Petroleum Reservoir Engineering Lectures Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S.

Kadhim 1

Water Influx
Introduction:
Most of hydrocarbon reservoirs are surrounded by water-bearing rocks called aquifers.
These aquifers may be substantially larger than the oil or gas reservoirs they adjoin as to
appear infinite in size, or they may be so small in size as to be negligible in their effect on
reservoir performance.

As reservoir fluids are produced and reservoir pressure declines, a pressure differential
develops from the surrounding aquifer into the reservoir. The reservoir-aquifer systems
in which the size of the aquifer is large enough and the permeability of the rock is high
enough that water influx occurs as the reservoir is depleted.

This Lecture provides various water influx calculation models and a detailed description
of the computational steps involved in applying these models.
Petroleum Reservoir Engineering Lectures Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim 2

Classification of Aquifers
Many gas and oil reservoirs are produced by a mechanism termed water drive. Often this is
called natural water drive to distinguish it from artificial water drive that involves the
injection of water into the formation. Hydrocarbon production from the reservoir and the
subsequent pressure drop prompt a response from the aquifer to offset the pressure
decline. This response comes in a form of water influx, commonly called water
encroachment, which is attributed to:

a. Expansion of the water in the aquifer,

b. Compressibility of the aquifer rock

Reservoir-aquifer systems are commonly classified on the basis of:

a. Degree of pressure maintenance
b. Outer boundary conditions
c. Flow regimes
d. Flow geometries
Petroleum Reservoir Engineering Lectures Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim 3

a. Degree of pressure maintenance

Based on the degree of the reservoir pressure maintenance provided by the aquifer, the
natural water drive is often qualitatively described as:
Active water drive
Partial water drive
Limited water drive
The term active water drive refers to the water encroachment mechanism in which the
rate of water influx equals the reservoir total production rate. Active water-drive
reservoirs are typically characterized by a gradual and slow reservoir pressure
decline.
Petroleum Reservoir Engineering Lectures Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim 4

The Equation [ew = Qo Bo + Qg Bg + Qw Bw ] can be equivalently expressed in terms of

cumulative production by introducing the following derivative terms:
Petroleum Reservoir Engineering Lectures Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim 5

Example: Calculate the water influx rate ew in a reservoir whose pressure is stabilized at
3,000 psi, and the additional given data are:

Solution: Applying the equation

Petroleum Reservoir Engineering Lectures Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim 6

b. Outer Boundary Conditions

The aquifer can be classified as infinite or finite (bounded). Geologically all formations
are finite, but may act as infinite if the changes in the pressure at the oil-water contact
are not considerable change at the aquifer boundary. In general, the outer boundary
governs the behavior of the aquifer and, therefore:

I. Infinite system indicates that the effect of the pressure changes at the oil/aquifer
boundary can never be felt at the outer boundary. This boundary is for all intents
and purposes at a constant pressure equal to initial reservoir pressure.

II. Finite system indicates that the aquifer outer limit is affected by the influx into the oil
zone and that the pressure at this outer limit changes with time.

c. Flow Regimes
There are basically three flow regimes that influence the rate of water influx into the
reservoir, those flow regimes are:
I. Steady-state
II. Semi-steady (pseudo-steady) state
III. Unsteady-state
Petroleum Reservoir Engineering Lectures Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim 7

d. Flow Geometries
Reservoir-aquifer systems can be classified on the basis of flow geometry as:
I. Edge-water drive
II. Bottom-water drive
III. Linear-water drive

In edge-water drive, as shown in the following Figure, water moves into the flanks (wings)
of the reservoir as a result of hydrocarbon production and pressure drop at the reservoir-
aquifer boundary. The flow is essentially radial with negligible flow in the vertical
direction.

Bottom-water drive occurs in reservoirs with large areal extent and gentle dip where the
reservoir-water contact completely underlies the reservoir. The flow is essentially radial
and, in contrast to the edge-water drive, the bottom-water drive has significant vertical
flow.

