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4. THE VP (1) a. *We will on Mars.

4.1 Typologies of verbs b. *Can we to the stars?
The verbal category, as happens with any other grammatical category, is c. *He is TV.
not homogeneous by any means. Consequently, verbs can be classified d. *Did she yesterday?
according to several different factors like the following: e. *We haven’t a dinosaur yet.
a) their grammatical importance. (correct not in the intended meaning)
b) their capacity/quality of complementation. f. *Eyes Wide Shut was by Stanley Kubrick.
c) their nature as dynamic or stative verbs. Some verbal forms can be found in both categories, e.g., have, do, or be.
d) their morphology. This does not mean that they are the same verbs, but that we are dealing
with homonymous forms, i.e., they show the same form but differ in
4.1.1 Verbs according to their grammatical importance
meaning as well as in their syntactico-semantic behavior. Hence, we have,
Verbs can be divided into two major categories: lexical verbs and auxiliary for instance, do1, which is a lexical verb, and do2, which is an auxiliary
verbs. Lexical verbs are those which carry the lexico-semantic meaning of
verb.
the VP and can appear on their own as the main verb. They normally have
a paradigm with 5 forms (the plain present tense and the base form being 4.1.1.1 NICE1 properties of auxiliaries
syncretic forms and, thus, considered as one). However, there are lexical
verbs that do not show such paradigm, having less than those 5 forms.
egation  Auxiliary verbs allow the formation of negation by adding
These are the so-called defective verbs. On the other hand, there is one
the negative word not after them as well as by contracting and attaching it
verb that has a total of 8 forms, the verb be, it being an excessive verb:
as the enclitic particle n’t.
Plain present tense See Can Am/are
(2) a. *Some people think not about AIDS.
3rd sg present tense Sees Is ai. *Some people thinkn’t about AIDS.
Preterite Saw Could Was/were b. Some people do not think about AIDS.
Base form See Can Be bi. Some people don’t think about AIDS.
Gerund participle Seeing Being
Past participle Seen Been
In contrast, auxiliary verbs do not have such paradigm and, instead, have
very specific syntactic properties (refer to 4.1.1.1 below) that are unique to 1
This is an acronym introduced by HUDDLESTON, R. (1976) “Some theoretical
them. Besides, they cannot function as the main verb since they only make issues in the description of the English verb”, Lingua 80 from the initial letters of Negation,
contributions in terms of aspect, mood, voice, etc., to the sentence. Inversion, Code and Emphatic affirmation.

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nversion  Auxiliary verbs can undergo the subject-verb inversion. 4.1.1.1 Operator
(3) a. Mohammed VI pardons many prisoners. In a VP there may be one lexical verb and more than one auxiliary verb.
b. *Pardons Mohammed VI many prisoners? (6) a. He has been talking about his expectations.
c. Will Mohammed VI pardon many prisoners? b. All danger could have been averted.
d. Has Mohammed VI pardoned many prisoners? c. She may have been acting like a lunatic.
d. They should have been there.
C
ode 2  There are reduced constructions in which a VP is substituted In these cases only one of those auxiliary verbs can carry out the NICE
by a proform which is understood to repeat the content of the previous VP.
properties, namely the first one, called the operator.
Contrary to lexical verbs, auxiliary verbs can act as that anaphoric proform
in this type of reduced constructions. (7) a. Has he been talking about his expectations?
ai. *Been he has talking about his expectations?
(4) a. *She mixes sex and love and so mixes he.
b. She mixes sex and love and so does he. b. All danger could not have been averted.
bi. She mixes sex and love and so will he. bi. *All danger could have not been averted.
bii. *All danger could have been not averted.
E c. She may have been acting like a lunatic and so may he.
mphatic affirmation  Auxiliary verbs can act as an emphatic
element when appearing with a heavy stress and before a lexical verb. ci. *She may have been acting like a lunatic and so have he.
These constructions are usually used with a contrastive meaning, though cii. *She may have been acting like a lunatic and so been he.
they can also be used purely for emotive force. d. – They shouldn’t have been there.
– Oh yes, they ´ should have been there.
(5) a. – Teenagers learn little about sex at school.
di. – *Oh yes, they should ´ have been there.
– *Oh yes, they ´ learn about sex.
ai. – Teenagers learn little about sex at school. “The operator, or first auxiliary, performs an ‘operational’
– Oh yes, they ´ do learn about sex. function in relating a positive declarative structure to another
b. I ´ do wish you would listen. structure in the language” (QUIRK et alii (1985: 80)).

