Fly Ash

Properties,
Characterisation
and Uses

2017 77
SEPT

TECHNICAL NOTE

INTRODUCTION Fly ash has the added advantage of being of lower cost than
cement and hence makes concrete more cost effective. It also
Fly ash, a by-product or ‘waste’ product from the combustion of allows a reduction in the Portland cement content of concrete, and
coal, has become an important material in a variety of construction improves concrete’s ‘green’ credentials 5.
industry applications. Most particularly it has been found to provide
significant benefits when used as a partial cement replacement in Unlike Portland cement which has a quite consistent chemical
concrete and related products, and it is this function that will be composition and mineralogy wherever it is made in the world,
the primary subject of this technical note. The fly ash in question effectively all fly ashes are chemically different. The chemistry
derives from pulverised fuel -fired coal combustion where the of a given fly ash depends on the nature and proportions of the
coal is ground into a fine powder before being injected into a high minerals (typically clays and silicate minerals) associated with
temperature combustion chamber where temperatures reach about the coal source. These minerals may have been emplaced at
1800°C. The nature of the fly ash is determined in part by the the same time as the original peat was laid down, or may have
nature of the coal it derives from and this in turn can determine its become emplaced later. The minerals may then be further
applicability in concrete applications. altered by ongoing geological processes. The variable
chemistry and mineralogy means that there is no ‘typical’ fly
Fly ash use in concrete began in the USA in the 1930’s 1, though ash.
its first use in Australia was not until 19492 when fly ash imported
from the USA was used in grouts in the Snowy Mountains Hydro- The likely variability in chemical composition of different fly ashes
Electric scheme in NSW. Subsequently, and certainly since the means that their physical characteristics become the key control
1960’s, fly ash has become a standard component in concrete parameters used in producing commercial products for the
mixes in regions where fly ash is available. This ready availability concrete industry.
has been along the eastern seaboard of mainland Australia and in
South Australia, though this is changing3.
FLY ASH STANDARDS
As a material, fly ash is not unlike the volcanic ashes used by
Fly ash Standards must deal with materials in which the chemistry
the Romans4 some two-thousand years ago. Their similarity
is set by the nature of the coal mineral matter and cannot be
derives from their chemical composition – both being rich in
altered. While some limits are placed on chemical components,
silica and alumina – and from their crystallinity (or lack of it), both
typically fly ash Standards focus on defining the particle sizing and
being glassy materials. Fly ashes and volcanic ashes are known
certain performance characteristics. In some countries Standards
collectively as pozzolanic materials – materials that do not react
also need to accommodate ashes of different ‘classes’ that derive
with water other than in the presence of lime. The Romans would
from coals of variable rank. (Coal ‘rank’ is a measure of the degree
mix the volcanic ashes with lime and aggregates to make mortar
of coalification reflecting the transformation (due to the effects
and concrete, while in modern times, fly ash used as a partial
of time, temperature and pressure) of the original peat material
cement replacement in concrete, reacts with lime produced as a
into either low-rank (brown) lignitious coal, or higher-rank (black)
by-product of the cement hydration reaction. The use of these
bituminous or anthracitic coal materials.
pozzolanic materials improves both the plastic and hardened
properties of concrete as will be described below.

