ELL 100 - Introduction to Electrical Engineering

LECTURE 35:

ELECTROMECHANICAL ENERGY CONVERSION

1
OUTLINE
 Introduction
 Energy conversion process in electrical machines
 Magnetic field energy
 Simple analysis of Force of Alignment
 Energy balance
 Division of converted energy & power into electrical/mechanical
 Force of Alignment between Parallel Magnetized Surfaces
 Rotary Motion
 Solved Examples/Practice Problems

2
 GOALS OF THIS LECTURE
 Understanding the role of electromagnetism in an electrical machine
 Understanding electrical/mechanical energy conversions in a machine
 Understanding the attractive forces between magnetized surfaces
 Understanding the alignment forces between magnetized surfaces
 Have an understanding of the development of rotational torque
 Be familiar with the operating principles of electrical machines
 These principles apply whether the machine operates with
alternating current or direct current
3
 WHAT IS
ELECTROMECHANICAL ENERGY CONVERSION?

• Electromechanical energy conversion is a conversion of mechanical

energy into electrical energy (generator) or vice-versa (motor)
with the aid of rotary motion (rotary machines) or translatory (linear)
motion (linear machines and actuators)

• Electrical machines (e.g. motors & generators), solenoid actuators

and electromagnets are generally called electromechanical energy
conversion devices

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ELECTROMECHANICAL ENERGY CONVERSION

(could be rotation
i.e. circular motion
or translation i.e.
linear motion)
5
 APPLICATIONS

Power tools
e.g. electrical drill

6
APPLICATIONS

Wind turbine
generator 7
 APPLICATIONS
Generators convert mechanical energy into electrical energy

Turbo generator Diesel generator

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 APPLICATIONS

Ceiling fan: converts input electrical energy

into output mechanical energy
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 APPLICATIONS
Motors convert electrical energy into mechanical energy

BLDC motor 12 V DC motor Stepper motor

(Brushless (Multipurpose
DC motor) Brushed Motor)
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 APPLICATIONS
Motors convert electrical energy into mechanical energy

DC motor Induction (AC) motor

11
 INTRODUCTION

Note:
Transformers and solid-state devices/components/converters
don’t belong to the group of electromechanical energy
conversion devices because they only convert one kind of
electrical energy into another kind of electrical energy with
different parameters (change in voltage, current, frequency,
number of phases, conversion of DC into AC current, etc.)
without any moving parts.

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 INTRODUCTION

ENERGY CONSERVATION PRINCIPLE

• Energy can neither be created nor destroyed, it can merely be
converted from one form into another

• Energy balance equation = Function (energy input, energy output,

energy stored, energy dissipated)

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 ELECTRO-MECHANICAL FORCES
F v

B
I, l
E, l
Left-hand rule Right-hand rule
Thumb indicates the direction of Middle finger indicates the direction of
induced electrodynamic force F=BIl, induced electromotive force E=Blv, in
in response to an applied current I in response to applied motion (velocity v)
presence of magnetic field B. (l is the in presence of magnetic field B. (l is the
length of current carrying conductor) length of conductor where emf is induced)
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 ENERGY CONVERSION PROCESS IN MACHINES
• An electromagnetic machine is one that links an electrical energy
system to another (mechanical) energy system by providing a reversible
means of energy flow via its magnetic field

• The magnetic field is therefore the coupling between the two systems
and is the mutual link for electro-mechanical energy conversion

Magnetic field provides handshaking between electrical and mechanical system

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 ENERGY CONVERSION PROCESS IN MACHINES
• The energy transferred from one system is temporarily stored in the
magnetic field and then released to the other system
• For Motor action:
Total electrical input = Mechanical energy output + total energy stored
energy + total energy dissipated
• For Generator action:
Total mechanical input = Electrical energy output + total energy stored
energy + total energy dissipated

• An electromagnetic system can develop a mechanical force in two ways:

1. By alignment
2. By interaction 16
 FORCE OF ALIGNMENT
• The force of alignment acts in a direction that will increase the stored
magnetic energy (or equivalently reduce the reluctance)
• E.g. In Fig. below, two poles (made of a ferromagnetic material) are
situated opposite one another; each is energized via current carrying coil
(to produce an mmf) and a flux passes from one to the other
• The surfaces through which the flux passes are said to be magnetized
surfaces and they are attracted towards one another as indicated.

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 FORCE OF ALIGNMENT
In Fig. (a) below, it will try to In Fig. (b) below, it will also move
bring the poles closer the poles laterally, as the cross-
together since this decreases sectional area of the air-gap will
the reluctance of the air-gap be increased and the reluctance
in the magnetic circuit (S ∝ l). will be reduced (S ∝ 1/A), thus
This will increase the flux (for increasing the stored magnetic
a given mmf) and also the energy
stored energy Force of alignment
does not necessarily
act in the direction
of the lines of flux

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 APPLICATION: ELECTROMAGNETIC RELAY
• When the coil is energized via a current, a flux is set up in the relay
core and the airgap
• The surfaces adjacent to the airgap become magnetized and are
attracted, hence pulling the armature plate in the direction indicated
• The relay’s function is to operate switches and it is used extensively
in power system protection applications and telephone exchanges
etc.