In linear-water drive, the influx is from one flank (wing) of the reservoir. The flow is
strictly linear with a constant cross-sectional area.
Petroleum Reservoir Engineering Lectures Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim 8
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Water Influx Models

Several models have been developed for estimating water influx that are based on assumptions
that describe the characteristics of the aquifer, all of the proposed models require historical
reservoir performance data to evaluate constants representing aquifer property parameters
since these are rarely known from exploration-development drilling with sufficient accuracy
for direct application. The material balance equation can be used to determine historical water
influx provided original oil in place is known from pore volume estimates. The mathematical
water influx models that are commonly used in the petroleum industry include:

1. Pot aquifer
2.Schilthuis’ steady-state
3. Hurst’s modified steady-state
4.The van Everdingen-Hurst unsteady-state
I. Edge-water drive
II. Bottom-water drive
III. Linear water drive
5. The Carter-Tracy unsteady-state
6.Fetkovich’s method
I. Radial aquifer
II. Linear aquifer
Petroleum Reservoir Engineering Lectures Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim 10

1. The Pot Aquifer Model

The simplest model that can be used to estimate the water influx into a gas or oil reservoir is
based on the basic definition of compressibility. A drop in the reservoir pressure, due to the
production of fluids, causes the aquifer water to expand and flow into the reservoir. The
compressibility is defined mathematically as:
ΔV = c V Δ p
Applying the above basic compressibility definition to the aquifer gives:
Water influx = (aquifer compressibility) (initial volume of water) (pressure drop)
or:
We = (cw + cf) Wi (pi − p)
Petroleum Reservoir Engineering Lectures Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim 11

Calculating the initial volume of water in the aquifer requires the knowledge of aquifer
dimension and properties. These, however, are seldom measured since wells are not
deliberately drilled into the aquifer to obtain such information. For instance, if the aquifer
shape is radial, then:

The Equation [ΔV = c V Δ p] suggests that water is encroaching in a radial form from all
directions. Quite often, water does not encroach on all sides of the reservoir, or the reservoir
is not circular in nature.
Petroleum Reservoir Engineering Lectures Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim 12

One of the simplest modifications is to include the fractional encroachment angle f in the
equation, as illustrated in the following Figure, to give:

The above model is only applicable to a small aquifer, i.e., pot aquifer, whose dimensions
are of the same order of magnitude as the reservoir itself.
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Example: Calculate the cumulative water influx that results from a pressure drop of 200
psi at the oil-water contact with an encroachment angle of 80°. The reservoir-aquifer
system is characterized by the following properties:

Solution
1.Calculate the initial volume of water in the aquifer from Equation:

2. Determine the cumulative water influx by applying Equation:

Petroleum Reservoir Engineering Lectures Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim 15

2. Schilthuis’ Steady-State Model

Schilthuis (1936) proposed that for an aquifer that is flowing under the steady-state flow regime,
the flow behavior could be described by Darcy’s equation. The rate of water influx ew can then
be determined by applying Darcy’s equation:

The parameter C is called the water influx constant and is expressed in bbl/day/psi. This water
influx constant C may be calculated from the reservoir historical production data over a number
of selected time intervals, provided that the rate of water influx ew has been determined
independently from a different expression.
Petroleum Reservoir Engineering Lectures Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim 16

In terms of the cumulative water influx We, the following Equation is integrated to give the
common Schilthuis expression for water influx as:
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When the pressure drop (pi − p) is plotted versus the time t, as shown in the following
Figure, the area under the curve represents the integral:

This area at time t can be determined numerically by using the trapezoidal rule (or any
other numerical integration method), as:

Equation can then be written as:

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Example: The data are given as follows:

Solution
1. Solve for the rate of water influx ew by using the following Equation:
ew = Qo Bo + Qg Bg + Qw Bw
ew = (1.4) (32,000) + (900 − 700) (32,000) (0.00082)+ 0= 50,048 bbl/day

2. Solve for the water influx constant from the following Equation:

C= ew/(pi-p)
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Example: The pressure history of a water-drive oil reservoir is given below:

The aquifer is under a steady-state flowing condition with an estimated water influx
constant of [c=130 bbl/day/psi]. Calculate the cumulative water influx after 100, 200, 300,
and 400 days using the steady-state model.
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3.Hurst’s Modified Steady-State Model

One of the problems associated with the Schilthuis’ steady-state model is that as the water is drained
from the aquifer, the aquifer drainage radius (ra) will increase as the time increases. Hurst (1943)
proposed that the “apparent” aquifer radius (ra) would increase with time and, therefore the
dimensionless radius (ra/re) may be replaced with a time dependent function, as [(ra/re)=at] :

The Hurst modified steady-state equation can be written in a more simplified form as:
Petroleum Reservoir Engineering Lectures Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim 23

The Hurst modified steady-state equation contains two unknown constants, [a and C], that
must be determined from the reservoir-aquifer pressure and water influx historical data.
The procedure of determining the constants [a and C] is based on the following
expressing Equation as a linear relationship.