PAGE 1 > FLY ASH PROPERTIES, CHARACTERISATION AND USES

In Australia, the majority of coals mined are hard or black coals In the USA and in Europe a wider variety of coals are used and
and fly ashes used commercially in this country derive from fly ashes from this array of coals are used in concrete. The
these coals. In Victoria lignitious coals are mined and burned applicable Standards10,11 reflect the broad range of fly ashes. In
and while these do produce fly ash it is not generally of a quality the USA, two distinct fly ash classes are defined – Class F (low
suitable for use in concrete. The Australian Standard6 limits fly calcium content, derived generally from hard, black coals) and
ash for use in concrete to that produced from black coal. The first Class C (high calcium content, derived generally from lower rank
Australia Standards for fly ash were published in 1971, these coals). The Class F fly ashes are similar to those used in
being AS 11297 and AS 11308. AS 1129 provided a specification Australia. In Europe the fly ash Standard also accommodates the
and methods of test for fly ash for use in concrete, while AS 1130 co-combustion of other materials with coal and specific
detailed a ‘Code of Practice for the Use of Fly Ash in Concrete’. requirements for these co-combustion fly ashes are set.
Subsequently the Standard became AS 3582.1, with editions Allowable co-combustion materials include green wood, animal
being published in 1991, 1998 and 20166. It is interesting to note meal, paper and sewage sludge, petroleum coke and ‘virtually
that while AS 1129/1130 dealt specifically with fly ash for use ash-free’ liquid and gaseous fuels.
in concrete, AS 3582.1 became more general in its intent. The
title of the most recent edition of AS 3582.16 is “Supplementary A comparison of the major requirements of the Australian, USA and
Cementitious Materials – Part 1. Fly Ash”. EN Standards for fly ashes for general use in concrete is shown in
Table 2.
AS 3582.16 has the following features and inclusions:
AS 3582.1 ASTM C618 EN 450-1
• It defines three grades of fly ash – Grade 1 and Grade 2 for Property Grade Grade Class Class
general concrete use and Special Grade, which is described as Cat. S Cat. N
1 2 F C
a ‘highly reactive’ material, Fineness

• It aligns with ASTM and EN requirements for the chemistry of (%min. passing
75 55 66 66 88 60
conforming fly ashes in requiring the sum of SiO2 + Al2O3 + 45 µm)
Fe2O3 to be ≥70% (for Australian fly ashes), Moisture
0.5 0.5 3.0 3.0 - -
(%max.)
• It introduces a Strength Index minimum requirement for Grade
5.0 – 5.0 –
1 fly ash, LOI (% max.) 4.0 6.0 6.0 6.0
9.0* 9.0*

• It introduces a chloride ion maximum limit for all products – the Sulfate 3.0 3.0 5.0 5.0 3.0 3.0
(% max.)
value being consistent with that for cement,
Strength Index
75 - 75 75 75 75
• It aligns testing approaches and testing frequencies with the (%min.)

cement Standard9, and Chloride ion

0.1 0.1 - - 0.1 0.1
(% max.)
• It introduces the concept of Proven and Unproven Sources –
with increased testing frequencies for Unproven Sources. Notes: 1. ASTM and EN Fineness limits set as % retained – converted to %
passing in Table 2 for comparison.
The key requirements for the three grades are shown in Table 1.
2. *EN 450-1 provides three categories – A – 5.0% max.; B – 7.0%
Special Grade Grade Test max.; C – 9.0% max.
Property
Grade 1 2 Method

Fineness (% min.
Table 2. Key specified requirements – AS, ASTM and EN
85 75 55 AS 3583.1 Standards
passing 45 µm)
Loss on Ignition While all three Standards provide specifications for fly ash for use
3.0 4.0 6.0 AS 3583.3
(% max.)
in concrete (and related materials), only the Australian Standard
Moisture Content
(% max.)
0.5 0.5 0.5 AS 3583.2 recommends that the fly ash should be tested in concrete to ensure
that expected concrete properties, in both the plastic and hardened
Sulfate (% max.) 3.0 3.0 3.0 AS 3583.8
states, are able to be achieved using the fly ash in question.
Chloride ion (% max.) 0.1 0.1 0.1 AS 2350.2
Strength Index Many nations have their own fly ash Standards, including two of the
105 75 - AS 3583.6
(% min.)
major fly ash exporting countries – India12 and Japan13. Both
Table 1. Specified requirements – AS 3582.1 Standards are loosely based on the ASTM Standard but use Blaine
surface area measurement (as is used for cement) as a measure of
Fineness. Both also set (relative) compressive strength performance
requirements based on mortar testing. The Indian Standard also
caters for Siliceous (Class F) and Calcareous (Class C) fly ashes.
The maximum LOI level specified in these Standards is 5.0%.

