Chapter 2:

Available
Solar Radiation

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2.16 RADIATION ON SLOPED SURFACES: ANISOTROPIC SKY
The HDKR model accounts for all the diffused parts. The results are closer to
measured values.

where Ai (=Ib/Io) is an anisotropy index and is given by:

The underlined portion is a correction factor to the diffuse to account for

horizon brightening.
Go through Example 2.16.1. Result is 9% higher.

The Perez et al (1990) model is based on a more detailed analysis of the three
diffuse components (See pp. 99). 2
2.16 RADIATION ON SLOPED SURFACES: ANISOTROPIC SKY
The next question is which of these models for total radiation on the tilted
surface should be used.

The isotropic model is the simplest, gives the most conservative estimates of
radiation on the tilted surface, and has been widely used.

The HDKR model is almost as simple to use as the isotropic and produces
results that are closer to measured values.
For surfaces sloped toward the equator, the HDKR model is suggested.

The Perez model is more complex to use and generally predicts slightly
higher total radiation on the tilted surface; it is thus the least conservative of
the three methods.

It agrees the best by a small margin with measurements.

For surfaces with γ far from 0° in the northern hemisphere or 180° in the
southern hemisphere, the Perez model is suggested.

(In examples to be shown in later chapters, the isotropic and HDKR methods
3
will be used, as they are more amenable to hand calculation.)
 2.17 RADIATION AUGMENTATION

Reading

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2.18 BEAM RADIATION ON MOVING SURFACES

Reading

5
2.19 AVERAGE RADIATION ON SLOPED SURFACES:
ISOTROPIC SKY

In Section 2.15, the calculation of total radiation on sloped surfaces from

measurements on a horizontal surface was discussed.

For use in solar process design procedures, we also need the monthly average
daily radiation on the tilted surface.
—
The procedure for calculating HT is parallel to that for IT, that is, by
summing the contributions of the beam radiation, the components of the
diffuse radiation, and the radiation reflected from the ground.
—
The state of development of these calculation methods for HT is not as
satisfactory as that for IT.

The first method is that of Liu and Jordan (1962) as extended by Klein
(1977), which has been widely used.

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2.19 AVERAGE RADIATION ON SLOPED SURFACES:
ISOTROPIC SKY
If the diffuse and ground-reflected radiation are each assumed to be isotropic,
then, in a manner analogous to Equation 2.15.1, the monthly mean solar
radiation on an unshaded tilted surface can be expressed as

and

— — —
where Hd / H is a function of KT , as shown in Figure 2.12.2.

The ratio of the average daily beam radiation

—
on the tilted surface
—
to that on a
—
horizontal surface for the month is Rb , which is equal to HbT /Hb .

It is a function of transmittance of the atmosphere, but Liu and Jordan

suggest that it can be estimated by assuming that it has the value which
would be obtained if there were no atmosphere.
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2.19 AVERAGE RADIATION ON SLOPED SURFACES:
ISOTROPIC SKY
For surfaces that are sloped toward the equator in the northern hemisphere,
that is, for surfaces with γ = 0°,

where ωs’ is the sunset hour angle for the tilted surface for the mean day of
the month, which is given by

where “min” means the smaller of the two items in the brackets.

For surfaces in the southern hemisphere sloped toward the equator, with γ =
180°, the equations are

and
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2.19 AVERAGE RADIATION ON SLOPED SURFACES:
ISOTROPIC SKY
The numerator of Equation 2.19.3a or 2.19.4a is the extraterrestrial radiation
on the tilted surface, and the denominator is that on the horizontal surface.

Each of these is obtained by integration of Equation 1.6.2 over the

appropriate time period, from true sunrise to sunset for the horizontal surface
and from apparent sunrise to apparent sunset on the tilted surface.
—
For convenience, plots of Rb as a function of latitude for various slopes for γ
= 0° (or 180° in the southern hemisphere) are shown in Figure 2.19.1.
—
These values of Rb can be used for surface azimuth angles of 0° (or 180°) ±
15° with little error.

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2.19 AVERAGE RADIATION ON SLOPED SURFACES:
ISOTROPIC SKY
—
For convenience, plots of Rb as a function of latitude for various slopes for γ = 0°
(or 180° in the southern hemisphere) are shown in Figure 2.19.1.

