contact with the surface loosely attach themselves so that relative
air velocity at the surface becomes zero. The relative speed of the air layers adjacent to the arrested
air surface film will be very slow; however, the next adjacent layer will slide over an already moving
layer so that its relative speed will be somewhat higher. Hence the relative air velocity further out
from the surface rises progressively between air layers until it attains the unrestricted main airstream
speed.

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2.3 Aerodynamic Force and Moment

Air flowing past a body, must be diverted from its original path, and such deflections lead to changes
in the speed of the air. Also, the viscosity of the air leads to the existence of frictional forces tending
to resist its flow. As a result of these processes, the body experiences a resultant aerodynamic force
and moment. It is conventional and convenient to separate this aerodynamic force and moment into
three components each, as follows.

2.3.1 Aerodynamic Forces

✓ Lift (L): Lift is force acting perpendicular to the motion of the vehicle. In vehicles negative
lift it sought after to force the vehicle into the ground, this force acting on the vehicle helps
increase vehicle grip which leads to faster cornering speed.
✓ Drag (D): Aerodynamic drag is a force that opposes the vehicles direction of movement. The
main contributor to vehicle’s drag is the high pressure acting on the front of the vehicle,
surface friction and the relatively negative pressure left behind the vehicle.
✓ Cross-wind force (S): This is the component of force mutually perpendicular to the lift and
the drag and it acts in the lateral direction.

2.3.2 Aerodynamic Moments

✓ Pitching moment (PM): This is the moment acting in the lateral axis.
✓ Rolling moment (RM): This is the moment tending to make the vehicle roll about the
longitudinal axis (in the vehicle’s direction of movement).
✓ Yawing moment (YM): This is the moment that tends to rotate the vehicle about the lift
direction.

Figure 2.3: Aerodynamic forces and moments acting on a vehicle

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2.4 Vehicle Drag and Types

Vehicle drag is a force that opposes the vehicles direction of movement. The main contributor to
vehicle’s drag is the high pressure acting on the front of the vehicle, surface friction and the relatively
negative pressure left behind the vehicle. Aerodynamic drag is usually insignificant at low vehicle
speed but the magnitude of air resistance becomes considerable with rising speed. This can be seen
in Figure 2.4 which compares the aerodynamic drag forces of a poorly streamlined, and a very highly
streamlined medium sized car against its constant rolling resistance over a typical speed range.

Figure 2.4: comparison of high and low aerodynamic drag forces with rolling resistance

There are a number of separate contributions to total drag. As a first step it may be divided into
pressure drag and skin-friction drag.

2.4.1 Skin- friction drag (or surface- friction drag)

This is the drag that is generated by the resolved components of the traction due to the shear stresses
acting on the surface of the body. This traction is due directly to viscosity and acts tangentially at all
points on the surface of the body. At each point it has a component aligned with but opposing the
undisturbed flow (opposite to the direction of movement). This is the restraining force preventing a
thin flat plate placed edgewise to an oncoming airstream being dragged along with it, in other words,
the skin friction is the viscous resistance generated within the boundary layer when air flows over a
solid surface.

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Skin friction is dependent on the surface area over which the air flows, the degree of surface
roughness or smoothness and the air speed. Air particles in contact with a surface tend to be attracted
to it, thus viscous drag will retard the layer of air moving near the surface. However, there will be a
gradual increase in air speed from the inner to the outer boundary layer.

The thickness of the boundary layer is influenced by the surface finish. A smooth surface allows the
free air flow velocity to be reached nearer the surface whereas a rough surface widens the boundary
so that the full air velocity will be reached further out from the surface. Hence the thicker boundary
layer associated with a rough surface will cause more adjacent layers of air to be sheared, accordingly
there will be more resistance to air movement compared with a smooth surface.

Figure 2.5: Influence of surface roughness on boundary layer velocity profile

2.4.2 Pressure (form) drag

When viscous air flows over and past a solid form, vortices are created at the rear causing the flow
to deviate from the smooth streamline flow. Under these conditions the air flow pressure in front of
the solid object will be higher than atmospheric pressure while the pressure behind will be lower than
that of the atmosphere, consequently the solid body will be dragged (sucked) in the direction of air
movement. Note that this effect is created in addition to the skin friction drag.

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Pressure drag can be reduced by streamlining any solid form exposed to the air flow.