PAGE 2 > FLY ASH PROPERTIES, CHARACTERISATION AND USES

FLY ASH PRODUCTION AND PROCESSING Fly ash processing primarily involves controlling the Fineness of
the fly ash product (both actual Fineness level and consistency)
Fly ash is produced when pulverised coal is burned in the and ensuring that LOI levels meet Standards requirements. The
combustion chambers of coal-fired power stations. The fly ash processing does not alter the fly ash chemistry or otherwise alter
derives from mineral matter present in the coal - with mineral the inherent reactivity of the fly ash.
matter comprising from 10% to 50% of the ‘coal’ that is burned.
Typical mineral matter includes clays, sand and a variety of other
minerals that may be found within or between coal seams. The FLY ASH CHARACTERISATION
‘coal’ is pulverised to a fine powder in either vertical roller mills
Bearing in mind that the major use of fly ash as a cementitious
or hammer mills – with pulverised coal typically having 75% of
material is as a partial cement replacement in Normal Class 15
the particles <75µm. The pulverising frees the mineral particles
concrete mixes, fly ash characterisation, at its simplest level,
from the coal particles and coal and mineral particles are exposed
involves ensuring that (a) Standards requirements are met and
separately in the combustion zone. On entering the combustion
(b) the product is consistent – which in a practical sense means
zone, the temperature of the particles increases at about 2000°C
managing Fineness and LOI levels. Most other fly ash properties
per second, and a peak temperature in the order of 1800°C is
are intrinsic and are not able to be readily modified. However,
reached. Residence time in the combustion zone is about 2-3
knowledge of other fly ash chemical components and how
seconds. The coal material degasses and combusts while most
effective the fly ash is likely to be as a cement replacement are
mineral particles melt and are then entrained in the flue gases.
key requirements for understanding the performance of fly ashes
Upon leaving the combustion zone the mineral particles cool
intended for commercial use.
quickly and become, in the main, spherical glassy particles of
fly ash. Small quantities of char – unburned coal material – are Physical Characterisation
also entrained in the flue gases. The flue gases pass through
particulate collection devices to clean the flue gas before it exits Understanding physical fly ash properties is important if it is to be
the power station through the chimney. produced and used optimally.

The particulate collection devices used may be of two types – Fineness – the Fineness is determined, according to AS 3583.116,
either Electrostatic Precipitators (ESP) or fabric filters (FF). ESP’s by wet sieving through a 45 micron sieve, and in the Australian
create a charge on the surface of the fly ash particles, and the Standard the Fineness represents the weight % of fly ash passing
charged particles are then attracted to earthed plates from which through the sieve. (In other Standards the weight % retained on
the ash is removed periodically. Fly ash removal rates of 99+% are the sieve is used.) As previously mentioned, Fineness provides a
achievable. The alternative and more modern collection device is coarse measure of fly ash particle sizing. It is of value as a control
the FF which acts much like a vacuum cleaner bag. The flue gas measure for fly ash processing in terms of (a) ensuring the
passes through filter bags and the solid fly ash is filtered out. The Fineness value meets the requirement of the Standard, and (b) as
fly ash is then removed periodically from the filter bags. Fly ash a measure of the consistency of the product. For any high
removal rates of +99.8% are achievable with this process. performance/high reactivity fly ash (e.g. Special Grade6), where
the improved performance is obtained by increasing the Fineness,
To obtain a fly ash product suitable for use as a cementitious the test at 45 microns serves little purpose as generally, 100% of
material in concrete, some processing of the fly ash is generally the product would pass 45 microns. A more accurate estimate of
required. As a minimum, fly ash product needs to be assessed for likely reactivity for a fly ash is obtained from a full particle size
its unburned carbon content (known as its LOI level – where LOI distribution (psd) using, for example, a laser diffractometer.
means Loss on Ignition). Fly ash with suitably low levels of LOI Typically, the mass median diameter (mmd) for a Grade 1 fly ash
may then also be beneficiated to produce a product of the required would be in the range 10-20 microns, while a high
Fineness (where Fineness means the % passing a 45 micron sieve performance/high reactivity fly ash would have a mmd of about 3-4
using wet sieving). Processing to increase Fineness levels usually microns. For a given fly ash, increasing the Fineness results in a
involves passing the fly ash through a centrifugal separator (known decrease in the Relative Water Requirement and an increase in
as a classifier) where coarser fly ash particles are removed leaving the Strength Index value17. To produce a fly ash conforming with
the final, finer cementitious product. Fly ash may also be milled (in the Special Grade requirements of AS 3582.1 it is usually
a ball mill) to increase Fineness levels. “Fineness” as measured necessary to increase the Fineness of the ash – either by
using a 45 micron sieve provides a very coarse measure of the additional centrifugal separation (or classifying) or by milling the
particle size distribution of ‘concrete grade’ fly ash which typically ash.
has a median particle size in the range of 10-20 microns. However,
the Fineness measure is suitable for use as a production tool. Relative Density – the Relative Density (RD), determined using
Routine testing used to control production usually involves testing AS 3583.518, is dependent on (a) the chemical composition of the
for Moisture Content, Fineness and LOI. In situations where high fly ash, (b) the proportion of hollow fly ash particles or particles
LOI levels are encountered or where problematic LOI material is containing voids, and (c) the Fineness. The typical range of
found, the Foam Index14 test may also be used for additional Relative Density for fly ashes is usually 2.0 – 2.5. For a given fly
screening. ash at a particular Fineness value the RD should be quite
consistent. As Fineness increases, so too does the RD – in part
through removal of coarser particles that are more likely to
contain voids. The RD value is used in concrete mix design to
convert the weight of fly ash added into volume.

