MACHINE DESIGN 2

Engr. Joebert S. Melendrez

 VISION
Laguna University shall be a socially responsive
educational institution of choice providing
holistically developed individuals in the Asia-Pacific
Region.

MISSION
Laguna University is committed to produce
academically prepared and technically skilled
individuals who are socially and morally upright
citizens.

Department of Mechanical Engineering

MISSION
The Department of Mechanical Engineering of
Laguna University is committed to produce
academically prepared and technically skilled
mechanical engineers who are socially and morally
upright citizens.

VISION
The Department of Mechanical Engineering of
Laguna University is envisioned to be the provincial
college of choice producing well-equipped
mechanical engineers who specializes on energy
management.
 Table of Contents

Module 1: Classification and Design Equation Of Flywheels 1

Introduction 1
Learning Objectives 1
Lesson 1. Classification of Flywheels 2
Assessment task 1 16
Summary 17

Module 2: Design Of Elliptical Cross Sectional Arms (Flywheel) 18

Introduction 18
Learning Objectives 18
Lesson 1. Design of elliptical Cross Sectional Arms 19
Assessment task 2 22
Summary 23

Module 3. Brakes 24
Introduction 24
Learning Objectives 24
Lesson 1. Types of Friction Clutches and Brakes 25
Lesson 2. Band Brakes Diagram and Equations 29
Assessment task 3 30
Summary 31
Course Code: ME 202

Course Description:
This course is a continuation of machine design 1 which involves the
analysis of simple, variable and combined stresses applied to the different
machine elements flywheels, brakes and clutches, bearings, flexible power
transmissions such as belts, wire ropes and chains. It also includes analysis
and synthesis of machineries which consist of two or more machine elements
preferably using application software.

Course Intended Learning Outcomes (CILO):

After completing this course, the student must be able to:

1. Apply the principles of machine elements and materials engineering in the

design of machine elements
2. Determine the design factor and design stresses, and be able to apply these
in the design of machine elements.
3. Solve problems involving different types of stresses.
4. Apply the various codes in the design of machine elements
5. Analyze and synthesize machineries

Course Requirements:
▪ Assessment Tasks - 60%
▪ Major Exams - 40%
_________
Periodic Grade 100%

Computation of Grades:

PRELIM GRADE = 60% (Activity 1-4) + 40% (Prelim exam)

MIDTERM GRADE = 30%(Prelim Grade) + 70 %[60% (Activity 5-7) + 40% (Midterm exam)]
FINAL GRADE = 30%(Midterm Grade) + 70 %[60% (Activity 8-10) + 40% (Final exam
 MODULE 1
CLASSIFICATION AND DESIGN EQUATION
OF FLYWHEELS

Introduction

Flywheel is a rotating member that acts as storage reservoir for energy when work is not
consumed at as fast a rate as the power is supplied. Flywheel is a rotating mechanical
component designed to store energy and distribute it when needed, in effect, a reservoir of
energy analogous to a water storage tower on the roof of a buildings. Its function is to
counteract the fact that most machines do not receive and supply energy in a continuous
process. For example a single cylinder gasoline engine with a four stroke cycle supplies energy
to the crankshaft only once every two revolutions. The crankshaft gets one good jolt of energy
every second revolution; the flywheel absorbs excess energy and redistributes it to the
crankshaft (Francisco, 2014).

Learning Outcomes

At the end of this module, students should be able to:

1. Understand the different classification of flywheels;

2. Solve complex world problem related on flywheels; and
3. Design flywheel.

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Lesson 1. Classification of Flywheels

Flywheels may be classified as balance wheels or as flywheel pulleys (Francisco, 2014).

• The function of a balance wheel is to absorb and equalize energy in case the
resistance to motion, or driving power, varies throughout the cycle. The rim
section is generally quite heavy and is designed with reference to the energy that
must be stored in it to prevent excessive speed variations and, with reference to
the strength necessary to withstand safely the stresses resulting from the
required speed.
• The rims of most balance wheels are either square or nearly square in section,
but flywheel pulleys are commonly made wide to accommodate a belt and
relatively thin in radial direction, although this is not an invariable rule.
Flywheels, in general, may either be formed of a solid or one piece section, or they may
be of sectional construction (Francisco, 2014).
• Flywheels in diameter up to about eight feet are usually cast solid, the hubs
sometimes being divided to relieve cooling stresses. Flywheels ranging from 8
feet to 10 feet in diameter are commonly cast in half sections, and the larger
sizes in several sections, the number of which may equal the number of arms in
the wheel.
Sectional flywheels may be divided into two general classes, namely: cast wheels, and
sectional construction (Francisco, 2014).
• Cast wheels – flywheels that are formed of sections principally because a solid
casting would be too large to transport readily.
• The second class includes wheels of sectional construction which, by reason of
the materials used in the special arrangement of the sections, enables much
higher peripheral speeds to be obtained safely than would be possible with
ordinary sectional wheels of the type not designed especially for high speeds.
Another types of flywheel, which is superior to an ordinary sectional wheel, has a solid
cast iron rim connected to the hub by disk shaped steel plates instead of cast spokes.

Types of steel Wheels (Francisco, 2014).

Steel wheels may be divided into three distinct types, including:
1. Those having the center and rim built up entirely of steel plates

2
 2. Those having a cast iron center and steel rim
3. Those having a cast steel center and rim formed of steel plates.