The above Equation indicates that a plot of (pi − p)/ew versus ln(t) will be a straight line
with a slope of 1/C and intercept of (1/C)ln(a), as shown schematically in the following
Figure.
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Class work: Assuming that the boundary pressure would drop to 3,379 psi after 1,186.25
days of production, calculate cumulative water influx at that time, when we=2388Mbbl at
t=1095 days. The rate of water influx was also calculated numerically at each time period
as shown in the following Table:
Petroleum Reservoir Engineering Lectures Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim 26

Solution
1.Construct the following table:

2. Plot the term (pi − p)/ew versus ln(t) and draw the best straight line through the points as
shown in the following Figure, and determine the slope of the line to give:
slope = 0.020
3. Determine the coefficient C of the Hurst equation from the slope to give:
C = 1/0.02 = 50
4. Using any point on the straight line, solve for the parameter a by applying the following
Equation or from graph to give:

a=0.064 (Can be determined from equation and graph)

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5. The Hurst equation is represented by:

6. Calculate the cumulative water influx after 1,186.25 days from:

Note: from given data We=2388*10^3 at time 1095 days

Petroleum Reservoir Engineering Lectures Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim 29

4. The van Everdingen-Hurst Unsteady-State Model

The mathematical formulations that describe the flow of a crude oil system into a
wellbore are identical in form to those equations that describe the flow of water
from an aquifer into a cylindrical reservoir, as shown schematically in the following
Figure. When an oil well is brought on production at a constant flow rate after a
shut-in period, the pressure behavior is essentially controlled by the transient
(unsteady-state) flowing condition. This flowing condition is defined as the time
period during which the boundary has no effect on the pressure behavior.
Petroleum Reservoir Engineering Lectures Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim 30

The dimensionless form of the diffusivity equation, is basically the general mathematical
equation that is designed to model the transient flow behavior in reservoirs or aquifers.
In a dimensionless form, the diffusivity equation takes the form:

Van Everdingen and Hurst (1949) proposed solutions to the dimensionless diffusivity
equation for the following two reservoir-aquifer boundary conditions:
I. Constant terminal rate
II. Constant terminal pressure
For the constant-terminal-rate boundary condition, the rate of water influx is assumed
constant for a given period; and the pressure drop at the reservoir-aquifer boundary is
calculated.

For the constant-terminal-pressure boundary condition, a boundary pressure drop is

assumed constant over some finite time period, and the water influx rate is determined.
Petroleum Reservoir Engineering Lectures Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim 31

In the description of water influx from an aquifer into a reservoir, there is greater
interest in calculating the influx rate rather than the pressure. This leads to the
determination of the water influx as a function of a given pressure drop at the inner
boundary of the reservoir-aquifer system.

Van Everdingen and Hurst solved the diffusivity equation for the aquifer-reservoir
system by applying the Laplace transformation to the equation. The authors’ solution
can be used to determine the water influx in the following systems:

I. Edge-water-drive system (radial system)

II. Bottom-water-drive system
III. Linear-water-drive system
Petroleum Reservoir Engineering Lectures Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim 32

I. Edge-Water Drive
The following Figure shows an idealized radial flow system that represents an edge-water-
drive reservoir. The inner boundary is defined as the interface between the reservoir and the
aquifer. The flow across this inner boundary is considered horizontal and encroachment
occurs across a cylindrical plane encircling the reservoir. With the interface as the inner
boundary, it is possible to impose a constant terminal pressure at the inner boundary and
determine the rate of water influx across the interface.

Van Everdingen and Hurst proposed a solution to the dimensionless diffusivity equation that
utilizes the constant terminal pressure condition in addition to the following initial and outer
boundary conditions:
Initial conditions: p = pi for all values of radius r
Outer boundary conditions:
I. For an infinite aquifer: p = pi at r = ∞
II. For a bounded aquifer:
Petroleum Reservoir Engineering Lectures Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim 33

Van Everdingen and Hurst assumed that the aquifer is characterized by:
a. Uniform thickness
b. Constant permeability
c. Uniform porosity
d. Constant rock compressibility
e. Constant water compressibility

The authors expressed their mathematical relationship for calculating the water influx in
a form of a dimensionless parameter that is called dimensionless water influx (WeD).
They also expressed the dimensionless water influx as a function of the dimensionless
time (tD) and dimensionless radius (rD), thus they made the solution to the diffusivity
equation generalized and applicable to any aquifer where the flow of water into the
reservoir is essentially radial.