PAGE 3 > FLY ASH PROPERTIES, CHARACTERISATION AND USES

 2 6 2 13 3 4

Relative Water Requirement and Strength Index – Relative Water

Requirement (RWR) and Strength Index (SI) determinations are
carried out using a mortar mix containing cement and fly ash, a
standard sand and water and according to the methods described
in AS 3583.619. The Relative Water Requirement and Strength
values of the cement + fly ash mortar are determined relative to a
cement-only mortar. The fly ash replacement level used is about
25%. The RWR is improved where the fly ash has a finer psd and
where the particles are more spherical. The same properties also
improve the Strength performance of the fly ash mortar. The RWR
and SI values cannot be used to determine the likely efficiency of a
fly ash when used in concrete, though a performance trend can be
assumed. More particularly, it is incorrect to believe that a fly ash
with a SI of 90% would provide 90% of the strength performance of
the test cement used. Because the proportion of fly ash in the
cement/fly ash mix is only 25%, a 90% SI means that the fly ash
has only 60% of the strength performance of the cement – as
determined by this particular test. Again, the SI value cannot be
used to estimate the performance of a fly ash in concrete. Figure 2. Cement (x13.5k magnification)

Microscopy – microscopy generally, and scanning electron

Mineral and Chemical Characterisation
As previously mentioned, fly ash forms when the fine mineral
microscopy (SEM) in particular, are useful in assessing the shape
particles present in pulverised coal (mostly) melt at the high
of fly ash particles and the proportion of other components like
temperatures in the combustion zone and then quite rapidly cool.
hollow fly ash particles (cenospheres) and hollow particles
As a result of the rapid cooling a high proportion of fly ash is
containing smaller particles (plerospheres). It is also interesting to
glassy material – that is, it has no crystalline structure. A few
contrast the shape of typical fly ash particles with those of Portland
minerals, in low proportions, may be found in fly ash20. The two
cement – the spherical ash being quite different to the angular
predominant minerals are quartz (SiO2) and mullite (Al6Si2O13).
cement particles that result from a milling process, as shown in
Figures 1 and 2 below. Magnetite (Fe3O4) may also be present where iron-based minerals
(e.g. siderite) are part of the coal mineral assemblage. The
presence of quartz in the fine fly ash presents concerns in relation
to occupational exposure as noted in the Handling and Storage
section of this report.

Key chemical parameters used to characterise fly ash are those

that potentially impact end-use performance. These include the
overall chemical composition and some critical individual
components, as discussed below.

Chemical Composition (general) – determined using AS 2350.221,

the overall chemical composition, and particularly the combined
proportions of silica, alumina and iron provide a primary
performance criterion that is necessary to meet AS 3582.1
requirements. This criterion is also used in the ASTM and EN
Standards, where the proportion of SiO2 + Al2O3 + Fe2O3 must
exceed 70% for siliceous fly ashes and 50% for calcareous fly
ashes. Having significant levels of silica and alumina-based
materials is important to ensure that a pozzolanic reaction will
Figure 1. Fly ash (x13.5k magnification) occur and that the calcium silicate hydrates and calcium aluminate
hydrate products of the pozzolanic reaction are in sufficient
quantity to contribute to concrete strength and durability
performance.