Two Distinct Classes of Flywheel Service (Francisco, 2014)

1. A service of flywheel for punch presses and shears
• In this service, the flywheel absorbs energy from a prime source during
the greater portion of the operating cycle and delivers a large amount of
energy as useful work in a very short portion of cycle.
2. A service for reciprocating machines such as steam engines, internal combustion
engines, reciprocating compressors, and reciprocating pumps.
• In this service, the flywheel smoothens out the speed fluctuations caused
by non uniform flow of power from the pistons during each energy cycle.

Design Equations and Calculations (Francisco, 2014)

1. Total kinetic energy produced by the flywheel
• When a flywheel absorbs energy from a variable driving force, as in a
steam engine, the velocity increases; and when this stored energy is
given out, the velocity diminishes. When the driven member of a machine
encounters a variable resistance in performing its work, as when the
punch of a punching, machine is passing through a steel plate, the
flywheel gives up energy while the punch is at work, and consequently
the speed of the flywheel is reduced.
• The total energy that a flywheel would give out if brought to a standstill is
given by the formula:

𝑊 2 𝑊
𝐾= 𝑣 = 𝑉2
2𝑔 64.4

Where,
K = kinetic energy, ft-lb
g = acceleration due to gravity = 32.3 feet per sec 2
V = mean rim velocity, fps
W = weight of the rim, lb.
2. Total change of Kinetic Energy of the Flywheel

3
 • If the velocity of a flywheel changes, the energy it will absorb or give up is
proportional to the difference between the squares of its initial and final
speeds, and is equal to the difference between the energy that it would
give out of brought to a full stop and the energy that is still stored in it at
the reduced velocity. The change of kinetic energy is expressed by the
following relation.

𝑊 𝑊
∆𝐾 = 2𝑔 (𝑣12 − 𝑣22 ) = 𝐶 𝑣2
𝑔 𝑓

Where,
∆𝐾 = 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦, 𝑓𝑡 − 𝑙𝑏.
𝑣2 = 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑟𝑖𝑚 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦, 𝑓𝑝𝑠
𝐶𝑓 = 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑣1 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑟𝑖𝑚 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦, 𝑓𝑝𝑠
𝑉 +𝑉
V = mean or average rim velocity = 1 2 2

Consideration for the change of Kinetic Energy

a) Speed fluctuations are generally divided above and below the mean velocity.
b) The weight of the rim provides the only flywheel effect. The weight of the hub
and arms contributions from 5 to 10% depending on the construction of the
flywheel.
For 10% equivalent effect of hub and arms,

1.10𝑊(𝑉12 −𝑉22 ) 1.10𝑊

∆𝐸 = = 𝐶𝑓 𝑉 2
2𝑔 𝑔

3. Coefficient of fluctuation and coefficient of steadiness

• The coefficient of fluctuation of the flywheel is expressed in the following
relation

𝑁1− 𝑁2 2(𝑁1 −𝑁2 ) 𝑉1− 𝑉2 2(𝑉1 −𝑉2 )

𝐶𝑓 = 𝑁
= 𝑁1 +𝑁2
= 𝑉
= 𝑉1 +𝑉2

Where,
𝑁1 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑟𝑝𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑦𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙
𝑁 𝑁
𝑁 = 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑟𝑝𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑦𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙 = 1+2 2

4
 𝑁2 = 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑟𝑝𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑦𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙
• The coefficient of steadiness, 𝐶𝑠 , is the reciprocal of coefficient of
fluctuation, and given by the following expression.

1 𝑁 𝑁 𝑁 𝑉 𝑉 +𝑉
𝐶𝑆 = 𝐶 = 𝑁 = 2(𝑁1++𝑁2 ) = 𝑉 −𝑉 = 2(𝑉1 −𝑉2 )
𝑓 1 −𝑁2 1 2 1 2 1 2

Table 1.1. Typical values of 𝑪𝒇 for some selected equipment (Francisco, 2014)
AC Generator 0.002 to 0.003
Crushers 0.1 to 0.2
Compressors and Pumps 0.03 to 0.05
Speed Reducers 0.015 to 0.02

4. Weight of the Flywheel

• The total weight of the flywheel includes the weight of the hub, arms and
the rim.

𝑊 = 𝑊𝑟 + 𝑊𝑎ℎ

Where,
𝑊𝑟 = 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑦𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙 𝑟𝑖𝑚, 𝑙𝑏.
𝑊𝑎ℎ = 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ℎ𝑢𝑏 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑦𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙, 𝑙𝑏.

5. Weight of Flywheel rim

• The following relations express the weight of the flywheel rim.

𝑊𝑟 = 𝜋𝐷𝑏𝑡𝜌

Where,
D = mean diameter of the rim, ft.
t = thickness of the rim, ft.
b = width of the flywheel rim, ft.
𝜌 = Density of the rim, lb/𝑓𝑡 3

5
 t

RIM

HUB

ARM
SHAFT

Figure 1.1. Flywheel

Note: Weight of rim and hub is 5 to 10% of W

6. Flywheel Effect (𝑊𝑅 2 )

• The flywheel effect is given b the following expression:

𝑊𝑉 2 𝑊𝑅2 𝜔2 𝑊𝑅2 2𝜋𝑁 2

𝐾= = = ( ) = 0.000171𝑁 2 (𝑊𝑅 2 )
2𝑔 2𝑔 2𝑔 60

Where,
K = kinetic energy, ft-lb
R = radius of gyration or mean radius, ft
𝑊𝑅 2 = flywheel effect, 𝑓𝑡 2 -lb

6
Note: Values for 𝑊𝑅 2 are tabulated in many handbooks and manufacturers catalogue

7. Torque of the Flywheel

• The following equation is the torque required to accelerate or decelerate
the flywheel.