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 FORCE OF INTERACTION
• The force of interaction can be written as F = Bli, where a conductor
of length l carrying current i lying in a magnetic field B experiences a
Lorentz force F (recall directions are determined via left hand rule)
• Applications: Involvement of the force of interaction is used to give
rise to rotary motion in electrical motors (e.g. DC motors,
synchronous motors, induction motors etc.)
Current carrying coil

Rotary machine (e.g. motor) F

working on force of interaction.

The ‘.’ denotes current coming F
out of the screen and ‘×’ denotes
current going into the screen
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 MAGNETIC FIELD ENERGY
Magnetic fields are the fundamental mechanism by which energy
is converted from one form to another in electrical machines

Why do most of the electromechanical energy conversion devices

use magnetic field as coupling medium??

Because it provides:
 High energy density
 Ideally no losses

21
 MAGNETIC FIELD ENERGY
Consider a magnetic circuit of length l and cross-sectional area A
made up of material with relative permeability μr that is energized by
a coil with N turns carrying a current i, producing a flux ϕ

Inductance can be expressed as

where ψ is the total flux linkage and S is the reluctance

The energy in a magnetic field is given by

=> where F = Ni = Sϕ is the mmf

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 MAGNETIC FIELD ENERGY
• In the case of an air-gap, the B-H characteristic is a straight line
(B = μ0H) and the stored energy density is given by
2
B
=> Total stored energy: 
2 0

• If the air-gap has a

cross-sectional area A
and length l, then B is the flux density &
H is magnetizing field

(since F = H.l and ϕ = B.A) 23

 SIMPLE ANALYSIS OF FORCE OF ALIGNMENT
• Let there be a flux in the airgap, then the uniform flux density in
the airgap is then given by

Airgap of length x between two magnetic poles

• Let the magnetic poles be moved further away from each other by
a small distance dx by the application of a mechanical force F
=> The mechanical work done on the system is

• Since the airgap has been increased by a volume A.dx, the

increase in the stored magnetic field energy is
24
 SIMPLE ANALYSIS OF FORCE OF ALIGNMENT
• If the system is ideal with no losses (the motion has taken place
slowly from one point of rest to another), the change in magnetic
energy must be due to the input of mechanical energy (work done)

B2 A
=> F 
2 0 Airgap of length x between two magnetic poles

The force of alignment is given by the

dWf
 F rate of change of stored field energy
dx with respect to a small displacement in
dWf /dx < 0 => force of alignment is attractive the position of the ferromagnetic poles
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 ENERGY BALANCE

(External load) Energy balance equation =

Function (energy input,
energy output,
energy stored,
energy dissipated)
Attracted-armature relay

• The operation of a simple attracted-armature relay is shown in Fig.

• Assume that initially the switch is open and that there is no

stored field energy 26
 ENERGY BALANCE
After the switch is closed, the sequence of events falls into four distinct
steps as follows:
t=0 (External load)

Step 1:

• After the switch is closed, the current rises exponentially

• If L1 is the inductance of the coil for the initial position of the armature,
the initial rate of rise of current is given by di/dt|t=0+ = V/L1
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 ENERGY BALANCE
Step 1 (0 < t < t1) continued…
• The total input electrical energy from the source upto time ‘t’
= i2R loss in the magnetizing coil integrated over time (from 0 to t)
+ stored energy in the magnetic field
• During this period the armature experiences an attractive force, but
the various mechanical restraints (external load/force + spring)
prevent it from moving (u = 0)
t=0 (External load)

u=0

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 ENERGY BALANCE
Step 2 (t1 < t < t2):
• When the current in the coil reaches an appropriate value, the armature
begins to move (u > 0) when the electro-mechanical force of
attraction (fE) ≥ total external mechanical force (fM) (load + spring)
• Mechanical energy is required to stretch the spring, drive the external
load and to supply the kinetic energy required by the moving parts

t=0 (External load)

u>0

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 ENERGY BALANCE
Step 2 (t1 < t < t2) continued…
• The airgaps are reduced leading to an increase in the inductance of
the arrangement. This causes a reaction in the electrical system in the
form of an induced e.m.f. E
• This e.m.f. tends to reduce the coil current and also permits the
conversion of electrical energy, i.e. it is the reaction to the action

t=0 (External load)

u>0
E

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 ENERGY BALANCE
Step 3 (t2 < t < t3):
• The armature cannot continue to move indefinitely, it stops eventually
(either by touching the opposite pole or just before). This causes the
kinetic energy of the system to be dissipated as noise/heat, some slight
deformation of the poles and vibrations etc.