PAGE 4 > FLY ASH PROPERTIES, CHARACTERISATION AND USES

Sulfate – determined using either AS 3583.822 or AS 2350.221, the FLY ASH USE
sulfate content is important when using fly ash in concrete as
excess sulfates may contribute to expansive reactions in concrete In Australia, fly ash has been a standard cementitious additive in concrete
and these may result in concrete cracking. In siliceous fly ashes since the mid-1960’s, almost always as a partial cement replacement.
particularly, sulfate levels are usually quite low (<0.5%). Australia’s (previous) dependence on coal-fired electricity meant that in
most States, fly ash was readily available. The use of high quality coals in
Alkalis – determined using AS 2350.221 the alkali content of fly ash modern power stations meant that fly ash quality was generally high and
is of importance most particularly when the total alkali content, consistent and consequently fly ash became the most common
expressed as %Na2O Equivalent, exceeds 5%6,11. (Total alkalis, as Supplementary Cementitious Material (SCM) in use in Australia.
%Na2O Equivalent = %Na2O + 0.658 %K2O) The importance of Previously, the only States where fly ash was not available locally was
the alkalis will be discussed in the “Uses” section below. In earlier Victoria and Tasmania. Supply to Victoria was primarily from Queensland
versions of ASTM C61823 and in modern versions of the Indian and NSW, by ship and by road, and the utilisation rate in this State was
Standard12, limits were set for the level of ‘Available Alkalis’. The almost as high as in those with locally available fly ash. The ready uptake
limit set was typically 1.5%Na2O Equivalent. Earlier Australian of fly ash was due to it (a) being of lower cost than cement, (b) having a
Standards24 included the test as a ‘reportable property’ without similar cementitious efficiency to cement (at 20-25% replacement rates)
formalising a limit. The Available Alkali test (AS 3583.12 25) and (c) improving concrete durability, particularly in relation to mitigation
involves the extraction of the fly ash using a solution of hydrated of Alkali Silicate Reaction (ASR) which had been demonstrated by
lime and was intended to try to replicate the experience of fly ash Australian research29,30,31. Using fly ash to limit the risk of ASR was
in a concrete paste in terms of estimating how much alkali might effectively mandated by some authorities 32 which meant nearly all
be leached from the fly ash in concrete. The test has been found to concrete plants in those regions had a silo of fly ash.
be of limited value and has been discontinued in the Australian
and ASTM Standards. While fly ash is used to improve concrete durability performance, its
general use is driven by economic factors. Its lower cost and the
Chloride – determined using either AS 3583.13 or AS 2350.2 ,
26 21
improvement in concrete plastic properties, particularly increased
the chloride ion content is useful in helping determine the overall cohesiveness that improves the ‘pumpability’ of fly ash mixes, are the
amount of chloride in a concrete mix, along with the chloride ion major drivers for fly ash in 20-32MPa concrete for general applications.
content of cement, admixture and aggregate materials. Chloride Fly ash use in concrete nationally rose from about 550kt in 198133 and
ions may migrate through the concrete over time and, if and when peaked in 2011 at 2.13Mt3.
they reach any embedded reinforcing steel, may initiate and/or
accelerate corrosion of the steel. Subsequently fly ash annual volumes have dropped about 25% due to
reduced availability3. In some regions, fly ash importation has also
Moisture Content – determined using AS 3582.227, this test begun3.
measures the amount of moisture adsorbed on the surface of the
fly ash particles. The moisture content, if too high, may affect the Fly ash use as a cementitious material is effective because of its
free-flowing nature of fly ash and in more severe circumstances pozzolanic behaviour.
may result in the formation of lumps.
A pozzolan is a material that alone has little or no cementitious value, but
Loss on Ignition (LOI) – determined using AS 3583.328, the LOI test can react with lime (calcium hydroxide), in the presence of water, to form
measures the amount of unburned char remaining in the fly ash. cementitious products34. In a concrete paste, lime is formed as a product
of cement hydration and this lime is available to react with pozzolanic
High levels of LOI may (a) create dark (and variable) colouration of materials used as partial cement replacements. Silica and alumina
the ash, (b) appear on the surface of concrete – on the bleed compounds in the fly ash react with lime to form calcium silicate and
water or on the finished surface, and (c) may adsorb air entraining calcium aluminate hydrates – products similar to the primary cementitious
agent added to concrete and limit the ability to entrain air which materials produced from the cement hydration reaction. The calcium
may be required for slip-formed concrete or to manage Freeze silicate and calcium aluminate hydrates formed in the pozzolanic reaction
Thaw29 durability issues. add to concrete strength and to the refinement of the pore structure of the
concrete paste.
Magnesium Oxide (MgO) – determined using AS 2350.221, the
determination of MgO content is meant to ensure that the mineral
periclase (MgO) is not present in detrimental amounts. If present
periclase may cause expansive reactions in hardened concrete
leading to cracking. While periclase may be present in fly ashes
derived from brown coals it is not likely to be present in black coal
ashes. The limit for MgO has been removed from AS 3582.1 but
persists in the EN and Indian fly ash Standards, primarily because
these Standards include coverage of brown coal fly ashes.