2
This is the property from which the ‘C’ of the acronym NICE is taken. According
to PALMER, F. (1987:19) The English Verb, New York: Longman, the label ‘code’ was
introduced by FIRTH (1968:104) Selected Papers of J.R. Firth 1952-59, London:
Longman, edited by F.R. PALMER.

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4.1.2 Verbs according to their capacity/quality of complementation (12) – When did he die?
(rooted in GARRUDO (1991, 1996)) – He died yesterday.
Firstly, a distinction between the notions of complement and adjunct Each verb requires specific elements and “grammatically, sentence
should be made. Complements are those elements which are obligatory in a correctness depends on the different elements required or rejected by […]
sentence as they are required by the verb. Adjuncts, on the other hand, are the Verb” (Comesaña Rincón 2000: 206). Hence, verbs have been
those elements which are not necessary in a sentence to complete the classified according to the different elements which are necessary for their
meaning of the verb, though they add some information (typically temporal syntactico-semantic completion (i.e., their complements).
or locative). Therefore, the elements in parentheses in (8) and (10) are all
An aspect we also have to bear in mind is that verbal forms are not
instances of adjuncts, since they are not required by the verb. However,
univocal, i.e., the same verbal form may show different meanings, leading
these elements can be obligatory at a communicative or pragmatic level, as
to the creation of homonymous verbs, and, as a consequence, they are
(12) shows:
likely to necessitate different arguments and show a vast variety of
(8) a. The child was sobbing (quietly). syntactic patterns.
b. Mario Puzo, the author of The Godfather, died (at the age of 78).
(13) a. I see what you mean.
c. NATO war planes roared (over Serbia).
b. I don’t want to see you so unhappy.
(9) a. Politicians should build up mutual trust. c. The blind cannot see.
b. The peace process in Kosovo looks fragile.
(14) a. You can smell her perfume.
c. A Turkish tribunal found Oçalan guilty.
b. Your feet smell.
(10) ai. *The child was sobbing his sleep (quietly).
bi. *Mario Puzo, the author of The Godfather, died Corleone (at the Finally, in the phrasal, prepositional, or phrasal-prepositional
age of 78). subcategories below the Non-contrastive Adverbial (Ä) 5 and the
ci. *NATO warplanes roared bombs (over Serbia). Preposition (P) do not constitute an argument, they are part of the verb
(that is why they also appear in capital letters in the examples below), and
(11) ai. *Politicians should build up Ø. 3
hence they appear in all categories without interfering with the verb’s
bi. *The peace process in Kosovo looks Ø.
belonging to a specific syntactic typology.
ci. *A Turkish tribunal found Oçalan Ø. 4
5
A Non-contrastive Adverbial is that Adverbial which does not freely allow
3
substitution:
‘Ø’ indicates absence of a required completing element.
4 (1) a. Put it on the table, please.
Possibly correct if the meaning is deviant from the one intended in (9c): to find ai. Put it there, please.
someone or something in a certain state or condition. b. The plane took off.
bi. *The plane took there.

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1.0 INTRANSITIVE They are syntactico-semantically self-sufficient, i.e., they do not require any other
Simple: /SV/ She is SWIMMING. argument to complete their meaning.
Phrasal: /SVÄ/ The plane has TAKEN OFF.
2.0 TRANSITIVE
2.1 Monotransitive They need a Direct Object (OD) typically performed by a NP, but also by that-
Simple: /SVO/ I couldn’t FIND the key. clauses, infinitival clauses, and –ing-clauses.
Prepositional: /SVPO/ Have you DECIDED ON the car?
Phrasal: /SVÄO/ This water GIVES OFF a nasty smell.
/SVOÄ/ Together we will SEE this THROUGH.
TAKE OFF your hat / TAKE your hat OFF.
Phrasal-Prepositional: /SVÄPO/ We are LOOKING FORWARD TO our holidays.