2
∆𝐾 12 ( 𝑊 ) (𝑉 2 − 𝑉 2 ) 12 ( 𝑊 ) (2𝜋𝑅) (𝑁 2 − 𝑁 2 )
2𝑔 1 2 2𝑔 60 1 2
𝑇= 𝑡 = =
𝜔 2𝜋𝑁 2𝜋 𝑁 − 𝑁
𝑡( 60 ) 𝑡 (60 ) ( 1 2 2 )

2
12𝑊 2𝜋𝑅 2 𝑁1− 𝑁22 12𝑊 2𝜋𝑅 2 (𝑁1 + 𝑁2 )(𝑁1 − 𝑁2 )
𝑇=( )( )( )=( )( )[ ]
𝑔 60 𝑁1 + 𝑁2 𝑔 60 𝑁1 + 𝑁2

12𝑊 2𝜋𝑅 2 12(2)(𝜋

𝑇=( )( ) (𝑁1 − 𝑁2 ) = [ ] (𝑁1 − 𝑁2 )𝑊𝑅 2
𝑔 60 32.2(60 )

0.0391(𝑁2 − 𝑁1 )(𝑊𝑅 2 )
𝑇=
𝑡
8. Radius of Gyration
• The radius of gyration of the flywheel is expressed by the following
relation:

1
𝑅 = √8.68𝑥10−4 (𝐷𝑜2 + 𝐷𝑖2 ) = √
𝐴

Where,
R = radius of gyration, ft
𝐷𝑖 = inside diameter of the rim, inches
Do = outside diameter of the rim, inches
Flywheel speeds:
Cast Iron Wheels, V = 60 fps Cast Steel Wheels, V = 133 fps

9. Equation for the punching Machine

• In a punching or shearing machine, the energy required to punch the
plate is given by the following expression:

7
 1 1
𝐾 = 𝐹𝑡 = 𝑠𝑢 𝐴𝑡
2 2

Where,
K = kinetic energy (flywheel), ft-lb
t = thickness of metal plate, ft
A = area sheared = 𝜋 d t, 𝑓𝑡 2 → for circular hole
F = force or load, lb.
𝑠𝑢 = ultimate shearing stress of the plate, lb/𝑓𝑡 2
d = diameter of hole, ft
Note:
The maximum force will be much less than the maximum. Some designers assume that the
average force is about one half the maximum, although experiments show that the material is
practically sheared off when the punch has entered the sheet a distance equal to about one
third the sheet thicknesses.

Stresses in Flywheels
10. Hoop stress of the Flywheel Rim
• The hoop stress of the rim, neglecting the effect of arms and hub, is
expressed in the following relation.

12𝛾𝑉 2
𝑠ℎ =
𝑔
Where,
𝑠ℎ = hoop stress of the flywheel rim, psi
V = mean velocity of the rim, fps
𝑉1 + 𝑉2
𝑉=
2
g = acceleration due to gravity = 32.2 fp𝑠 2
𝛾 = specific weight of the rim material, lb/𝑖𝑛3
𝛾 = 0.26 lb/𝑖𝑛3 (for cast iron)
𝛾 = 0.28 lb/𝑖𝑛3 (for cast steel)

11. Bending stress of the Rim

8
 • The bending stress of the rim, neglecting the effect of arms and hub, is
expressed on the following relation

12𝛾𝑉 2 𝜋 2 𝐷
𝑠𝑏 =
𝑔𝑛2 𝑡
Where,
D = mean diameter of the rim, inches
𝑠𝑏 = bending stress of the rim, psi
n = number of arms or spokes
t = thickness of the rim, inches

12. Total Stress of the Rim

• The total stress of the rim is equal of three fourths of hoop stress and one
fourth of bending stress; and is given by the following equation:

3 1 3𝛾𝑉 2 𝜋 2𝐷
𝑠 = (𝐻𝑜𝑜𝑝 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠) + (𝐵𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠) = (3 + 2 )
4 4 𝑔 𝑛 𝑡

Note:
For Cast Iron:
• s = 6 000 psi and 𝛾 = 0.26 lb/𝑖𝑛3
• Velocity is limited to 6 000 feet per minute (fpm), arms and hub are cast
on one piece
For Cast Steel:
• s = 24 000 psi and 𝛾 = 0.28 lb/𝑖𝑛3
• in order to eliminate shrinkage stresses, the flywheel mat be cast in
sections and bolted together. The velocities obtained for this type may be
up to 12 000 rpm.
• For flywheels with rims and hub cast separately and bolted together by
steel disks or webs may run at velocities up to 15 000 rpm.
• The ratio of the width to height of rim section varies from 0.6 to 2.
• For a flywheel with running belt running on it, the force must be at least 1
inch wider than the belt.