The solutions were derived for cases of bounded aquifers and aquifers of infinite extent.
The authors presented their solution in tabulated and graphical forms as reproduced
in the following Figures and Tables.
Petroleum Reservoir Engineering Lectures Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim 34

The two dimensionless parameters tD and rD are given by:

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The water influx is then given by:

Equation [We = B Δp WeD ] assumes that the water is encroaching in a radial form.
Quite often, water does not encroach on all sides of the reservoir, or the reservoir is
not circular in nature.
In these cases, some modifications must be made to introduce the encroachment angle
to the water influx constant B as:
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Class work: Calculate water influx at the end of 1, 2, and 5 years into a circular
reservoir with an aquifer of infinite extent. The initial and current reservoir pressures
are 2,500 and 2,490 psi, respectively. The reservoir-aquifer system has the following
properties.

Solution
1. Calculate the total compressibility coefficient ct.

2. Determine the water influx constant.

Petroleum Reservoir Engineering Lectures Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim 46

3. Calculate the corresponding dimensionless time after 1, 2, and 5 years.

4. Using Table, determine the dimensionless water influx WeD

5. Calculate the cumulative water influx.

Petroleum Reservoir Engineering Lectures Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim 47

Results show that, for a given pressure drop, doubling the time interval will not double the
water influx. The tables of results also illustrate how to calculate water influx as a result of
a single pressure drop. As there will usually be many of these pressure drops occurring
throughout the prediction period, it is necessary to analyze the procedure to be used where
these multiple pressure drops are present.

The following Figure illustrates the decline in the boundary pressure as a function of time
for a radial reservoir-aquifer system. If the boundary pressure in the reservoir is suddenly
reduced at time t, from pi to p1, a pressure drop of (pi − p1) will be imposed across the
aquifer. Water will continue to expand and the new reduced pressure will continue to move
outward into the aquifer. Given a sufficient length of time the pressure at the outer edge of
the aquifer will finally be reduced to p1.

If some time after the boundary pressure has been reduced to p1, a second pressure p2 is
suddenly imposed at the boundary, and a new pressure wave will begin moving outward
into the aquifer. This new pressure wave will also cause water expansion and therefore
encroachment into the reservoir. This new pressure drop, however, will not be pi − p2, but
will be p1 − p2. This second pressure wave will be moving behind the first pressure wave.
Just ahead of the second pressure wave will be the pressure at the end of the first pressure
drop, p1.
Petroleum Reservoir Engineering Lectures Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim 48

Since these pressure waves are assumed to occur at different times, they are entirely
independent of each other. Thus, water expansion will continue to take place as a result
of the first pressure drop, even though additional water influx is also taking place as a
result of one or more later pressure drops. This is essentially an application of the
principle of superposition.
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The van Everdingen-Hurst computational steps for determining the water influx are
summarized below in conjunction with the following Figure:
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Step 1. Assume that the boundary pressure has declined from its initial value of [pi to p1]
after [t1] days. To determine the cumulative water influx in response to this first pressure
drop, [Δp1 = pi − p1] can be simply calculated from the following Equation:

We = B Δp1 (WeD)t1

Where: We is the cumulative water influx due to the first pressure drop [Δp1]. The dimensionless water
influx [(WeD)t1] is evaluated by calculating the dimensionless time at [t1] days. This simple
calculation step is shown in section A of above Figure.

Step 2. Let the boundary pressure decline again to [p2] after [t2] days with a pressure drop
of [Δp2 = p1 −p2]. The cumulative (total) water influx after [t2] days will result from the
first pressure drop Δp1 and the second pressure drop [Δp2], or:

We = water influx due to Δp1 + water influx due to Δp2

We = (We)Δp1 + (We)Δp2
Where: (We)Δp1 = B Δp1 (WeD)t2, and (We)Δp2 = B Δp2 (WeD)(t2 − t1)

The above relationships indicate that the effect of the first pressure drop [Δp1] will
continue for the entire time [t2], while the effect of the second pressure drop will
continue only for [(t2 − t1)] days as shown in section B of above Figure.
Petroleum Reservoir Engineering Lectures Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim 52

Step 3. A third pressure drop of [Δp3 = p2 − p3] would cause an additional water influx
as illustrated in section C of above Figure. The cumulative (total) water influx can
then be calculated from:

We = (We)Δp1 + (We)Δp2 + (We)Δp3

Where: (We)Δp1 = B Δp1 (WeD)t3, (We)Δp2 = B Δp2 (WeD)(t3 − t1) , (We)Δp3 = B Δp3 (WeD)(t3 − t2)
The van Everdingen-Hurst water influx relationship can then be expressed in a more
generalized form as:

We = B Σ Δp WeD

The authors also suggested that instead of using the entire pressure drop for the first
period, a better approximation is to consider that one-half of the pressure drop,
1⁄2 (pi − p1), is effective during the entire first period. For the second period, the
effective pressure drop then is one-half of the pressure drop during the first period,
1⁄2 (pi − p2), which simplifies to:

1⁄2 (pi − p1) + 1⁄2 (p1 − p2) = 1⁄2 (pi − p2)

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Class work: Using the following given data to calculate the cumulative water influx at the
end of 6, 12, 18, and 24 months. The predicted boundary pressure at the end of each
specified time period is given below:
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Solution
a. Water influx at the end of 6 months
1. Determine water influx constant B:

B = 22.4 bbl/psi
2. Calculate the dimensionless time tD at 182.5 days.

tD = 0.9888t= 0.9888 (182.5) = 180.5

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3. Calculate the first pressure drop Δp1. This pressure is taken as 1⁄2 of the actual pressure
drop, or:

4. Determine the dimensionless water influx WeD from Table:

tD = 180.5 to give: WeD = 69.67

5. Calculate the cumulative water influx at the end of 182.5 days due to the first pressure
drop of 5 psi by using the van Everdingen- Hurst equation, or:

We = B Δp1 (WeD)t1
We = (22.4) (5) (69.67) = 7803 bbl
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b. Cumulative water influx after 12 months:

1. After an additional six months, the pressure has declined from 2,490 psi to 2,472 psi.
This second pressure Δp2 is taken as one-half the actual pressure drop during the first
period, plus one-half the actual pressure drop during the second period, or:

2. The cumulative (total) water influx at the end of 12 months would result from the first
pressure drop Δp1 and the second pressure drop Δp2. The first pressure drop Δp1 has
been effective for one year, but the second pressure drop, Δp2, has been effective only 6
months, as shown in the following Figure. Separate calculations must be made for the
two pressure drops because of this time difference and the results added in order to
determine the total water influx, i.e.:

We = (We)Δp1 + (We)Δp2
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3. Calculate the dimensionless time at 365 days as:

tD = 0.9888t = 0.9888 (365) = 361
4. Determine the dimensionless water influx at tD = 361 from Table to give:
WeD = 123.7
5. Calculate the water influx due to the first and second pressure drop [ (We)Δp1 and
(We)Δp2], or:
(We)Δp1 = (22.4)(5)(123.7) =13854 bbl
(We) Δp2= (22.4)(14)(69.7)= 21858 bbl

(We)Δp1+ (We) Δp2= 13854+ 21858=35712bbl

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c. Water influx after 18 months

1. Calculate the third pressure drop Δp3, which is taken as 1⁄2 of the actual pressure drop
during the second period plus 1⁄2 of the actual pressure drop during the third period,
or:
Pi

2. Calculate the dimensionless time after 6 months.

tD = 0.9888 t= 0.9888 (547.5) = 541.5

3. Determine the dimensionless water influx at:

tD = 541.5 from Table to give:
WeD = 173.9
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4. The first pressure drop will have been effective the entire 18 months, the second pressure
drop will have been effective for 12 months, and the last pressure drop will have been
effective only 6 months. Therefore, the cumulative water influx is calculated below:
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d. Water influx after two years

The first pressure drop has now been effective for the entire two years, the second pressure
drop has been effective for 18 months, the third pressure drop has been effective for 12
months, and the fourth pressure drop has been effective only 6 months. Summary of the
calculations is given below:
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Edwardson and coworkers (1962) developed three sets of simple polynomial expressions for
calculating the dimensionless water influx WeD for infinite-acting aquifers. The proposed
three expressions essentially approximate the WeD values in three different dimensionless
time regions.
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II. Bottom-Water Drive

The van Everdingen-Hurst solution to the radial diffusivity equation is considered the most
rigorous aquifer influx model to date. The proposed solution technique is not describe the
vertical water encroachment in a bottom-water-drive system. Coats (1962) presented a
mathematical model that takes into account the vertical flow effects from bottom-water
aquifers. He correctly noted that in many cases reservoirs are situated on top of an
aquifer with a continuous horizontal interface between the reservoir fluid and the aquifer
water and with a significant aquifer thickness. He stated that in such situations
significant bottom-water drive would occur. Coats modified the diffusivity equation to
account for the vertical flow by including an additional term in the equation, to give:

Where: Fk is the ratio of vertical to horizontal permeability, or:

Fk = kv/kh
where kv = vertical permeability, kh = horizontal permeability
Petroleum Reservoir Engineering Lectures Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim 63

Allard and Chen (1988) pointed out that there are an infinite number of solutions to the
following Equation:

representing all possible reservoir-aquifer configurations. They suggested that it is possible

to derive a general solution that is applicable to a variety of systems by the solution to
above Equation in terms of the dimensionless time tD, dimensionless radius rD, and a
newly introduced dimensionless variable zD.

Allen and Chen used a numerical model to solve the above Equation. The authors
developed a solution to the bottom-water influx that is comparable in form with that of
van Everdingen and Hurst.
We = B Δp WeD
They defined the water influx constant B identical to that of the following Equation:
Petroleum Reservoir Engineering Lectures Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim 64

The actual values of WeD are different from those of the van Everdingen- Hurst model
because WeD for the bottom-water drive is also a function of the vertical permeability.
Allard and Chen tabulated the values of WeD as a function of rD, tD, and zD. The sample
of these values are presented in the following Tables:
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Class work: An infinite-acting bottom-water aquifer is characterized by the following

properties, Calculate the cumulative water influx as a function of time by using the
bottom-water-drive solution and compare with the edge-water-drive approach.
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Solution
1. For an infinite-acting aquifer:
rD = ∞
2. Calculate zD from the following Equation:

3. Calculate the water influx constant B.

4. Calculate the dimensionless time tD.

Petroleum Reservoir Engineering Lectures Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim 73

Δp=(pi-p)/2
From table From table
 Petroleum Reservoir Engineering Lectures Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim 74

III. Linear-Water Drive.

As shown by van Everdingen and Hurst, the water influx from a linear aquifer is
proportional to the square root of time. The van Everdingen and Hurst dimensionless water
influx is replaced by the square root of time, as given by:
Petroleum Reservoir Engineering Lectures Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim 75

5. The Carter-Tracy Water Influx Model

Van Everdingen-Hurst methodology provides the exact solution to the radial diffusivity
equation and therefore is considered the correct technique for calculating water influx.
To reduce the complexity of water influx calculations, Carter and Tracy (1960) proposed
a calculation technique that does not require superposition and allows direct calculation
of water influx.
The primary difference between the Carter-Tracy technique and the van Everdingen-Hurst
technique is that the Carter-Tracy technique assumes constant water influx rates over
each finite time interval. Using the Carter-Tracy technique, the cumulative water influx
at any time, tn, can be calculated directly from the previous value obtained at tn − 1, or:
Petroleum Reservoir Engineering Lectures Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim 76

Values of the dimensionless pressure pD as a function of tD and rD are tabulated in the following
table:
Petroleum Reservoir Engineering Lectures Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim 77

In addition to the curve-fit equations given by the following mathematical expressions can
be used to approximate these tabulated values of pD:
 Petroleum Reservoir Engineering Lectures Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim 78

Edwardson and coauthors (1962) developed the following approximation of pD for an infinite-
acting aquifer.
Petroleum Reservoir Engineering Lectures Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim 79

It should be noted that the Carter-Tracy method is not an exact solution to the diffusivity
equation and should be considered an approximation.
 Petroleum Reservoir Engineering Lectures Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim 80

Class work: Using the Carter-Tracy method to determine the water influx when the following
data are available:

The predicted boundary pressure at the end of each specified time period is given below:
Petroleum Reservoir Engineering Lectures Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim 81

Solution:
1. Calculate water influx constant:
B = 22.4 bbl/psi

2. Calculate the dimensionless time:

tD = 0.9888 t

3. For each time step n, calculate the total pressure drop Δpn = pi − pn and the
corresponding tD

Since tD values more than 100 we used :

Petroleum Reservoir Engineering Lectures Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim 82
Petroleum Reservoir Engineering Lectures Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim 83

The following table compares results of the Carter-Tracy water influx calculations with
those of the van Everdingen-Hurst method.
Petroleum Reservoir Engineering Lectures Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim 84