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 Example 2.19.1
A collector is to be installed in Madison, latitude 43°, at a slope of 60° to the
south. Average daily radiation data are shown in Appendix D. The ground
reflectance is 0.2 for all months except December and March (ρg = 0.4) and
January and February (ρg = 0.7). Using the isotropic diffuse assumption,
estimate the monthly average radiation incident on the collector.
Solution
The calculation is detailed below for January, and the results for the year are
indicated in a table. The basic equation to be used is Equation 2.19.2.

— — — — —
The first steps— are to obtain Hd / H and Rb . The ratio Hd / H is a
function of KT and can be obtained from Equation 2.12.1 or Figure 2.12.2.

For the mean January day, the 17th, from Table 1.6.1, n = 17, δ = -20.9°.
The sunset hour angle is calculated from Equation 1.6.10 and is ωs = 69.1°.

With n = 17— and ωs = 69.1°, from Equation

—
1.10.3 (or Figure 1.10.1 or Table
11
1.10.1), Ho = 13.36 MJ / m2. Then KT = 6.44/13.36 = 0.48.
 Example 2.19.1
Solution — —
The
—
Erbs correlation—(Equation
—
2.12.la) is used to calculate Hd / H from
KT and ωs gives Hd / H = 0.41.
—
The calculation of Rb requires the sunset hour angle on the sloped collector.
To determine ωs’ , we use Equations 2.19.3b

The angle ωs was calculated as 69.1° and is less than 96.7°, so ωs’ = 69.1°.
Then

—
The equation for HT (Equation 2.19.2) can now be solved:

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 Example 2.19.1
Solution
The results for the 12 months are shown in the table below. Energy
quantities are in megajoules per square meter. The effects of sloping the
receiving plane 60° to the south on the average radiation (and thus on the
total radiation
—
through the winter season) are large indeed.
The HT values are shown to a tenth of a megajoule per square meter. The
last place is uncertain
—
due
—
to the— combined uncertainties in the data and the
correlations for Hd / H and R . It is difficult to put limits of accuracy on
them; they are probably no better than ± 10%.

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 2.20 AVERAGE RADIATION ON SLOPED
SURFACES: KT METHOD

This method is a bit more cumbersome to use but shows improved results over
the isotropic method.

Not covered

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 2.21 EFFECTS OF RECEIVING SURFACE
—
ORIENTATION ON HT

The methods outlined in the previous sections for estimating average

radiation on surfaces of various orientations can be used to show the effects
of slope and azimuth angle on total energy received on a surface on a
monthly, seasonal, or annual basis.

To illustrate the effects of the receiving surface slope on monthly average—

daily radiation, the methods of Section 2.19 have been used to estimate HT
for surfaces of several slopes for values of φ = 45°, γ = 0°, and ground
reflectance 0.2.
— — —
Here, HT is a function
—
of Hd / H , which in turn is a function of the average
clearness index KT .
—
The illustration is for KT = 0.50, constant through the year, a value typical
of many temperate climates.
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 2.21 EFFECTS OF RECEIVING SURFACE
—
ORIENTATION ON HT
— —
Figure 2.21.1 shows the variations of HT (and H when β = 0) through the
year and shows the marked differences in energy received by surfaces of
various slopes in summer and winter.

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 2.21 EFFECTS OF RECEIVING SURFACE
—
ORIENTATION ON HT
Figure 2.21.2(a) shows the total annual energy received as a function of slope
and indicates a maximum at approximately β = φ.

The maximum is a broad one, and the changes in total annual energy are less
than 5% for slopes of 20° more or less than the optimum.

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 2.21 EFFECTS OF RECEIVING SURFACE
—
ORIENTATION ON HT
From studies of this kind, general “rules of thumb” can be stated.

For maximum annual energy availability, a surface slope equal to the latitude
is best (β = φ).

For maximum summer energy availability, slope should be approximately

10° to 15° less than the latitude (φ – 15° ≤ β ≤ φ – 10°).

For maximum winter energy availability, slope should be approximately 10°

to 15° more than the latitude (φ + 10° ≤ β ≤ φ + 15°).

The slopes are not critical; deviations of 15° result in reduction of the order
of 5% from the total annual energy.

The best surface azimuth angles for maximum incident radiation are:
0° in the northern hemisphere, 180° in the southern hemisphere, that is, the
surfaces should face the equator. Deviations in azimuth angles of 10° or 20°
have small effect on total annual energy availability. 18
 2.22 UTILIZABILITY
The energy balance says, in essence, that the useful gain at any time is the
difference between the solar energy absorbed and the thermal losses from the
collector.