9
Example Problems

1. A mechanical press is used to punch 6 holes per minute on a 25 mm thick plate. The hole is
25 mm in diameter and the plate has an ultimate strength in shear of 420 Mpa. the normal
operating speed is 200 rpm and its slows down to 180 rpm during the process of punching. The
flywheel has a mean diameter of one meter and the rim width is 3 times the thickness. Assume
that the hub and arm account for 5% of rim weight concentrated at the mean diameter and the
density of cast iron is 7 200 kg/𝑚3 .
Determine the following:
1. Find the power required to drive the press
2. Find the width and thickness of the flywheel rim in mm

Given: Mechanical Punching Machine

Metal plate specifications:

t = 25 mm d = 25 mm 𝑠𝑢 = 420 Mpa
Number of holes per minute. = 6

Flywheel specifications:
𝑁1 = 200 𝑟𝑝𝑚
𝑁2 = 180 𝑟𝑝𝑚
D=1m
b = 3𝑡𝑓
𝑊𝑎ℎ = 0.05W

Required:
a) Power, kW, required to drive the press
b) The width and the thickness of the flywheel rim

Solution:
1 1
For the energy required punching per hole, 𝐾 = 2 𝐹𝑡 = 2 𝑠𝑢 𝐴𝑡

Where,
𝐴 = 𝜋𝑑𝑡 = 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑟 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎

10
 1 1
Then, 𝐾 = 2 𝑠𝑢 (𝜋𝑑𝑡)𝑡 = 2 (420 000)(𝜋)(0.025)(0.025)2 = 10.308 𝑘𝐽 𝑝𝑒𝑟 ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑒
1. For the power required to drive the press
𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑘𝐽 6 ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠
𝑃= 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
= 10.308 ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑒 ( 60 𝑠𝑒𝑐 ) = 1.0308 𝑘𝑊

2. For the rim thickness

1.05𝑊(𝑉12 −𝑉22 ) 2𝑔∆𝐾
∆𝐾 = 2𝑔
𝑜𝑟 𝑊 = 1.05(𝑉 2 −𝑉 2 )
1 2

Where,
𝜋𝐷𝑁1 200
𝑉1 = = 𝜋(1) ( ) = 10.472 𝑚/𝑠
60 60

𝜋𝐷𝑁2 180 𝑚
𝑉2 = = 𝜋(1) ( ) = 9.425
60 600 𝑠

2(9.8066)(10 308)
Then, 𝑊 = = 9242.71𝑁 = 942.5𝑘𝑔
1.05[(10.472)2 −(9.425)2]

Solving the rim thickness, 𝑊 = 𝜋𝐷𝑏𝑡𝜌 𝑏 = 3𝑡

𝑊
𝑊 = 𝜋𝐷(3𝑡)𝑡𝜌 or 𝑡 = √3𝜋𝐷𝜌

942.5
Then, 𝑡 = √3𝜋(1)(7 200) = 0.1179 𝑚 = 117.9 𝑚𝑚

For the rim width, 𝑏 = 3𝑡 = 3(117.9) = 353.7 𝑚𝑚

11
 Puncher
Plate
F

Punched Plate
d

Figure 1.2. Punching Machine

2. A flywheel has a mean diameter of 4 ft and is required to handle 2250 ft-lb of kinetic energy. It
has a width of 8 inches, normal operating speed is 300 rpm and the coefficient of fluctuation is
to be 0.05. Find the weight of rim, assuming that the arms and hub are equivalent to 10% of the
total rim weight. The flywheel is made up of cast iron with specific weight of 0.26 lb per cubic
inch.
Find the rim thickness.

Given: A cast iron flywheel

D = 4 ft
∆𝐾 = 2250 ft-lb
b = 8 inches
𝑐𝑓 = 0.05
𝑊𝑎ℎ = 0.10 𝑊𝑟
𝛾 = 0.26 lb/𝑖𝑛3
n = 300 rpm

Required:

12
Find the weight of the rim and the rim thickness.

Solution:
𝜋𝐷𝑛 𝜋(4)(300)
For the rim mean velocity, 𝑉 = 60
= 60
= 62.83 𝑓𝑝𝑠

For the total weight (10% is the arms and hub),

1.10𝑊 ∆𝐾𝑔
∆𝐾 = 𝐶𝑓 𝑉 2 𝑜𝑟 𝑊 =
𝑔 1.10𝐶𝑓 𝑉 2

2250(32.2)
𝑊= = 333.68 𝑙𝑏 ≈ 334𝑙𝑏
1.10(0.05)(62.83)2

𝑊 𝑊
For the rim thickness, 𝑉 = 𝛾
= 𝜋𝐷𝑏𝑡 𝑜𝑟 𝑡 = 𝜋𝐷𝑏𝜆

334
𝑡= = 1.065 𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑠
𝜋(8)(12)(4)(0.26)

13
 t

RIM

HUB

ARM
SHAFT

Figure 1.3. Flywheel

14
 Assessment Task 1

Answer the problem with complete and proper solution and also with proper
diagram. Avoid erasure and observe neatness. Don’t forget to highlight your final
answer and box it.

1. A flywheel has a rim thickness of ¾ inch and width of 10 inches. The main
diameter is 36 inches. Assuming the arms and hub to one fifth of the rim weight
and the speed regulation must be kept within 10% of the normal operating
speed. The average velocity (at the mean diameter) is 88 fps is and the flywheel
material is cast iron with specific weight of 0.26 lb. per cubic inch.