2.4.3 Trailing vortex drag

when air flows from the front to the rear of the car, the air moves between the underside and ground,
and over the raised upper body profile surfaces. The air pressure will therefore be higher in the slower
underfloor airstream than that for the faster air- stream moving over the top surface of the car. Now
air moves from high to low pressure regions so that the high-pressure airstream underneath the car
will tend to move diagonally outwards and upwards towards the low-pressure airstream flowing over
the top of the body surface. Both the lower and the upper airstreams eventually interact along the
side-to-top profile edges on opposite sides of the body to form an inward rotary air motion that
continues to whirl for some distance beyond the rear end of the forward moving car.

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The equation which is used to calculate aerodynamic drag is as followed.

2.5 Air streamlines

A moving car displaces the air ahead so that the air is forced to flow around and towards the rear. The
pattern of air movement around the car can be visualized by air streamlines which are imaginary lines
across which there is no flow.

These streamlines broadly follow the contour of the body but any sudden change in the car’s shape
compels the streamlines to deviate, leaving zones of stagnant air pockets. The further these
streamlines are from the body the more they will tend to straighten out.

2.6 Relative air speed and pressure conditions over the upper profile of a moving car

The space between the upper profile of the horizontal outer streamlines relative to the road surface
generated when the body is in motion can be considered to constitute a venturi effect. The air gap
between the horizontal airstreamlines and front-end bonnet (hood) and windscreen profile and the
back-end screen and boot (trunk) profile produce a diverging and converging air wedge, respectively.
Thus, the air scooped into the front wedge can be considered initially to be at atmospheric pressure
and moving at car speed.

Figure: Relative air speed and pressure conditions over the upper profile of a moving car

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As the air moves into the diverging wedge it has to accelerate to maintain the rate of volumetric
displacement. Over the roof the venturi is at its narrowest, the air movement will be at its highest and
the air molecules will be stretched further apart, consequently there will be a reduction in air pressure
in this region. Finally, the relative air movement at the rear of the boot will have slowed to car speed,
conversely its pressure will have again risen to the surrounding atmospheric pressure conditions, thus
allowing the random network of distorted molecules to move closer together to a more stable
condition. As the air moves beyond the roof into the diverging wedge region it decelerates to cope
with the enlarged flow space.

2.7 Lamina/turbulent boundary layer transition point

A boundary layer over the forward surface of a body, such as the roof, will generally be laminar, but
further to the rear a point will be reached called the transition point when the boundary layer changes
from a lamina to a turbulent one. As the speed of the vehicle rises the transition point tends to move
further to the front, therefore less of the boundary layer will be laminar and more will become
turbulent; accordingly, this will correspond to a higher level of skin friction.

Figure: Laminar to turbulent boundary layer transition layer

2.8 Flow separation and reattachment

The stream of air flowing over a car’s body tends to follow closely to the contour of the body
unless there is a sudden change in shape.

The front bonnet (hood) is usually slightly curved and slopes up towards the front windscreen,
from here there is an upward windscreen tilt (rake), followed by a curved but horizontal roof
the rear windscreen then tilts downwards where it either merges with the boot (trunk) or
continues to slope gently downwards until it reaches the rear end of the car.

The air velocity and pressure therefore reach its highest and lowest values, respectively, at
the top of the front windscreen; however, towards the rear of the roof and when the screen
tilts downwards there will be a reduction in air speed and a rise in pressure.

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If the rise in air pressure towards the rear of the car is very gradual then mixing of the air-
stream with the turbulent boundary layers will be relatively steady so that the outer layers will
be drawn along with the main airstream.

Figure: Flow separation and reattachment

Conversely if the downward slope of the rear screen/boot is considerable, the pressure rise
will be large so that the mixing rate of mainstream air with the boundary layers cannot keep
the inner layers moving, consequently the slowed down boundary layers thicken.
Under these conditions the mainstream air flow breaks away from the contour surface of the
body, this being known as flow separation.
An example of flow separation followed by reattachment can be visualized with air flowing
over the bonnet and front windscreen; if the rake angle between the bonnet and windscreen
is large, the streamline flow will separate from the bonnet and then reattach itself near the top
of the windscreen or front end of the roof.
The space between the separation and reattachment will then be occupied by circulating air
which is referred to as a separation bubble, and if this rotary motion is vigorous a transverse
vortex will be established.