2.2 Ditransitive They require a Direct Object (OD) and an Indirect Object (OI)
Simple: /SVOO/ They can REFUSE me nothing. prototypically performed by two NPs, or by a NP and a PP.
Prepositional: /SVOPO/ She REMINDED me OF the meeting.
/SVPOPO/ He ACCOUNTS TO his wife FOR the money he
spends.
Permutable: /SVOO/, He BOUGHT Mary a car / He BOUGHT a car FOR
/SVOPO/ Mary.
Phrasal-Prepositional: /SVOÄPO/ He TOOK his resentment OUT ON me.
2.3 Complex Transitive They need a OD, invariably a NP, and an Object Complement (CO),
Simple: /SVOC/ I CONSIDER him a fool. prototypically a NP or an AdjP, but also a PP or non-finite clause.
Prepositional: /SVOPC/ They TOOK him FOR a famous singer.
Phrasal-Prepositional: /SVOÄPC/ They BLEW him UP INTO a famous singer.
2.4 Adjunctive Transitive They need an O, invariably a NP, and an Adverbial (A), typically a PP or
Simple: /SVOA/ She PUT her books on my desk. an AdvP, but also a NP, –ing-clause, or infinitival clause. The A can
indicate place, time, purpose, or process.
3.0 COPULATIVE They require a Subject Complement (CS) which is typically a NP or an
Simple: /SVC/ He LOOKS tired. AdjP, but also a PP or non-finite clause.
Prepositional: /SVPC/ That AMOUNTS TO a refusal.
Phrasal-prepositional: /SVÄPC/ The argument BOILED OVER INTO a fight.
4.0 ADJUNCTIVE They require an Adverbial (A), prototypically an AdvP or a PP, but also a
Simple: /SVA/ She LIVES in Paris. NP, –ing-clause, or infinitival clause. It implies place, time, process, or
Phrasal: /SVÄA/ He LANDED UP in jail. purpose.

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How to ditinguish between DITRANSITIVE and COMPLEX Exercises

TRANSITIVE verbs:
(1) The importance of Verbs within the VP has led us to classify them
a) The CO describes a quality or state of the OD, thus, you can trace an into several subtypes. Try to differentiate the underlined verbal forms of
underlying TO BE construction, i.e., you can add to be between the the following sentences according to the following labels: (a) Lexical
OD and the CO without the sentence being ungrammatical. verb; (b) Auxiliary verb.
b) The OD and the CO are, therefore, co-referential, that is, they refer to (1) I don’t need a pen now. _____
the same entity.
(2) He was talking to me. _____
c) There must be number agreement between the OD and the CO.
(3) Who did what? _____
d) Ditransitive verbs allow the passivization (i.e., appearing as Subject
(4) You have got a car. _____
in a passive construction) of both the OD and the OI. Complex
Transitive verbs, on the contrary, only allow the passivization of the (5) Where in the world are Tonga and Tuvalu? _____
O D. (6) She did not dare to look at him. _____
e) An AdjP cannot function as O in a ditransitive construction unless it (7) I have to stay here. _____
is nominalized. (8) This book has recently been published. _____
(9) He needn’t come to the funeral. _____
a), b), and c) cannot be applied to Ditransitive verbs.
(10) She tried the water. _____
How to ditinguish between MONOTRANSITIVE and Special tip: For doubtful cases, apply the NICE properties devoted to
COPULATIVE verbs: auxiliaries. Otherwise, give convincing reasons for your classification.
a) The CS describes a quality or state of the S. (2) Classify the underlined verbal forms of the following sentences
b) The S and the CS are, therefore, co-referential, that is, they refer to according to their capacity/quality of complementation, i.e., their
the same entity. subcategorisation features, as: (a) Intransitive; (b) Monotransitive; (c)
c) There must be number agreement between the S and the CS. Ditransitive; (d) Complex Transitive; (e) Adjunctive Transitive; (f)
Copulative; (g) Adjunctive.
a), b), and c) cannot be applied to Monotransitive verbs.
(1) Will FIFA anoint Messi the best player in the world? _____
(2) My name is Bond, James Bond. _____
(3) Muhammad Ali called himself the Greatest. _____
(4) Obama needs all the protection he can get. _____

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(5) In 1985 the Nobel Committee awarded Claude Simon 4.1.3 Dynamic vs. Stative verbs
its Nobel Prize for Literature. _____ Examples in (15) are considered ungrammatical by native speakers of
(6) All of them were lying on the ground. _____ English because of the occurrence of the specific lexical verbs in the
(7) Mark Ruffalo portrayed mild-mannered scientist Bruce progressive or imperative construction.
Banner and his rage monster alter ego The Hulk. _____ (15) a. *She is knowing the lesson.
(8) A cleaning lady was shot dead during a robbery at the bank ai. *Know the lesson.
where she worked in the province of Toledo, Spain. _____ b. *I am guessing that she is interested in you.
bi. *Guess that she is interested in you.
Introduction to the Morphosyntax of the English Simple Sentence c. *My daughter is resembling her mother.
P. 303, ex. (2). ci. *Resemble her mother.
This, however, does not happen with the examples in (16), where the
lexical items can readily appear in such constructions.
(16) a. She is learning the lesson.
ai. Learn the lesson.
b. I am speaking now.
bi. Speak now.
c. She is studying French.
ci. Study French.
Therefore, verbs can also be classified according to their capacity for
admitting or rejecting progressive and imperative constructions. Those
verbs which admit these constructions are called dynamic (or non-stative),
whereas those rejecting them are known as stative.
Dynamic verbs usually denote an event and imply some sort of change,
while stative verbs denote a state which implies no change whatsoever
(hence their names). To classify verbs as dynamic or stative, Lakoff (1966)
established three criteria. If a verb admitted said criteria, that verb would
be classified as dynamic:

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a) The pseudo-cleft construction. 6 There are also verbs which do not clearly fit in any of the two categories as
they are not wholly involved in all the criteria. This is the case of weather
(17) What he did was (to) draw a thick curtain on the issue.
verbs.
b) The co-occurrence with a causative verb, such as ask, command, order,
(22) a. It is raining.
persuade, or remind.
b. *Rain!
(18) a. She persuaded me to buy the new iPad Pro. c. *?What it did was to rain.
b. *She asked me to guess that she is interested in you. d. *I ordered it to rain.
c) The use of manner adverbials. e. It rained hard.

(19) a. In order to rescue the living from the debris, men dug desperately. 4.1.4 Verbs according to their morphology
b. Both troops had battled furiously for several days. From a formal point of view, lexical verbs can be divided into two
categories: regular and irregular. A lexical verb is considered regular
These criteria do not apply uniformly to all dynamic verbs, since there are
when the different inflections which constitute its paradigm can be
verbs which admit some but reject others, especially when the Subject is
‘regularly’ predicted from the stem without formal variation. That is, {3rd
not semantically agentive, i.e., when the Subject referent does not
person}, {-ing}, {-ed past}, and {-ed past participle} are straightforwardly
consciously and willfully initiate the action denoted by the verb.
attached to the stem. There may be, nevertheless, some spelling or
(20) a. The rock is rolling down the hill. typographical changes:
b. What the rock did was roll down the hill.
(A) Doubling consonants: Before {-ing}, {-ed past}, and {-ed past
c. *John persuaded the rock to roll down the hill.
participle} final consonants are doubled when the preceding vocalic
In the same way, stativeness cannot be an a priori aspect, because some phoneme is stressed and spelled with a single letter.
verbs typically described as stative can also be used as dynamic when a)
(B) Dropping letters: Before {-ing}, {-ed past}, and {-ed past participle}
there is temporariness implied, and b) there is a change in the semantic
verbs ending in a consonant plus a silent e drop that e.
reading, consequently conveying homonymous forms.
(C) Replacing letters: {3rd person}, {-ed past}, and {-ed past participle}
(21) a. Oh, yes! I’m seeing you now!
require the replacement of final y by ie. Final ie, conversely, becomes y
b. She is tasting the soup.
when {-ing} is added.
bi. The soup tastes salty.
bii. *The soup is tasting salty. (23) a. Drop – dropping
b. Create – creating
6
This construction is used to give thematic or communicative prominence to a c. Carry – carries
particular element in a sentence and shows the following syntactic structure: ci. Die – dying.
Nominal relative clause – be – Subject Complement.

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On the other hand, in irregular verbs only the {3rd person} and {-ing} Note that there is no Future Tense, as there is no inflection in the English
inflections are predictable from the verbal stem. The other ones, i.e., {-ed lexical verb’s paradigm recording a future indication, in contrast to other
past} and {-ed past participle}, are unpredictable and are performed by languages such as Latin or Spanish.
numerous allomorphic realizations. Due to this fact, these irregular forms
(26) a. amâbô (Latin).
may also show vowel mutation, also called ablaut (BAUER (1988: 27)).
b. amaré (Spanish).
4.2 Time vs. Tense c. *I lovell.
Statements are made within time boundaries, which are past, present, and Thus, whenever we find will (or shall) plus lexical verb we talk about a
future. Whereas time is a universal conception, Tense is a grammatical future construction and will can be regarded as a future Tense marker.
category, mainly associated with the verb, which mirrors such conception Besides, will conveys much more than future time, e.g., willingness,
of temporal boundaries. For instance, wrote in (24) is in Past Tense and prediction, or even a universal truth.
reflects past time.
(27) a. Will (= are you willing) you, please, open the door?
(24) He wrote a letter.
b. By now she will be flying to London.
“As far as tense is concerned, then, the reference point is c. Oil will float on water.
typically the present moment, and tenses locate situations
Apart from will, future time can also be conveyed by other devices:
either at the same time as the present moment (...), or prior to
the present moment, or subsequent to the present moment ... (28) a. She is joining the navy (next year).
A system which relates entities to a reference point is b. Exams begin next week. 7
termed a deictic system, and we can therefore say that tense is c. The movie may/must/can start soon. 8
deictic” (COMRIE (1985: 14)). d. It is going to rain.
e. He expected (Max) to win. 9
Interestingly, this triple categorization of time is reflected in just two
f. She is about to jump from the cliff.
grammatical categories, Past Tense and Present Tense, the latter showing
uses referring to future time as well. Tense distinctions are traditionally
based on homogeneous systems of morphological variants throughout
7
verbal paradigms. This is a ‘futurate construction’. This concept is due to HUDDLESTON (1977)
“The futurate construction”, Linguistic Inquiry 8, 730-736. That is, a simple present Tense
(25) a. She raised her hand. form co-occurring with future time adverbials. The example is taken from HUDDLESTON
b. I raise my hand. (1977:730).
8
c. He raises his hand. This example implies more than future (different nuances of likelihood, according
to the modal, are involved). The point in question is, nonetheless, that the starting point of
the movie is in the future.
9
Example also taken from HUDDLESTON (1977:730)a.