Thermal losses depend on (1) difference in temperature between collector

plate and ambient temperature and (2) on a heat loss coefficient.

Given a loss coefficient, a collector temperature, and an ambient temperature

(i.e., a loss per unit area), there is a value of incident radiation that is just
enough so that the absorbed radiation equals the losses.

This value of incident radiation is the critical radiation level, ITc for that
collector operating under those conditions.

If the incident radiation on the tilted surface of the collector, IT, is equal to ITc,
all of the absorbed energy will be lost and there will be no useful gain.

If the incident radiation exceeds ITc, there will be useful gain and the collector
should be operated. 19
 2.22 UTILIZABILITY
If IT < ITc no useful gain is possible and the collector should not be operated.

The utilizable energy for any hour is thus (IT — ITc)+, where the superscript +
indicates that the utilizable energy can be zero or positive but not negative.

The fraction of an hour’s total energy that is above the critical level is the
utilizability for that particular hour:

where φh can have values from zero to unity.

The hour’s utilizability is the ratio of the shaded area (IT — ITc) to the total
area (IT), under the radiation curve for the hour as shown in Figure 2.22.1.

(Utilizability could be defined on the basis of rates, i.e., using GT and GTc, but
as a practical matter, radiation data are available on an hourly basis and that
is the basis in use.)
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 2.22 UTILIZABILITY

The utilizability for a single hour is not useful.

However, utilizability for a particular hour for a month—of N days (e.g., 10 to

11 in January) in which the hour’s average radiation IT is useful.

It can be found from

—
The month’s average utilizable energy for the hour is the product
—
N IT φ.
A dimensionless critical radiation is defined as: Xc = ITc /IT
The calculation can be done for individual hours (10 to 11, 11 to 12, etc.) for
the month and the result summed to get the month’s utilizable energy.
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2.22 UTILIZABILITY

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 Example 2.22.1
Calculate the utilizable energy on a south-facing vertical solar collector in Blue
Hill, Massachusetts, for the month of January when the critical radiation level
on the collector is 1.07 MJ/m2. The averages of January solar radiation on a
vertical surface are 1.52, 1.15 and 0.68 MJ/m2 for the hour-pairs 0.5, 1.5 and 2.5
h from solar noon.
Solution
For the hour-pair 11 to 12 and— 12 to 1, the dimensionless critical radiation
ratio Xc is given as: Xc = ITc /IT = 1.07/1.52 = 0.7

and the utilizability, from Figure 2.22.3, is 0.54. The utilizable energy on the
collector during this hour—is
IT φ =1.52(0.54) = 0.82 MJ/m2
—
For the hour-pair 10 to 11 and 1 to 2, Xc = 0.93, φ = 0.43, and I—
T φ = 0.49.
For the hour-pair 9 to 10 and 2 to 3, Xc = 1.57, φ = 0.15, and IT φ = 0.10.
The average utilizable energy for the month of January is then

N  IT   31x2(0.82+0.49+0.1) = 87.5 MJ/m2

hours 23
2.23 GENERALIZED UTILIZABILITY

READING

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2.24 DAILY UTILIZABILITY

READING

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 2.25 SUMMARY
In this chapter we have described the instruments (pyrheliometers and
pyranometers) used to measure solar radiation.

Radiation data are available in several forms, with the most widely available
being pyranometer measurements of total (beam-plus-diffuse) radiation on
horizontal surfaces.

These data are available on an hourly basis from a limited number of stations
and on a daily basis for many stations.

Solar radiation information is needed in several different forms, depending

on the kinds of calculations that are to be done.

These calculations fall into two major categories.

First (and most detailed), we may wish to calculate on an hour-by-hour basis

the long-time performance of a solar process system; for this we want hourly
information of solar radiation and other meteorological measurements.
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 2.25 SUMMARY
Second, monthly average solar radiation is useful in estimating long-term
performance of some kinds of solar processes.

It is not possible to predict what solar radiation will be in the future, and
recourse is made to use of past data to predict what solar processes will do.

We have presented methods (and commented on their limitations) for the

estimation of solar radiation information in the desired format from the data
that are available.

This includes estimation of beam and diffuse radiation from total radiation,
time distribution of radiation in a day, and radiation on surfaces other than
horizontal.

We introduced the concept of utilizability, a solar radiation statistic based on

levels of radiation available above critical levels.

Determination of critical radiation levels for collectors will be treated in

Chapters 6 and 7, and the utilizability concepts will be the basis for most of
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Part III, on design of solar energy processes.