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2.9 Pressure (form) drag

When viscous air flows over and past a solid form, vortices are created at the rear causing the flow
to deviate from the smooth streamline flow. Under these conditions the air flow pressure in front of
the solid object will be higher than atmospheric pressure while the pressure behind will be lower than
that of the atmosphere, consequently the solid body will be dragged (sucked) in the direction of air
movement. Note that this effect is created in addition to the skin friction drag.

Pressure drag can be reduced by streamlining any solid form exposed to the air flow, for instance a
round tube encourages the air to flow smoothly around the front half and part of the rear before flow
separation occurs thereby reducing the resistance by about half that of the flat plate. The resistance
of a tube can be further reduced to about 15% of the flat plate by extending the rear of the circulating
tube in the form of a curved tapering lobe.

2.10 After flow wake

This is the turbulent volume of air produced at the rear end of a forward moving car and which tends
to move with it. The wake has a cross-sectional area equal approximately to that of the rear vertical
boot panel plus the rearward projected area formed between the level at which the air flow separates
from the downward sloping rear window panel and the top edge of the boot.

Figure: After flow wake

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2.11 Drag coefficient

The aerodynamic drag coefficient is a measure of the effectiveness of a streamline aerodynamic body
shape in reducing the air resistance to the forward motion of a vehicle. A low drag coefficient implies
that the streamline shape of the vehicle’s body is such as to enable it to move easily through the
surrounding viscous air with the minimum of resistance; conversely a high drag coefficient is caused
by poor streamlining of the body profile so that there is a high air resistance when the vehicle is in
motion. Typical drag coefficients for various classes of vehicles can be seen as follows:

2.11.1 Drag coefficients and various body shapes

A comparison of the air flow resistance for different shapes in terms of drag coefficients is presented
as follows:

(a) Circular plate: Air flow is head on, and there is an immediate end on pressure difference. Flow
separation takes place at the rim; this provides a large vortex wake and a correspondingly high
drag coefficient of 1.15.

(b) Cube: Air flow is head on but a boundary layer around the sides delays the flow separation;
nevertheless, there is still a large vortex wake and a high drag coefficient of 1.05.

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(c) Sixty-degree cone: With the piecing cone shape air flows towards the cone apex and then spreads
outwards parallel to the shape of the cone surface. Flow separation however still takes place at
the periphery thereby producing a wide vortex wake This profile halves the drag coefficient to
about 0.5 compared with the circular plate and the cube block.

(d) Sphere: Air flow towards the sphere, it is then diverted so that it flows outwards from the center
around the diverging surface and over a small portion of the converging rear half before flow
separation occurs. There is therefore a slight reduction in the vortex wake and similarly a
marginal decrease in the drag coefficient to 0.47.

(e) Tear drop: If the proportion of length to diameter is well chosen, the streamline shape can
maintain a boundary layer before flow separation occurs almost to the end of its tail. Thus, the
resistance to body movement will be mainly due to viscous air flow and little to do with vortex
wake suction. With these contours the drag coefficient can be as low as 0.05.

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Example 1: The drag coefficient of a car at the design conditions of 1 atm, 25°C, and 90 km/h is to
be determined experimentally in a large wind tunnel in a full-scale test. The height and width of the
car are 1.40 m and 1.65 m, respectively. If the horizontal force acting on the car is measured to be
300 N, determine the total drag coefficient of this car. (Density: 1.164 kg/m3)

Example 2: A 200cm diameter spherical tank completely submerged in freshwater is being towed by
a ship at 4 m/s. Assuming turbulent flow, determine the required towing power.

2.12 Base drag

If the body was shaped in the form of a tear drop, the contour of the body would permit a boundary
layer to continue a considerable way towards the tail before flow separation occurs, consequently the
area heavily subjected to vortex swirl and negative pressure will be at a minimum.

However, it is impractical to design a tear drop body with an extended tapering rear end, but if the
tail is cut off at the point where the air flow separates from the contour of the body, the same vortex
(negative pressure) exists as if the tail was permitted to converge.

The cut off cross-section area where flow separation would occur is known as the base area and the
negative vortex pressure produced is referred to as the base drag. Thus, there is a trend for car
manufacturers to design bodies that taper slightly towards the rear so that flow separation occurs just
beyond the rear axle.