Find the:

a) The capacity of the flywheel

2. A shearing machine requires 2 000 ft-lb of kinetic energy to operate. The

mean diameter of the rim is 36 inches. The rated speed is 66 fps at the mean
diameter. If the coefficient of fluctuation is 0.34.

Find the following:

a) What weight of rim is needed? Neglect the effect of arms and hub.
b) If the rim width is to be 4.5 times as large as the rim thickness, what are
the rim width and thickness?
c) Use cast iron as flywheel material with specific weight of 0.26 lb/𝑖𝑛3

3. A flywheel for a punching press must be capable of furnishing 3400 N-m of

energy during the 25% revolution while the hole is being punched. The flywheel
maximum speed is 200 rpm and the speed decreases 7.8% the load stroke. The
main radius of the rim is 1016 mm and contributes 85% of the energy
requirements. Approximate total weight of the flywheel is to be 1.30 that of the
rim.
15
Find the following:
a) Total weight of the flywheel
b) The coefficient of fluctuation
Find the following:

a) Total weight of the flywheel

b) The coefficient of fluctuation

4. A shearing machine requires 150 kg-m of energy to shear a steel sheet, and
has a normal speed of 3 revolutions per second during the shearing process.
The flywheel of the machine has a mean diameter of 65 cm and weigh 16.5
kg/𝑐𝑚3 . The width of the rim is 30 cm. if the hub and arms of the flywheel
account for 15% of its total weight, find the thickness of the rim in mm.

5. A flywheel has a 𝑊𝑅 2 value of 595 lb-𝑓𝑡 2 . Twelve seconds are required to

accelerate the flywheel from 150 to 200 rpm the torque required if the arms and
hub are neglected.

6. If the 𝑊𝑅 2 value of the arms and hub is neglected, find the possible change
in rpm if a torque of 1200 in-lb is applied for 6 seconds. The flywheel effect of
the rim is 800 lb-𝑓𝑡 2 .

7. A flywheel is designed with a maximum hoop stress of 500 psi. Find the
approximate peripheral velocity (at the mean radius) of the rim in fps.

16
 Summary

Flywheel is a heavy wheel which by its inertia assists in securing uniform motion of
machinery by resisting sudden changes of speed. Flywheels resist changes in their rotational
speed, which helps steady rotation of the shaft when a fluctuating torque is exerted on it by its
power source such as a piston based reciprocating engine, or when the load placed on it is
intermittent (such as a piston pump) (Capote and Mandawe, 2016).

References

Capote, R.S. and Mandawe J.S. (2016). Solved Problems in Machine Design, 4th floor GMT
Bldg. Corner P Del Rosario and Junquera Strs., Cebu City.

Francisco, J.R. (2014). Lecture book in Machine Design, 2nd floor JCSF Review Center
Building, Brgy. Halang, Calamba City.

17
 MODULE 2
DESIGN OF ELLIPTICAL CROSS SECTIONAL
ARMS (FLYWHEEL)

Introduction

Flywheel is a rotating member that acts as storage reservoir for energy when work is not
consumed at as fast a rate as the power is supplied. Flywheel is a rotating mechanical
component designed to store energy and distribute it when needed, in effect, a reservoir of
energy analogous to a water storage tower on the roof of a buildings. Its function is to
counteract the fact that most machines do not receive and supply energy in a continuous
process. For example a single cylinder gasoline engine with a four stroke cycle supplies energy
to the crankshaft only once every two revolutions. The crankshaft gets one good jolt of energy
every second revolution; the flywheel absorbs excess energy and redistributes it to the
crankshaft (Francisco, 2014).

Learning Outcomes

At the end of this module, students should be able to:

1. Solve complex world problem related on elliptical cross sectional arm of flywheels; and
2. Familiarize different formula used in elliptical cross sectional arm.

18
Lesson 1. Design of elliptical Cross Sectional Arms

Design of elliptical Cross Sectional Arms

• The arms are designed to carry the full torque of the machine
• Each arm is assumed to act as a cantilever beam fixed at the hub and
carrying its proportionate share of load concentrated at the free end at the
rim.
• The bending moment of the arms is expressed in the following relation:

𝐷 − 𝐷ℎ 𝐷 − 𝐷ℎ 2𝑇 𝑇(𝐷 − 𝐷ℎ )
𝑀=( )𝐹 = ( )( ) =
2 2 𝐷 𝐷

Where,
M = bending moment of the arm
D = mean diameter of the rim
𝐷ℎ = diameter of the hub
T = twisting moment of the flywheel

• The bending stress of the arms is given by the following relation:

𝑀 𝑇(𝐷 − 𝐷ℎ )
𝑠𝑎 = =
𝑛𝑍 𝑛𝑍𝐷
Where,
Z = section modulus of the arm cross section at the hub

𝜋(2𝑏)(2𝑎)2 𝜋𝑎 2 𝑏𝑠𝑡 𝑛
𝑍= 32
= 4

19
 a y

b
Figure 2.1. Elliptical arm of flywheel diagram

• In practice for the design of arms, moment of arm is equal to three-fourths

of the twisting moment of the driving shaft, ¾ T = M.