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4.2.1 Semantic nuances of Tenses (33) Messi scores another goal.

There is no strict correspondence between extralinguistic time and (instantaneous Present)
linguistic Tense, as sometimes Present and Past Tense forms do not exactly Instantaneous Present indicates events which happen and are completed
match present and past time, respectively. within a very short lapse in the present time and is mainly used in sports
(29) a. Genetics plays an important role in cancer. commentaries. Similarly, performative Present also shows a sort of
b. Columbus discovers America in 1492. instantaneity.
(30) a. If I were you, I would not do it. (34) a. I beg your pardon.
b. I wondered if you could lend me £10. b. I promise to be back at ten.
bi. I wonder if you can lend me £10. c. I declare this international conference closed.
(performative Present) 11
(29) shows examples of the Present Tense form used to refer to a ‘eternal
truth’ and past time ((29b) is a case of historic Present); and in (30) the In conditional structures it is also possible to trace future implications in a
Past Tense form is used to indicate an unreal state of affairs and politeness Present Tense form, as (35) shows.
(note that (30bi) is more direct and, thus, less polite than (30b)).
(35)You will have to speak French, if you work for Société Générale.
4.2.1.2. PRESENT Tense form
Present Tense form is also conventionally used to indicate stage directions
(31) a. He smokes after each meal. in plays.
b. She goes to Paris every week.
c. I don’t know what they do at night. (36) ESTRAGON: People are bloody ignorant apes.
(habitual Present) He rises painfully, goes limping to extreme left, halts, gazes into
distance off with his hand screening his eyes, turns, goes to
(32) a. An apple a day keeps the doctor away. extreme right, gazes into distance. Vladimir watches him, then
b. Spain borders on France. goes and picks up the boot, peers into it, drops it hastily 12
c. She is tall. (fictional Present)
(state Present) 10
In habitual Present the verbs are usually dynamic, implying a general
situation, such as regular activities. On the contrary, in state Present the 11
A performative verb is the kind of verb whose implied action starts once it is
verbs are stative, since they convey a more or less stable quality or even uttered. By uttering beg, you are begging; by uttering promise, you are making a promise;
eternal truths. by uttering declare, you are making the official declaration or announcement of the end of
that conference.
10 12
Habitual vs. State Present Tense forms is a distinction drawn by QUIRK et alii This example has been taken from Waiting for Godot, p. 13. Italics in the
(1985: 179). original; bold type is mine.

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4.2.1.3. PAST Tense form clause is motivated by the Past Tense form of the reporting verb, even
Past Tense forms pre-eminently indicate past time. They can be found with though, as (41bi) shows, future time may be conveyed.
time Adverbials referring to past time or on their own, for they are (41) a. “I have no idea what the time is”, his mother said.
normally understood (or of no interest). ai. His mother said that she had no idea what the time was.
(37) Michael Johnson broke the 400-m world record in the World Athletic b. “I am leaving tomorrow”, she said.
Championships which took place in Seville, August 1999. bi. She said she was leaving tomorrow.
However, as happened with Present Tense forms, Past Tense forms do not Exercises
always refer back to past time properly.
(3) Imperative and progressive constructions are two factors which lead to
“Verbal forms which are primarily used to indicate past time another syntactic classification of verbal forms. According to the rejection
are often used without that temporal import to denote or admission of these constructions, classify the following underlined
unreality, impossibility, improbability or non-fulfilment. In verbal forms as: (a) Stative; (b) non-stative:
such cases we speak of imaginative tenses or tenses of
imagination” (JESPERSEN (1909-1949: 112)PART IV). (1) She is being considered for the post. _____
(2) She held the baby in her arms. _____
Examples in both (38) and (39) do not refer to any past situation; quite the
reverse, they have a clear present and future implications. (3) She was square with her boyfriend. _____
(4) You had a good time, I guess. _____
(38) If the US government restricted access to guns, there would be less
violence in the States. (5) The law applies to everybody. _____