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2.13 Aerodynamic lift

2.13.1 Lift coefficients

The aerodynamic lift coefficient CL is a measure of the difference in pressure created above and
below a vehicle’s body as it moves through the surrounding viscous air. A resultant upthrust or
downthrust may be produced which mainly depend upon the body shape, however, an uplift known
as positive lift is undesirable as it reduces the tire to ground grip whereas a downforce referred to as
negative lift enhances the tire’s road holding.

The magnitude of the lift depends mainly upon the styling profile of both over and under body
surfaces, the distance of the underfloor above the ground, and the vehicle speed.

Generally, the nearer the under- floor is to the ground the greater the positive lift (upward force);
also, the positive lift tends to increase with the square of the vehicle speed. Correspondingly a
reduction in wheel load due to the lift up thrust counteracts the downward load; this therefore
produces a reduction in the tire to ground grip.

With a large under floor to ground clearance the car body is subjected to a slight negative lift force
(downward thrust). As the underfloor surface moves closer to the ground the underfloor air space
becomes a venturi, causing the air to move much faster underneath the body than over it.
Correspondingly with these changing conditions the air flow pressure on top of the body will be
higher than for the underbody reduced venturi effect pressure, hence there will be a net down force
(negative lift) tending to increase the contact pressure acting between the wheels and ground.

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Conversely a further reduction in underfloor to ground clearance makes it very restrictive for the
underbody air flow, so that much of the airstream is now compelled to flow over the body instead of
underneath it, which results in an increase in air speed and a reduction in pressure over the top to
cope with the reduction in the underfloor air movement. Thus, the over and under pressure conditions
have been reversed which subsequently now produces a net upward suction, that is, a tendency
toward a positive lift.

Figure: Aerodynamic lift versus ground floor height

2.14 Car Body Drag Reduction

1. Profile edge rounding or chamfering

There is a general tendency for aerodynamic lift and drag coefficients to decrease with increased
edge radius or chamfer: experiments carried out showed for a particular car shape how the drag
coefficient was reduced from 0.43 to 0.40 with an edge radius/chamfer increasing from zero to 40mm,
and there was a slightly greater reduction with chamfering than rounding the edges; however, beyond
40mm radius there was no further advantage in increasing the edge radius or chamfer.

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 Figure: Influence of forebody bonnet (hood) edge shape on drag coefficient

2. Bonnet slope and windscreen rake

Increasing the bonnet (hood) slope angle from zero to roughly 10° reduces the drag coefficient, but
beyond 100 the drag reduction is insignificant. Likewise, increasing the rake angle reduces the drag
coefficient particularly when the rake angle becomes large; however, very large rake angles may
conflict with the body styling.

Figure: Bonnet slope and windscreen rake angle versus drag coefficient

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 3. Roof and side panel cambering

Cambering the roof and the side panels reduces the drag coefficient. However, if the roof camber
curvature becomes excessive the drag coefficient commences to rise again, whereas the reduction in
drag coefficient with small amounts of side- panel cambering is marked, but with excessive camber
the reduction in the drag coefficient becomes only marginal. Both roof and side panel camber should
not be increased at the expense of enlarging the frontal area of the car as this would in itself be
counter-productive and would increase the drag coefficient.

Figure: Effect of roof camber on drag coefficient

Figure: Effect of side panel camber on drag coefficient

4. Rear side panel taper

Tapering inwards the rear side panel reduces the drag coefficient. This can be seen in Fig. 14.31(a
and b) which shows a marked reduction in the drag coefficient with both a 50mm and then a 125mm
rear end contraction on either side of the car; however, there was no further reduction in the drag
coefficient when the rear end contraction was increased to 200 mm.

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 Figure: Effect of rear side panel taper on drag coefficient

5. Underbody rear end upward taper

Tilting upwards the under floor rear end produces a diffuser effect which shows a promising way to
reduce the drag coefficient, see Fig. 14.32(a and b). However, it is important to select the optimum
ratio of length of taper to overall car length and the angle β of upward inclination for best results.

Figure: Effect of rear end upward taper on drag coefficient

6. Rear end tail extension

Wind tunnel investigation with different shaped tail models have shown that the minimal drag
coefficients were produced with extended tails, but this shape would be impractical for design
reasons.