PAGE 5 > FLY ASH PROPERTIES, CHARACTERISATION AND USES

Typical Use of Fly Ash in Concrete High Volume Fly Ash (HVFA) concrete (usually with cement
replacement levels of at least 40%) is used in some applications,
For the ‘typical’ 20-32MPa concrete mix, fly ash is used a cement
most typically in mass concrete applications where lower concrete
replacement at level of 20-30%. This may be adjusted seasonally,
temperatures are required. HVFA concrete has also been
particularly in the southern-Australian States, where replacement
proposed for general concrete applications though uptake has
levels may be lower in Winter. In North Queensland, replacement
been low. With HVFA concrete, the plastic concrete can be quite
is typically at 30% all year around. At these replacement levels,
‘sticky’, and early-age and 28-day strengths are affected by the
lower early-age strengths can be expected compared to cement-
high fly ash content. A somewhat higher cementitious content (at
only mixes, and depending on the fly ash being used, a slightly
least 40kg/m3 more) is required to be able to achieve the same
higher cementitious content may also be required to achieve 28-
28- day strengths as a mix with a 25% fly ash replacement level, or
day strengths equivalent to cement-only mixes. The strength/age
alternatively, a much lower water : binder (w:b) ratio can be used
comparisons for binary mixes are shown in Table 3 below.
to improve strength performance. An Australian study35 describes
mix designs and a comprehensive testing program involving HVFA
It is not uncommon now, with the wider availability of ground
concrete. While recognising some of its limitations the study shows
granulated blast furnace slag (GGBFS), for ternary mixes to be
that HVFA concrete gives excellent durability performance. The
used in Normal Class concretes – again most often for improved
study also notes several prominent uses of HVFA concrete in a
economy and durability. Usually, the cement content is kept at
range of construction projects.
about 50% and two SCM’s make up the remainder of the
cementitious content – typically with fly ash at 20% and GGBFS
Durability Performance of Fly Ash Concrete
at 30%. The increased proportion of SCM’s in these ternary mixes
also means lower early-age strengths. The high reactivity of the It is generally accepted that concrete containing fly ash at 20-25%
GGBFS component usually provides good 28-day strength of the cementitious content provides a more durable concrete than
performance. The strength/ age comparisons for ternary mixes when using cement alone. Concrete durability is not dependent
are shown in Table 3 below. solely on the cementitious material and it is important that concrete
Compressive Strength (% of 28-day strength) for use in high durability applications has adequate strength and
Ternary Blend a relatively low w:b ratio. Typically high durability requirements
Time Binary Blend
(days) Cement Only 75% cement
50% cement require 40+MPa concrete with a w:b ratio at or below 0.4.
30% GGBFS
25% fly ash
20% fly ash
When tested using AS 2350.1336 fly ash blended cements give
3 65 50 40
lower mortar shrinkage values than mortars made with cement
7 80 65 60 only. Fly ash blend cements generally meet the requirements of
28 100 100 100 Type SL9 cement. This lower mortar shrinkage performance does
56 110 115 120 not necessarily translate into reduced concrete shrinkage 37 due, in
part, to the complex nature of the concrete shrinkage process.
Specific areas of durability improvement expected with fly ash
Table 3. Compressive strength versus time – cement only concrete include increased resistance to (a) chloride ion
versus binary and ternary blends penetration, (b) sulfate attack and (c) alkali silicate reaction (ASR).
Improved resistance to chloride ion penetration and sulfate attack
Compared to cement-only mixes, binary or ternary concrete comes about primarily because of lower (improved) fly ash
mixes show elongated setting times (typically 30-45 minutes at concrete permeability, while improved resistance to ASR is more
‘normal’ ambient temperatures, and potentially longer at complex.
temperatures <10°C), good workability and pumpability, lower
bleed and are typically easier to finish. The combination of lower
bleed rates, slightly longer setting times and lower early-age
strengths can mean an increased risk of plastic shrinkage
cracking, though experienced concrete placers are readily able
to cope with this potential issue.