6. Fetkovich’s Method
Fetkovich (1971) developed a method of describing the approximate water influx
behavior of a finite aquifer for radial and linear geometries. In many cases, the results
of this model closely match those determined using the van Everdingen-Hurst
approach. The Fetkovich theory is much simpler, and, like the Carter-Tracy technique,
this method does not require the use of superposition.
Fetkovich’s model based on the productivity index concept described water influx from a
finite aquifer into a hydrocarbon reservoir. In this model the water influx rate is
directly proportional to the pressure drop between the average aquifer pressure and
the pressure at the reservoir-aquifer boundary. The method neglects the effects of any
transient period.
This approach begins with two simple equations. The first is the productivity index (J)
equation for the aquifer, which is analogous to the (J) equation used to describe an oil
or gas well:
Petroleum Reservoir Engineering Lectures Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim 85

The second equation is an aquifer material balance equation for a constant compressibility,
which states that the amount of pressure depletion in the aquifer is directly proportional
to the amount of water influx from the aquifer, or:

From above Equation, the maximum possible water influx occurs when pa = 0, or:
Wei = ctWi pi f
Combining the above Equation with gives:

Differentiating Equation [Wei = ctWi pi f] with respect to time gives:

Petroleum Reservoir Engineering Lectures Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim 86

Fetkovich combined Equation &

and integrated to give the following form:

Fetkovich suggested that, if the reservoir-aquifer boundary pressure history is divided into a
finite number of time intervals, the incremental water influx during the (n) interval is:
Petroleum Reservoir Engineering Lectures Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim 87

The productivity index [J] used in the calculation is a function of the geometry of the
aquifer. Fetkovich calculated the productivity index from Darcy’s equation for bounded
aquifers. Lee and Wattenbarger (1996) pointed out that Fetkovich’s method can be
extended to infinite acting aquifers by requiring that the ratio of water influx rate to
pressure drop be approximately constant throughout the productive life of the reservoir.
The productivity index [J] of the aquifer is given by the following expressions.
Petroleum Reservoir Engineering Lectures Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim 88
Petroleum Reservoir Engineering Lectures Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim 89
Petroleum Reservoir Engineering Lectures Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim 90

Example: Using Fetkovich’s method, calculate the water influx as a function of time for
the following reservoir-aquifer and boundary pressure data:

The following Figure shows the wedge reservoir-aquifer system with an encroachment
angle of 140°.
Petroleum Reservoir Engineering Lectures Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim 91
Petroleum Reservoir Engineering Lectures Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim 92

(0.4229)
Petroleum Reservoir Engineering Lectures Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim 93
Petroleum Reservoir Engineering Lectures Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim 94

Water-Drive Reservoirs in the MBE

In a water-drive reservoir, identifying the type of the aquifer and characterizing its
properties are perhaps the most challenging tasks involved in conducting a reservoir
engineering study. Yet, without an accurate description of the aquifer, future reservoir
performance and management cannot be properly evaluated. The full MBE can be
expressed.

Several water influx models have been described previously , including the:

1. Pot-aquifer model

2. Schilthuis steady-state method

3. Van Everdingen-Hurst model

 Petroleum Reservoir Engineering Lectures Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim 95

1.The Pot-Aquifer Model in the MBE

Assume that the water influx could be properly described using the simple pot-aquifer model
given by the following Equation :
Petroleum Reservoir Engineering Lectures Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim 96

Since the aquifer properties cw, cf, h, ra, and θ are seldom available, it is convenient to
combine these properties and treat as one unknown K. The above water influx Equation
can be rewritten as:

Since

Then by substitute We in the above

equation:

This Equation indicates that a plot of the term (F/Eo) as a function of (Δp/Eo) would yield
a straight line with an intercept of N and slope of K, as illustrated in the above Figure.
Petroleum Reservoir Engineering Lectures Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim 97

2. The Steady-State Model in the MBE

The steady-state aquifer model as proposed by Schilthuis (1936) is given by:

Since

Then by substitute We in the above equation:

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3. The Unsteady-State Model in the MBE

The van Everdingen-Hurst unsteady-state model is given by:

Van Everdingen and Hurst presented the dimensionless water influx WeD as a function of
the dimensionless time tD and dimensionless radius rD that are given by:
Petroleum Reservoir Engineering Lectures Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim 100

Since

Then by substitute We in the above equation:

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Petroleum Reservoir Engineering Lectures Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim 102
Petroleum Reservoir Engineering Lectures Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim 103

Example: The material balance parameters, the underground withdrawal F, and oil
expansion Eo of a saturated-oil reservoir ( m = o) are given below, Assuming that the rock
and water compressibilities are negligible, calculate the initial oil-in-place.