𝑎
𝜋𝑑 3 𝑠𝑠 𝜋𝑎2 ( )𝑠𝑡 𝑛
¾( )= 2
16 4

1
3𝑠𝑠 3
𝑎 = 𝑑( )
8𝑠𝑡 𝑛

Where,
A = one half the major axis
n = no. of arms
𝑠𝑡 = tensile stress of the arm
b = one half the minor axis
𝑠𝑠 = shearing or torsional stress of the driving shaft
d = diameter of the driving shaft
𝑎
𝜋𝑑 3 𝑠𝑠 𝜋𝑎2 ( )𝑠𝑡 𝑛
Since, the major axis is normally twice the minor axis, ¾ ( 2
)=
16 4

1
3𝑠𝑠 3
𝑎 = 𝑑( )
8𝑠𝑡 𝑛

20
Note:
• The arm should taper both in breadth and depth from the hub to the an
amount of ¼ inch per foot.
• The usual number of arms is six, but these could be eight, ten, or twelve
depending upon rim width and diameter of the flywheel.
• For elliptical arm section, a/b = 2
• The hub diameter is twice the shaft diameter, and hub length is 2 to 2.5
times the shaft diameter.

General Procedure In Flywheel Design

The general method of designing a flywheel is to determine first the value of ∆𝐾 or the
energy the flywheel must either absorb for a given change in velocity, which turn, varies for
different classes of service. The mean diameter of the flywheel may be assumed, or it may be
fixed within certain limits by the general design of the machine. Ordinarily he speed of the
flywheel shaft is known, at least approximately; the values of 𝑉1 and 𝑉2 can be determined, the
latter depending upon the allowable percentage of speed variation. When theses values are
known, the weight of the rim and the cross sectional area required to obtain this weight may be
computed.

21
Assessment Task 2

Answer the problem with complete and proper solution and also with proper
diagram. Avoid erasure and observe neatness. Don’t forget to highlight your final
answer and box it.

1. A flywheel is designed with maximum hoop stress of 500 psi. Find the
approximate peripheral velocity (at the mean radius) of the rim in fps.

2. A cast iron flywheel has a mean diameter of 60 inches and a mean rim velocity
(at the mean radius) of 88 fps. The rim is 1 inch thick and 6 inches wide. 8 elliptical
arms support the rim. Find the total stress assuming three quarters radial
expansion for the arms.

3. A solid disc flywheel must handle 1 000 ft-lb of energy. The diameter of the
flywheel is 3 ft; the peripheral velocity varies between 30 and 35 fps. What weight
of the flywheel is needed?

4. A 2 ft diameter solid disc flywheel weighs 200 lb and is designed to handle 800
ft-lb of kinetic energy change. Its upper speed is 40 fps. Find the coefficient of
regulation or fluctuation.

22
 Summary

Flywheel is a heavy wheel which by its inertia assists in securing uniform motion of
machinery by resisting sudden changes of speed. Flywheels resist changes in their rotational
speed, which helps steady rotation of the shaft when a fluctuating torque is exerted on it by its
power source such as a piston based reciprocating engine, or when the load placed on it is
intermittent (such as a piston pump) (Capote and Mandawe, 2016).

References

Capote, R.S. and Mandawe J.S. (2016). Solved Problems in Machine Design, 4th floor GMT
Bldg. Corner P Del Rosario and Junquera Strs., Cebu City.

Francisco, J.R. (2014). Lecture book in Machine Design, 2nd floor JCSF Review Center
Building, Brgy. Halang, Calamba City.

23
 MODULE 3
BRAKES

Introduction

Brake is a mechanical component used to, with the help of friction, stop a moving
member or hold member stationary (Francisco, 2014).

Learning Outcomes

At the end of this module, students should be able to:

1. Understand the function and design consideration of brakes.

2. Analyze different world problem related to brakes.

3. Familiarize different formula used to design a brake

24
Lesson 1. Types of Friction Clutches and Brakes

Figure 3.1. Band Brake (Mott, 2004)

Figure 3.2. Plate Type Clutch for Brake (Mott, 2004)

25
Figure 3.3. Cone Clutch or Brake (Mott, 2004)

Figure 3.4. Disc Brake (Mott, 2004)

26
Figure 3.5. Long Shoe Brake (Mott, 2004)

Figure 3.6. Short Shoe Brake (Mott, 2004)

27
 Figure 3.7. Air Actuated Clutch or Brake (Mott, 2004)

Figure 3.8. Air Actuated Clutch or Brake Details (Mott, 2004)

28
Lesson 2. Band Brakes Diagram and Equations

𝐹𝑎

a
L
Figure 3.9. Simple Band Brake Diagram

𝐹1
• Tension in the band, = 𝑒 𝑓𝜃
𝐹2

Where,

𝐹1 = 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑛 ℎ𝑖𝑔ℎ 𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒, 𝑙𝑏, 𝑁

𝐹 = 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝐹2 = 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑛 𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒, 𝑙𝑏, 𝑁

𝜃 = 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑐𝑡, radian

(𝐹1−𝐹2 )𝐷 𝐹
• Brake torque developed, 𝑇 = 2
1
= (𝐹1 − 𝐹2 )𝑟 = 𝑟 (𝐹1 − 𝑒 𝑓𝜃 )

𝑇𝑒 𝑓𝜃
• 𝐹1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐹2 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒, 𝐹1 = 𝐹2 𝑒 𝑓𝜃 =
𝑟(𝑒 𝑓𝜃 −1)