(39) a. I wish you were here. (6) The blind cannot see. _____
b. It is time we had a holiday. (7) She always thinks of me. _____
(hypothetical Past) (8) Not all dresses fit fat women. _____
As shown above, Past Tense forms can also convey some kind of (9) She seems tired. _____
politeness or polite attitude on the speaker’s part. (10) I think that you are nuts. _____
(40) I wondered if you could lend me £10. Warning: The non-auxiliary BE is neither stative or non-stative. However,
(attitudinal Past) it mimetically adopts stative or non-stative features, according to the
Past Tense forms are also used to report what someone has said in what is stative or non-stative AjdP (or NP) that follows.
known as indirect or reported speech. The Past Tense form in the reported

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(4) By using the appropriate letters, decide whether the underlined Present Introduction to the Morphosyntax of the English Simple Sentence
Tense verbal forms indicate: (a) Reference to no specific time; (b) P. 304, ex. (4).
Instantaneity; (c) Future Time; (d) Past time:
(1) Tintin is a universal hero. _________
(2) I now brown the garlic and add some salt. ____/____
(3) Introverts are much more cautious than extroverts. _________
(4) I now pronounce you man and wife. _________
(5) Mother Teresa dies in Calcutta at the age of 87. _________
(6) When is your birthday? _________
(7) Of all birds, penguins are the most fully adapted to water
and extreme cold. _________
(8) Fleming discovers penicillin in 1928. _________
(9) I declare the meeting open. _________
(10) If he opens the door, let him in. _________

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4.3. Aspect Semantically, the Perfect Aspect indicates that a situation which started
(42) a. He wrote a letter. before a point of time extends its importance or relevance up to that point
b. He was writing a letter. of time, which can be past or present depending grammatically on the
inflected form of HAVEAUXILIARY. This definitory feature of the Perfect is
The difference between the examples (42a) and (42b) above is not in terms
precisely what differentiates it from the Past Tense, as can be seen in (44):
of time (in fact, both refer to the past), but of Aspect. In the case of (42a),
the action of writing is seen as complete whereas in (42b) the action is still (44) a. The Spanish government has increased the price of cigarettes.
in progress. That is to say, the difference is based on whether the speaker b. The Spanish government increased the price of cigarettes last
perceives the verbal situation as culminative or perfective, or as Friday.
inconclusive or imperfective. Thus, the situation is viewed not in terms of
(44a) conveys that we are more concerned with the actual consequences of
any objective external time frame (past, present, future), but in terms of its
that situation and, thus, the question of when it happened is unnecessary.
subjective – as it depends on how the speaker perceives it – internal
On the contrary, (44b) shows no connection with the present time, that is
temporal features (continuity, conclusion).
why the question of time is important.
“[Aspect is] the different ways of viewing the internal
temporal constituency of a situation” (COMRIE (1976: 3)). PRESENT Perfect
The Present Perfect shows a situation that started in the past and whose
Hence, Aspect can be described as a dual system: Perfect Aspect vs.
importance, effects, or continuity may not have disappeared in the
Progressive Aspect. 13
present. 14 This way, it has a relational temporal feature, as it relates the
4.3.1 Perfect Aspect past time with the present time. Again, this contrasts with the Past Tense,
which refers to some time in the past without acknowledging any
Structurally, the Perfect Aspect is expressed by HAVEAUXILIARY (which
connection with the present.
shows morphosyntactic values such as Person and Tense) + the past
participle form of the lexical verb (which offers the semantic potential of (45) a. The Serbs have lost the Balkan war (= they are a defeated people
perfection or completion). Besides, it is the Tense shown in the auxiliary, now).
either Present or Past, what has led to the formal distinction of Present b. Noam Chomsky was born in Philadelphia in 1928.
Perfect and Past Perfect.
(43) a. Scientists have discovered the I.Q. gene.
b. When I rang, they had left already. 14
Since the Present Tense has the semantic capacity to imply futurity (refer to 4.2),
the Present Perfect can also convey a future implication, especially within adverbial
structures introduced by after, as soon as, until, or when:
13
Just in passing, there are several ways of expressing these semantic implications (2) As soon as Saddam has withdrawn all his military forces from the Gulf, there
apart from the perfective or progressive structures, though these are the main ones. will be no more air strikes.