PAGE 6 > FLY ASH PROPERTIES, CHARACTERISATION AND USES

Chloride ion penetration – Concrete containing reinforcing steel A cement-only test mortar may have an expansion value close to the
and exposed to marine environments, de-icing salts or other high 750 microstrain limit nominated in AS 3972, while a fly ash blend
salinity environments has a high risk of cracking and/or spalling mortar would typically show an expansion of 250-300 microstrain.
if chloride ions are able to penetrate the concrete and corrode The fly ash is effective in both reducing the mortar permeability and
the reinforcing steel. To prevent or delay chloride-ion induced diluting the aluminates in the Type GP cement. As noted in AS
corrosion it is necessary for there to be adequate cover between 397243 there are many factors that influence concrete performance
the steel and the external environment and for the concrete cover in a sulfate environment, however blended cement use has been
to be a high quality, low permeability concrete. It is possible to shown to be advantageous.
estimate the service life of a concrete in a chloride environment
by understanding the Diffusion Rate38,39 of chloride ions through Alkali silicate reaction (ASR) – Concrete made with ‘reactive
the concrete in question – a function that is improved in fly ash aggregates’ can, often 10-20 years after placing, demonstrate
concrete because of the refined pore structure40 and varies directly severe ‘map cracking’ as a result of a reaction between silicate
with concrete strength / grade and as shown in Figure 3 below. minerals in the aggregates and alkalis (primarily) from the cement.
This alkali silicate reaction forms a gel product that can absorb
large proportions of water. The gel expands within the concrete
pores causing the ‘map cracking’. The problem, encountered in
many parts of Australia, is seen in large infrastructure like dams,
bridges and power station cooling towers and rectification of these
structures would usually be very expensive. Recently two improved
tests have been developed to allow the potential for aggregate
materials to be assessed44,45. Additionally, an ASR handbook, a
joint publication between CCAA and Standards Australia46 has
recently been updated. This comprehensive ASR handbook
provides a broad range of information including methods by which
the risk of ASR can be mitigated. A simple mitigation method is the
inclusion of fly ash at a level of at least 25% of the cementitious
material in the concrete. In part, the fine fly ash acts by providing
a significant increase in reactive silica in the concrete paste which
reduces the alkali available to react with the aggregates 44.
Figure 3. Diffusion coefficient and concrete grade (after Cao
et al38) Additional Fly Ash Uses
Fly ash may be used in the production of Controlled Low Strength
Sulfate attack – Concrete may be exposed to sulfates from a variety
Material (CLSM) – also known as flowable fill47. In this application
of sources – marine environments, sewerage treatment plants,
the abilities of fly ash to both improve workability and contribute
industrial wastes and sulfate-containing soils. Sulfate compounds
to cementitious performance are used. CLSM is a low-strength
may attack concrete either directly or indirectly and may result
concrete-like product that is used like a grout, but in applications
in expansion and cracking and/or loss of compressive strength.
such as encapsulating in-ground pipework and filling conduits.
Magnesium sulfate can attack the CSH glue that holds concrete
Typical CLSM 28-day strengths are 1-5MPa, and the material is
together causing the concrete to disintegrate. Sodium sulfate attacks
required to be able to flow freely into voids without the need for
concrete by reacting with aluminates to form expansive compounds
further compaction. It contains typically 50-150kg/m3 of cement
that cause cracking initially, and then more substantial failure and
and a minimum of 250kg/m3 (and up to 500kg/m3) of fly ash.
finally disintegration. Sulfate attack on concrete can be reduced by
Water is added to achieve the required flow characteristics.
both physical and chemical means. Fly ash, through improvements
Admixtures are generally not used.
to concrete pore structure40, reduces the ability of sulfate ions to
penetrate the concrete. Reduced sulfate attack can also be
Fly ash may also be used for its ‘cementitious value’ in the
brought about by altering the nature of the cementitious materials -
production of geopolymer concrete48. Used alone, or in
for example by using Type SR (Sulfate Resisting) cement. Type
combination with GGBFS, fly ash reacts with the highly alkaline
SR cement may be obtained by altering the mineral composition of
activators used in geopolymer mixes to form a polymeric binder.
cement, most particularly, reducing the aluminate (C3A) content, as
Geopolymer concretes have been found to perform as well as
required for Type V (sulfate resisting) cement in the ASTM cement
cement-based concretes in many applications.
Standard41. The Australian Standard for cement (AS 39729) does not
nominate how SR performance is to be achieved – rather it provides
Fly ash is also used in a variety of other engineering activities
a test (AS 2350.1442) which sets an expansion limit for a mortar
– as a compacted bulk fill in stabilised embankments and as a
bar exposed to a 5% sodium sulfate solution for 16 weeks. While
cementitious component in lean-mix concrete sub-bases used in
mortars made with cement only may pass this test, the addition of
concrete road construction49.
(typically) 25% fly ash to Type GP cement allows the cement blend
to easily meet the Type SR requirement.