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 Figure: Effect of rear end tail extension on drag coefficient

7. Underbody roughness

The underbody surface finish influences the drag coefficient just as the over body curvature, tapering,
edge rounding and general shape dictates the drag resistance. Molding in individual compartments
in the under floor pan to house the various components and if possible enclosing parts of the
underside with plastic panels helps considerably to reduce the drag resistance.

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2.15 Aerodynamic lift control

1. Underbody dams

Damming the underbody to ground clearance at the extreme rear blocks the under-floor airstream
and causes a partial pressure build-up in this region, whereas locating the underbody dam in the front
end of the car joins the rear low pressure wake region with the under- floor space. Thus, with a rear
end under floor air dam the under-floor air flow pressure increase raises the aerodynamic up thrust,
that is, it produces positive lift. Conversely a front-end air dam reduces the under-floor air flow
pressure thereby generating an aerodynamic down thrust, that is, it produces negative lift.

Experimental results show with a front end dam there is a decrease in front lift (negative lift) whereas
there is a slight rise in rear end lift (positive lift) as the dam height is increased, and as would be
expected, there is also a rise in drag as the frontal area of the dam is enlarged.

2. Rear end spoiler

A lip or small aerofoil spoiler, attached to the rear end of the car boot (trunk) interrupts the smooth
streamline air flow thereby slowing down the air flow and correspondingly raising the upper surface
local air pressure which effectively increase the downward force known as negative lift.

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 Figure: Effect of rear end spoiler on both lift and drag coefficients

3. Negative lift aerofoil wings

A negative lift wing is designed when attached to the rear end of the car to produce a downward
thrust thereby enabling the traction generated by the rear driving wheels to be increased, or if a
forward negative lift wing is fitted to improve the grip of both front steering wheels. With the negative
lift wing the aerofoil profile is tilted downward towards the front end with the negative and positive
aerofoil section camber at the top and bottom respectively.

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2.16 Commercial Vehicle Aerodynamic Fundamentals

2.16.1 The effects of rounding sharp front cab body edges

A reduction in the drag coefficient of large vehicles such as buses, coaches and trucks can be made
by rounding the front leading edges of the vehicle. It can be seen that the drag coefficient
progressively decreased as the round edge radius was increased to about 120 mm, but there was only
a very small reduction in the drag coefficient with further increase in radii. Thus, there is an optimum
radius for the leading front edges, beyond this there is no advantage in increasing the rounding radius.

The reduction in the drag coefficient due to rounding the edges is caused mainly by the change from
flow separation to attached streamline flow for both cab roof and side panels. However, sloping back
the front profile of the coach to provide further streamlining only made a marginal reduction in the
drag coefficient.

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Figure: Forebody coach streamlining

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 2.16.2 The effects of different cab to trailer body heights with both sharp and rounded upper
windscreen leading edges

In the case of the rounded upper windscreen leading edge cab, with a low trailer body the air flowing
over the front windscreen remains attached to the cab roof, a small proportion will hit the front end
of the trailer body then flow between the cab and trailer body, but the majority flows over the trailer
roof leading edge and attaches itself only a short distance from the front edge of the trailer roof
thereby producing a relatively low drag coefficient.

With the medium height trailer body, the air flow remains attached to the cab roof some air flow
again impinges on the front of the trailer body and is deflected between the cab and trailer body, but
most of the air flow hits the trailer body leading edge and is deflected slightly upwards and only
reattaches itself to the upper surface some distance along the trailer roof. This combination therefore
produces a moderate rise in the drag coefficient.

In the extreme case of having a very high trailer body the air flow over the cab still remains attached
and air still flows downwards into the gap made between the cab and trailer; however, more air
impinges onto the vertical front face of the trailer body and the deflection of the air flow over the
leading edge of the trailer body is even steeper than in the case of the medium height trailer body.

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 2.16.3 The effects of a cab to trailer body roof height step

Possibly the most important factor which contributes to a vehicle’s drag resistance is the exposed
area of the trailer body above the cab roof relative to the cab’s frontal area. Investigation into the fore
body drag of a truck in a wind tunnel has been made where the trailer height is varied relative to a
fixed cab height. Hence increasing the trailer body step height ratio from 1.2 to 1.5 increases the step
height from 0.56 m to 1.4 m and in turn raises the drag coefficient from 0.63 to 0.86. The rise in drag
coefficient of 0.23 is considerable and therefore streamlining the air flow between the cab and trailer
body roof is of great importance.