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There are some restrictions on the type of Adverbials which can co-occur other hand, I am talking not about the expedition as such but
with this verbal structure. Adverbials with relational temporal semantic about my present incapacity, I would say I have broken my
capacity are admitted, but (definite) past time Adverbials are rejected. leg.”
(46) a. So far sex education at school has failed. c) The choice can also be determined by dialectal variations. For instance,
ai. *Last year sex education at school has failed. British English speakers would say (48a), whereas American English
b. Up to the present, I have read three of his books. speakers would say (48b).
bi. *Yesterday I have read three of his books.
(48) a. He has just had a heart attack.
c. Has Monica Lewinsky appeared on TV before now?
b. He just had a heart attack.
ci. *Has Monica Lewinsky appeared on TV last summer?
d. Ben has not seen Susan since they broke. “British speakers of English seem to use the perfect wherever
di. *Ben has not seen Susan many years ago. there seems to be any kind of relevance, but some American
speakers, at least, use it more sparingly. For a British speaker
There are cases which allow for a choice between the Present Perfect or the
it would not be normal to ask a child coming to the table:
Past. This choice can be motivated by several reasons: a) sometimes the
Did you wash your hands?
same Adverbial can be used either with the relational Present Perfect or the
But for many, if not most, Americans, this is quite acceptable”
decidedly temporal Past. Here, the choice is motivated by the time of the
(PALMER (1987: 50)).
utterance.
PAST Perfect
(47) a. We have met this morning (= it is still morning).
The Past Perfect, as the Present Perfect, has a relational temporal feature,
b. We met this morning (= it is later in the day).
which, in this case, relates the past and the past. Then, the Past Perfect
b) As HUDDLESTON (1984: 159) points out: indicates a situation (indicated by subscript 1) which originated in the past
“...the choice between a perfect and a past tense (...) is before another past situation (indicated by subscript 2) and which had
generally not determined by the actual temporal location of repercussions on it:
the situation, but depends on the speaker’s subjective (49) a. [Since he had taken a lot of drugs]1 [he fell flat]2.
conception of it. Suppose, for example, that I broke my leg on b. [His room was a mess]2. [He had not cleaned it]1.
a climbing expedition last weekend: I could now say either I
have broken my leg or I broke my leg. It is not the time of the Nevertheless, when one situation is clearly (syntactically or pragmatically)
event that differs, but my perspective. With broke I am talking previous to another, it is possible to use either the Past Tense or Past
about a past thought of as over: if I am now back at home with Perfect:
my leg in plaster I might say The expedition was marred by (50) a. [After he had had his cup of coffee]1, [he left]2.
the fact that I broke my leg - not have broken. But if, on the b. [After he had his cup of coffee]1, [he left]2.

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4.3.2. Progressive Aspect 4.4. Mood and Modality in English

The main use of the Progressive Aspect is the description of a situation that Mood is a grammar category associated to the Verb. Morphologically, it
is taking place, in progress, without signaling its end. refers to the contrastive and distinctive set of forms in the verbal paradigm
and which form internal subsystems. Semantically, it expresses the
(51) Some people say that, for obvious reasons, Hillary Clinton is drifting
speaker’s attitude towards the content of the utterance, i.e., it may indicate
away from her husband.
a fact, necessity, permission, possibility, doubt, wish, or obligation.
Besides, it also has other uses which are the expansion of the main one Contrary to Latin, for instance, the English verbal paradigm does not have
already mentioned: (i) to indicate the simultaneity of two ongoing any inflectional form to imply such semantic nuances, apart from the
situations: Present Indicative one. Then, these are expressed through the use of modal
(52) While NATO was bombing Belgrade, Milosevic’s son, Marko auxiliaries:
Milosevic, was cutting the ribbon of an amusement park he had (55) a. Laudat (Present Indicative, LAUDÔ).
built.
b. Laudâbit (Future Indicative, LAUDÔ).
(ii) To indicate an ongoing situation (indicated by subscript 1) which c. Laudet (Present Subjunctive, LAUDÔ).
serves as a background for another one (indicated by subscript 2) which d. Laudâret (Imperfect Subjunctive, LAUDÔ).
takes place during its development: (56) ai. He/she praises.
(53) [I was shaving]1 [when the phone rang]2. bi. He/she will praise.
ci. He/she may praise.
(iii) To show a situation which is repeated again and again and becomes
di. He/she would praise.
annoying. In order to convey that annoyance the use of the Adverbial
always is obligatory: In (56ai) the speaker is conveying a fact or factual assertion expressed by
an inflectional form, whereas (56bi-di) displays several differences of
(54) a. He was always spitting.
meaning expressed by the modals and it is precisely this semantic
b. He was spitting.
consideration to which the term ‘Modality’ is applied.
As can be appreciated in example (28) above, the Progressive Aspect can
“[Modality is] the grammaticalization of speakers’
also indicate futurity. Nonetheless, this cannot be considered another use as
(subjective) attitudes and opinions” (PALMER (1986: 16)).
the Progressive has an intrinsic meaning of duration and that does not
logically entail the use of future. Therefore, this is simply another semantic This way, Mood and Modality can be understood in the same lines as
implication. Tense and time. Mood is considered as a morphosyntactic category,
grammatically related to inflected forms which express the semantic,
subjective contents of certainty, possibility, etc. Modality, on the other