PAGE 7 > FLY ASH PROPERTIES, CHARACTERISATION AND USES

HANDLING AND STORAGE ENVIRONMENT
While fly ash does not react with water like (for example)
From a concrete industry perspective, the use of fly ash is a
cement it still must be kept dry to ensure that it is able to be
positive contributor to ‘the environment’. When used as a cement
easily transported and transferred as a bulk material. Fly ash as
replacement, fly ash contributes to a reduction in greenhouse gas
produced has a moisture content of about 0.1%, and moisture
(GHG) and embodied energy levels in concrete. Its use has been
contents as low as about 0.5% may reduce its flowability and/or
a significant contributor to the approximately 30% reduction51 in
cause lump formation. While these lumps are not as hard as those
GHG per tonne of cementitious materials achieved in Australia in
formed when cement has been exposed to water, they may still
the period 1990 to present.
cause difficulties in pneumatic conveying of fly ash or restrict flow
from a silo. If fly ash is not used constructively it is disposed of by the
electricity generators in either landfill or in ‘ash dams’. Disposal
Fly ash is generally a very fine product and may contain up to
in these ways means that a valuable resource, one that brings
50% of respirable material. Furthermore, fly ash may contain a
significant benefit to the construction industry, is lost.
proportion of crystalline quartz – some of that being in the
respirable fraction. It is important in the handling and transfer of
fly ash that (a) engineering systems be used to reduce the
presence of dust in the workplace, and (b) where workers are
exposed to fly ash in the atmosphere they wear appropriate
respiratory protection. Fly ash safety data sheets (SDS) should
be referred to for guidance.

Fly ash does not generally contain significant proportions of

acidic or alkaline compounds, and levels of acidity or alkalinity
are generally low. Nevertheless, fine fly ash may irritate eyes and
other mucous membranes and exposure to fly ash dust should be
minimized. Ongoing exposure may lead to drying of the skin and
cause skin irritations and potentially, dermatitis.

Being derived from geological source materials, fly ash contains

very low levels of naturally occurring radioactive materials. An
assessment of concrete containing Australian fly ashes 50 indicates
that such concrete would exhibit levels of radioactivity well below
normal background levels.

PAGE 8 > FLY ASH PROPERTIES, CHARACTERISATION AND USES

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50. Heidrich, C. et al (2011), “Naturally occurring radionuclides in Since the information provided is intended for
Australian coal combustion products (CCP’s)”, World of Coal Ash general guidance only and in no way replaces
Conference, May 9-12 2011, Denver, Colorado, 12pp. the services of professional consultants on
51. Cement Industry Federation (2015), “Australian cement industry – particular projects, no legal liability can be
Statistics 2015”, www.cement.org.au/Publications/FastFacts.aspx accepted by Cement Concrete & Aggregates
Australia for its use.

© Cement Concrete & Aggregates Australia

PAGE 10 > FLY ASH PROPERTIES, CHARACTERISATION AND USES