Figure: Influence of cab to trailer body height upon the drag coefficient

2.17 Commercial Vehicle Drag Reducing Devices

1. Cab roof deflectors

To partially overcome the large amount of extra drag experienced with a cab to trailer height
mismatch a cab roof deflector is commonly used. This device prevents the air movement over the
cab roof impinging on the upper front of the trailer body and then flowing between the cab and trailer
gap. Instead, the air flow is diverted by the up tilted deflector surface to pass directly between the
cab to trailer gap and then to flow relatively smoothly over the surface of the trailer roof.

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If trailers with different heights are to be coupled to the tractor unit while in service, then a mismatch
of the deflector inclination may result which will again raise the aerodynamic drag. There are some
cab deflector designs which can adjust the tilt of the cab deflector to optimize the cab to trailer air
flow transition, but in general altering the angle setting would be impractical.

2. Corner vanes

When a vehicle moves forward the cab penetrates the surrounding air; however, the air flow passing
over the top, underneath and around the sides will be far from being streamlined. Thus, in particular
the air flowing around the side leading edges of the cab may initially separate from the side panels,
causing turbulence and a high resistance to air flow.

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One method of reducing the fore body drag is to attach corner vanes on each side of the cab. The
corner vane is set away from the rounded vertical edges and has several evenly spaced internal baffles
which bridge the gap between the cab and corner vane walls. Air meeting the front face of the cab
moves upwards and over the roof, while the rest flows to the left and right hand side leading edges.

Some of this air also flows around the leading edge through the space formed between the cab and
corner vanes this then encourages the airstream to remain attached to the cab side panel surface. Air
drag around the cab front and side panels is therefore kept to a minimum.

3. Cab to trailer body gap seal

Air passing between the cab and trailer body gap with an articulated vehicle due to crosswinds
significantly increases the drag resistance. As the crosswind angle of attack is increased, the flow
through the cab-trailer gap produces regions of flow separated on the sheltered side of the trailer
body. This flow separation then tends to spread rearwards, eventually interacting with and enlarging
the trailer wake, the net result being a rise in the rearward pull due to the enlarged negative pressure
zone.

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 Figure: Air flow through tractor-trailer gap with crosswind

With enclosed and streamlined cab roof deflector sides, improvements in the drag coefficient can
be made with yaw angles up to about 200.

Figure: Drag reduction with crosswinds when incorporating a roof deflector and gap seal

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 4. Tractor and trailer skirting

Crosswinds sweeping tangentially underneath the tractor and trailer chassis and between and around
the road wheels and axles produce a rise in the drag coefficient. To partially counteract the increase
in vehicle, drag with increased yaw angle, side skirts can be attached either to the trailer or the tractor
or both units.

Figure: Effectiveness of tractor and trailer skirting upon drag coefficient

2.18 Wind Tunnel Testing

Wind Tunnel is a device for producing airflow relative to the body under test. Wind tunnels provide
uniform flow conditions in their test section. Wind tunnel testing is an important testing technique
for any object that has relative motion to a fluid, be it an aircraft or road vehicle. In order to conduct
it properly, the principles of lift, drag and dynamic similarity must be understood completely.

In wind tunnel experiment, the blockage effect is a very important factor which affects the test results
significantly. Blockage ratio is the ratio of the projected area of the test model to the test section cross
sectional area of the wind tunnel. According to a result obtained from various experiments, the
aerodynamic behavior of square models with up to 10% blockage ratio are almost the same and
square models with up to 10% blockage ratio can be tested as a group which behaves similarly.

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Figure: Educational wind tunnel

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2.19 Fuel Consumption and Power Saving

2.19.1 Power Saved

Power saved on the streamlined car model with respect to the original car model is calculated using
the equation given below.

Where, Psav = Power saved (W)

FD-Bas = Drag force of the baseline car (N)
FD-Mod = Drag force of the modified car (N)
V = Speed of the car (m/s)
2.19.2 Fuel Saved

Fuel saved by the reduction of the drag force is calculated using the equation given below.

Where ṁfuel = Mass flow rate (m3/s)

Psav = Power saved (W)
QLHV = Lower heating value (MJ/kg)
ρfuel = Density of fuel at ambient temperature (kg/m3)
ղengine = Thermal efficiency of the engine

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