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hand, is a semantic category, specifically related to those contents 4.4.2. Semantic features of modal auxiliaries
themselves. Modal auxiliaries can be classified as epistemic or deontic depending on
4.4.1. Morphosyntactic features of modal auxiliaries their semantic implication. The modal auxiliaries in (62) do not indicate
any fact, but a kind of degree of (un)certainty on the part of the speaker.
(A) NICE properties:
(57) a. Greene shouldn’t beat Johnson in a 400m race. (62) a. That must be my wife. Conclusion by means of reasoning
(Direct (or enclitical) negation, no DOAUXILIARY intervening) 15 b. That will be my wife. No reasoning, just prediction
c. That may be my wife. No reasoning, possibility or likelihood
b. Will Greene beat Johnson in a 400m race?
(epistemic) 16
(Subject-Inversion in questions, no DOAUXILIARY intervening)
c. Bolt can beat the European athletes and so can Yohan Blake, “[these modals] do not primarily involve human control of
another Jamaican runner. events, but do typically involve human judgment of what is or
(Proform or Code function) is not likely to happen” (QUIRK et alii (1985:219)).
d. - Greene cannot beat European athletes. These modal auxiliaries can also be found in a different context expressing
- Oh yes, he ´can a different semantic implication, thus, showing a Janus-faced semantic
(Emphatic assertion) behavior:

(B) Absence of non-finite forms: (63) a. You must be more careful. Obligation
(58) *She turned on the rotors in order to can lift off. b. Who will type the letter for me? Intention or willingness
c. You may smoke if you wish. Permission
(C) Complementary distribution, i.e., two modals cannot appear in the (deontic) 17
same finite VP:
“[these modals] involve some kind of intrinsic human control
(59) *Smoking by pregnant women may will result in fetal injury.
over events” (QUIRK et alii (1985: 219)).
(D) No Subject-Verb agreement:
Unlike previous studies, PALMER (1987: 96 and ff.) distinguishes three
(60) *Fido barks but he cans also talk. different types of modals:
(E) Co-occurrence with subsequent ‘bare infinitive’ forms: “John may be in his office. (Epistemic)
(61) a. She will go back vs. *She will to go back. John may/can come in now. (Deontic)
b. She ought to go back vs. *She ought go back. Sole exception John can run ten miles with ease. (Dynamic)
16
This term comes from the Greek term έπιστήμη: knowledge, intelligence.
15 17
Note that British speakers are reluctant to use a contracted negative form with This term comes from the Present Participle of the Greek verb δεω, δεόν -
may. δεόντος: what is necessary or due.

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Roughly, the difference in meaning between these three is that Exercise

the first (epistemic) makes the judgment that it is possible that
(5) Decide whether the modal auxiliary verbs of the following examples
John is in his office, the second (deontic) gives permission for
are: (a) epistemic, (b) deontic, or (c) dynamic. Some of them can be more
John to come in, the third (dynamic) states that John has the
than one. Try to give a reasonable explanation and provide suitable
ability to run ten miles with ease”.
situational contexts for their disambiguation:
Then, it can be said that the ‘non-epistemic’ modality has been subdivided
(1) Can you stand on your head? _____
into two subcategories depending on the leading participant in the verbal
(2) Will you come with me? _____
situation: deontic, if it is the speaker; dynamic, if it is the Subject:
(3) If I studied I would pass the exam. _____
PALMER (1987: 98):
(4) They will have arrived by now. _____
“A deontic modal actually does something; it is performative
(5) Can I come in? _____
(...) in that the speaker gives permission, lays an obligation or
in some way influences or directs the behaviour of his (6) You must read this book. It’s excellent. _____
addressee (or, with shall, of himself) (...) A dynamic modal (7) May I borrow your Rolex? _____
predicates something (‘says something about’) the subject of (8) I will carry your bags. _____
the sentence”.
(9) He can drive blindfolded. _____
(10) Peter must speak Russian. _____
(11) That might be George. _____
(12) We’d better hurry; there may be traffic jams. _____

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