Solution
Method 1. The most important step in applying the MBE is to verify that no water influx
exists. Assuming that the reservoir is volumetric, calculate the initial oil-in-place N by using
every individual production data point in the following Equation:
Petroleum Reservoir Engineering Lectures Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim 104

The above calculations show the calculated values of the initial oil-in-place are increasing
(as shown graphically in the following Figure), which indicates a water encroachment, i.e.,
water-drive reservoir.
Petroleum Reservoir Engineering Lectures Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim 105

Method 2: For simplicity, select the pot-aquifer model to represent the water encroachment
calculations in the MBE as given by the following Equation:
Petroleum Reservoir Engineering Lectures Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim 106
Petroleum Reservoir Engineering Lectures Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim 107

Tutorial

Estimate the fraction recovery from a sandstone reservoir by water drive if the permeability
is 1500 md, the connate water is 20%, the reservoir oil viscosity is 1.5 cp, the porosity is
25%, and the average formation thickness is 50 ft.
Petroleum Reservoir Engineering Lectures Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim 108
Petroleum Reservoir Engineering Lectures Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim 109

Tutorial

The following PVT data are available for a reservoir, which from volumetric reserve
estimation is considered to have 275 MM STB of oil initially in place. The original
pressure was 3600 psia. The current pressure is 3400 psia, and 732,800 STB have been
produced. How much oil will have been produced by the time the reservoir pressure is
2700 psia? Rf at 2700psi
Petroleum Reservoir Engineering Lectures Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim 110
 Petroleum Reservoir Engineering Lectures Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim 111

Tutorial

From the core data that follow, calculate the initial volume of oil and free gas in place by the
volumetric method . Then, using the material balance equation, calculate the cubic feet of
water that have encroached into the reservoir at the end of the third period for which
production data are given.

Ф= 16.8%, Swi= 27% Productive oil zone volume = 346,000 ac-ft,

Productive gas zone volume = 73,700 ac-ft, Bw = 1.025 bbl/STB. T=207°F, Pi =3480 psia.
Petroleum Reservoir Engineering Lectures Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim 112
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 Petroleum Reservoir Engineering Lectures Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim 115

Quiz
From the core data that follow, calculate[ N, m, Vo in , and Vg in ] by the volumetric
method . Then, using the material balance equation, calculate the cubic feet of water that have
encroached into the reservoir at the end of the first period for which production data are given.

Ф= 16.8%, Swi= 27% Productive oil zone volume = 346,000 ac-ft,

Productive gas zone volume = 73,700 ac-ft, Bw = 1.025 bbl/STB. T=207°F, Pi =3480 psia.
Petroleum Reservoir Engineering Lectures Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim 116

Solution
Petroleum Reservoir Engineering Lectures Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim 117

Tutorial

Class work: An oil reservoir is located between two intersecting faults (Ɵ=60˚).The
reservoir is bounded by an aquifer estimated by geologists to have an area of 26,400 ac
and the oil reservoir area is 1350 ac. Other aquifer data are the following:
Ф=0.21, k = 275 md, h= 30 ft, Ct = 7*10^-6 psi-1, μw=0.92cp
The average reservoir pressure, measured at three-month intervals is as follow:

Use both the van Everdingen and Hurst and the Fetkovich methods to calculate the
influx that occurred during each of the three month intervals. Assume that the average
reservoir pressure history approximates the oil reservoir aquifer boundary pressure
history. [assume WeD=1.351.tD]
Petroleum Reservoir Engineering Lectures Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim 118
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Petroleum Reservoir Engineering Lectures Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim 122

Tutorial

Class Work: The pressure decline in a reservoir from the initial pressure down to a
certain pressure, p, was approximately linear at [ -0.5 psi/day]. Assuming the Schilthuis
steady-state water influx model and a water influx constant of [k] in ft3/day/psia,
determine an expression for the water influx as a function of time in bbl.
Petroleum Reservoir Engineering Lectures Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim 123
Petroleum Reservoir Engineering Lectures Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim 124

Tutorial

Class work: Assuming the Schilthuis steady-state water influx model, use the pressure
drop history which given in the following table, and a water influx constant, k, of 2170
ft3/day/psi, to find the water influx.

Time, ΔP, psi

months
12 130
20 170
30 190
Petroleum Reservoir Engineering Lectures Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim 125