𝑇
𝐹2 =
𝑟(𝑒 𝑓𝜃 − 1)

Where,

29
T = break torque, in-lb, kN-m

r = brake drum radius, inches, cm, m

D = brake drum diameter, inches, cm, m

Actuating Force Required on the Arm

𝐹1 𝐹2 𝐹𝑎

a
L

Figure 3.10. Actuating Force Required on the Arm Diagram

𝑎𝐹𝑎
Taking the summation of moment at the pivot, 𝐹𝑎 = 𝐿

𝐹 𝐹
• Maximum unit pressure, 𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐴1 = 𝑤𝑟𝜃
1
𝑓

Where,
𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑟𝑢𝑚 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒, 𝑝𝑠𝑖, 𝑘𝑃𝑎
𝐴𝑓 = 𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 𝑤𝑟𝜃, 𝑖𝑛2 , 𝑚2
𝑤 = 𝑏𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ, 𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑠, 𝑚𝑚, 𝑐𝑚, 𝑚

𝐹
• Maximum stress in band, s = 𝑤𝑡1
Where,
t = band thickness, inches, mm, cm, m

30
 𝜃

𝐹𝑎
𝐹2
𝐹1 a a

L
Figure 3.11. Differential Band Brake Diagram

Differential band brake

• Tension in the band

𝐹1
= 𝑒 𝑓𝜃
𝐹2
Where,
𝐹1 = 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑛 ℎ𝑖𝑔ℎ 𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒, 𝑙𝑏, 𝑁
𝐹 = 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝐹2 = 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑛 𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒, 𝑙𝑏, 𝑁
𝜃 = 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑐𝑡, 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛

• Brake torque developed

𝐹1 − 𝐹2 𝐹1
𝑇= = (𝐹1 − 𝐹2 )𝑟 = 𝑟 (𝐹1 − 𝑓𝜃 )
2 𝑒
• 𝐹1 and 𝐹2 in terms of the torque

𝑇𝑒 𝑓𝜃
𝐹1 = 𝐹2 𝑒 𝑓𝜃 =
𝑟(𝑒 𝑓𝜃 − 1)
𝑇
𝐹2 = 𝑓𝜃
𝑟(𝑒 − 1)
Where,

31
 T = brake torque, in-lb, kN-m
r = brake drum radius, inches, cm, m
D = brake drum diameter, inches, cm, m

Actuating Force Required on the Arms

• Considered the actuating arm

𝐹𝑎
𝐹2
𝐹1 a a

L
Figure 3.12 .Differential Band Brake Arm Diagram

Taking the summation of moment at the pivot,

𝑎𝐹2 − 𝑏𝐹1
𝐹𝑎 =
𝐿

• When 𝐹𝑎 is zero or negative, the differential band brake is called as self locking.

Simple Block Brake

a
Figure 3.13. Simple Block Brake Diagram

32
 𝜃
4𝑓𝐹𝑟 sin( ) 𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑤𝑟
• Brake Torque, 𝑇 = 𝑓𝐹𝑟 ℎ = 𝜃+𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
2
= 2
(𝜃 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)
Where,
T = brake torque, kN-m, in-lb
f = coefficient of friction
h = effective moment arm of the friction force, inches, ft, m
r = radius of the friction surface of the drum, inches, ft, m
𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 = maximum normal pressure between block and drum, kPa, psi
w = axial width of the block, inch, ft, cm, m
𝜃 = angle of contact, radian

Example problem

1. a band brake is installed on a drum rotating at 250 rpm, and a diameter of 900 mm. the angle
of contact is 1.5𝜋 radians and one end of the brake is fastened to fixed pin while the other end
to the brake arm 150 mm from the fixed pin. The coefficient of friction is 0.25 and the straight
brake arm is 1 000 mm long and is placed perpendicular to the diameter bisecting the angle of
contact.
Determine the following:
a) Sketch the band brake
b) Determine the minimum force applied at the end of the brake arm necessary to stop the
drum if 50 kW is being absorbed.
c) A steel band with a maximum tensile stress of 55 Mpa and 3 mm thick will be used.
What should be its width in mm?

33
Given: Simple band brake

𝐹𝑎
𝐹2
𝐹1

a
L
Figure 3.14. Simple Band Brake Diagram

n = 250 rpm
𝜃 = 1.5𝜋 radians
a = 150 mm
D = 900 mm
L = 1 000 mm
f = 0.25

Required:

a) Sketch the band brake (shown above)

b) The 𝐹𝑎
c) The band width

Solution:

b) Determination of 𝐹𝑎

30𝑃 30(50)
solving for the torque, 𝑇 = 𝜋𝑛
= 𝜋(250) = 1.90986 𝑘𝑁 − 𝑚

34
 2𝑇 2(1.90986)
solving for 𝐹1 , 𝐹1 − 𝐹2 = 𝐷
= 0.90
= 4.24413 𝑘𝑁

𝐹1 = 𝐹2 𝑒 𝑓𝜃 = (𝑒)0.25(1.5𝜋) 𝐹2 = 3.2482𝐹2
4.24413
Substituting equation 2 to equation 1, 3.248𝐹2 − 𝐹2 = 4.24413, 𝐹2 = 2.2482 = 1.88779 𝑘𝑁
Then, 𝐹1 = 3.2482(1.88779) = 6.132 𝑘𝑁

Consider the brake arm

𝐹1 𝐹2 𝐹𝑎

a
L

Figure 3.15 Simple Band Brake Arm Diagram

Taking the summation of moment at the pivot

150𝐹2 𝑠𝑖𝑛45° 150(1.88779)𝑠𝑖𝑛45°

𝐹𝑎 = = = 0.20023 𝑘𝑁
1000 1000

c) Determination of band width

𝐹1 6.132(1000)2
𝑤=𝑠 𝑡
= 55 000(3)
= 37.16 𝑚𝑚
𝑡𝑚𝑎𝑥

2. The differential band brake shown has an angle of contact equal to 280° and is to sustain a
torque of 7 000 in-lb. The band has a compress woven lining; bears against a cast iron drum of
14 inches diameter, and the coefficient of friction is 0.30. Other dimensions are: a = 230 inches;
b = 1 inch; and c = 5 inches.

Determine the necessary operating force F in lb.

Given: Band Break

𝜃 = 280°

35
D = 14 inches
a = 20 inches
c = 5 inches
T = 7 000 in-lb
f = 0.3
b = 1 inch

Required:
The value of F

Solution:
Solving for the net tension,
2𝑇 2(7 000)
𝐹1 − 𝐹2 = = = 1 000 𝑙𝑏
𝐷 14
For the tension ratio
280𝜋
(0.3)( )
𝐹1 = 𝑒 𝑓𝜃 𝐹2 = (𝑒) 180° (300.10) = 1300.10 𝑙𝑏

1000 1000
Substituting equation 2 to equation 1, then solving for 𝐹2 = 𝑒 𝑓𝜃 −1 = (0.3)(
280𝜋 = 300.10 𝑙𝑏
)
(𝑒) 180° −1

280𝜋
(0.3)( )
Solving for, 𝐹1 , 𝐹1 = 𝑒 𝑓𝜃 𝐹2 = (𝑒) 180° (300.10) = 1300.10 𝑙𝑏

Consider the brake arm

𝐹
𝐹2
𝐹1 c b

Figure 3.16. Differential Band Brake Arm Diagram

36
 𝑐𝐹2 −𝑏𝐹1 5(300.10)−1(1300.10)
Taking the summation of moment at the pivot, 𝐹 = 𝑎
= 20
= 10.025 𝑙𝑏

𝑐𝐹2 −𝑏𝐹1 5(1300.10−(1)(300.10)

If the rotation of the drum is clockwise, 𝐹 = = = 310.02 𝑙𝑏
𝑎 20

Assessment Task 3

Answer the problem with complete and proper solution and also with proper
diagram. Avoid erasure and observe neatness. Don’t forget to highlight your final
answer and box it.

1. A simple band brake has a 76 cm drum and fitted a steel band 2/5 cm thick
lined with a brake lining having a coefficient of friction of 0.25. The arc of contact is
245 degree and the drum is attached to a 60 cm hoisting drum, which sustains a
rope load of 820 kg. The operating force has a moment arm of 1.50 m and a band
is attached 12 cm from the pivot point.
Compute the:
1. Torque required to support the load clockwise

2. a simple band brake has 76 cm drum and fitted with a steel band 2/5 cm thick
lined with a brake lining having a coefficient of friction 0.35. The arc of contact is
255 degree and the drum is attached to a 60 cm hoisting drum, which sustains a
rope load of 820 kg. The operating force has a moment arm of 1.70 m and a band
is attached 12 cm from the pivot point.
Compute the:
1. Force required considering that the direction of rotation is reversed

37
3. A differential band brake has an operating lever 0.230 m long. The ends of the
brake band are attached so that their operating arms are 28 mm and 162 mm long.
The brake drum diameter is 61 cm, the arc of contact is 310 degree, the coefficient
of friction if 0.26 and the brake band is 3 mm x 102 mm. Compute the minimum
force required at the end of the operating lever to subject this band pressure of 6.5
Mpa.

4. A differential band brake has an operating lever 0.230 m long. The ends of the
brake band are attached so that their operating arms are 28 mm and 162 mm long.
The brake drum diameter is 61 cm, the arc of contact is 310 degree, the coefficient
of friction if 0.26 and the brake band is 3 mm x 102 mm. Compute the maximum
force required at the end of the operating lever to subject this band pressure of 6.5
Mpa.

5. A simple band brake has a 760 mm drum and fitted with a steel band 2/5 cm
thick lined with a break lining having a coefficient of friction of 0.32. The arc of
contact is 245 degree and the drum is attached to a 600 mm hoisting drum, that
sustains a rope load of 820 kg. The operating force has a moment arm of 1.50 and
a band is attached 120 mm from the pivot point. Compute the width of a steel band
for a tensile stress of 55 Mpa

38
 Summary

Types of Brakes:
Band brake
Differential band brake
Block brake
Brake shoe
Disk brake
Spot brake

References

Capote, R.S. & Mandawe, J.A. (2016), Machine Design Review Book. Cebu City, Philippines.

Francisco, J.R. (2014), Machine Design 2 Textbook. Brgy. Halang, Calamba City, Philippines.

Mott, R.L. (2001), Machine Elements in Mechanical Design, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey
Columbos Ohio. 4th ed.

39