Step 4 (t3 < t):

• There is no further motion of the system, the inductance becomes
constant at a new higher value L2. The current increases slowly to its
final steady-state value V/r. This final rate of rise is much less than the
initial rate of rise (at t ~ 0+) since the inductance is now much greater.
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 ENERGY BALANCE
Electrical Mechanical
Stored
energy magnetic energy
field
energy

Stored non-useful thermal energy (due to i 2R loss,

mechanical energy friction, etc.)

dWf Ws W1

WE + WM = Wf + Ws + W1 => pE + pM = + +
dt dt dt
Both electrical and mechanical energies are taken as input energies to
the system. It follows that an output energy is mathematically a negative
input energy. The conversion process can take place in either direction. 32
 ENERGY BALANCE
Actions and reactions in practical electromechanical conversion system
pE,in pM,in
pE = ei
pM = -fEu

• On the electrical side the applied voltage is v and this is opposed by

the reaction in the form of the back e.m.f. e
• The input electrical power is pE,in = v.i
• The rate of electrical energy conversion is e.i
• These two terms are only equal when the i2R loss is negligible
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 ENERGY BALANCE
Actions and reactions in practical electromechanical conversion system
pE,in pM,in
pE = ei
pM = -fEu

• On the mechanical side, the mechanical input force fM acts towards the
conversion system when applied in the same direction as velocity u
• The reaction to this is the magnetically developed force fE
• These two forces are equal and opposite only when the mechanical
system is at rest or moves with uniform velocity 34
 ENERGY BALANCE
The basic machine can be idealized to a limited extent by separating some
of the electrical/mechanical losses at the input/output as indicated below
Input for Input for

Idealized energy balance diagram 35

 ENERGY BALANCE
• The ideal and essential energy balance is WE + WM = Wf
dWf
• The power balance is pE + pM =
dt

Useful electrical Useful mechanical

energy (after removal energy (after removal
of electrical losses) of mechanical losses)

Stored
magnetic
field
energy

Idealized energy balance diagram 36

 DIVISION OF CONVERTED ENERGY AND POWER
Consider the attracted armature relay shown below
The movement of the armature is in
the ‘−x’ direction. Because the lengths
i of the airgaps are decreasing, the
inductance of the system increases.
e
The induced e.m.f. is

The velocity of the armature is

37
 DIVISION OF CONVERTED ENERGY AND POWER
Consider the general solution of the power balance

… (1)
i

At any instant t, e

… (2)

… (3)
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 DIVISION OF CONVERTED ENERGY AND POWER
Using (1), (2) and (3),

fE

=> The force of reaction developed by the magnetic field is

1 2 dL
fE = - i
2 dx
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 FORCE OF ALIGNMENT BETWEEN
PARALLEL MAGNETIZED SURFACES -1
• If V is the volume of the airgap,
the field energy is

Attractive force of alignment between

parallel magnetized surfaces

B2 A
• Thus, the attractive alignment force => f E =
2 0
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 FORCE OF ALIGNMENT BETWEEN
PARALLEL MAGNETIZED SURFACES - 2
• The overlapping cross-sectional area of the airgap is x.l,
and the gap length is lg.
 The airgap volume is given by

 The field energy is

Lateral alignment force between

B 2llg
 Lateral force and f E 
=>
parallel magnetized surfaces

2 0 41
 LATERAL FORCE OF ALIGNMENT BETWEEN
PARALLEL MAGNETIZED SURFACES

B 2llg
and f E 
2 0

• The polarity (positive) of the above expression indicates that the force
tries to align the poles by increasing the cross-sectional area of the airgap,
thereby decreasing the reluctance
• Once the two poles are perfectly aligned, then the force drops to zero and
reverses its polarity thereafter (poles misaligned in the other direction)
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 ROTARY MOTION
• The rotating machine can be analyzed by replacing x by λ (the angle
of rotational distortion) and u by ω (the angular velocity of the rotor)
dW f
• The torque of a rotating machine is given by M 
d

Angular velocity Symbol: ωr Unit: radian per second (rad/s)

In electrical machines, the speed is often measured in revolutions per
second or per minute, hence
Angular speed Symbol: n (or nr) Unit: revolution per second (r/s)

r  2 nr
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SOLVED EXAMPLES

44
Q1. An electromagnet is made using a
horseshoe core as shown. The core has
an effective length of 600 mm and a
cross-sectional area of 500 mm2. A
rectangular block of steel is held by
the electromagnet’s force of alignment
and a force of 20 N is required to free
it. The magnetic circuit through the
block is 200 mm long and the effective
cross-sectional area is again 500 mm2.
The relative permeability of both core
and block is 700. If the magnet is
energized by a coil of 100 turns,
estimate the coil current. 45
Solution: There are two airgaps in the magnetic circuit, hence the force to
part the circuit members is double that at any one gap.

(A = 500×10-6 m2)

(μr = 700)

(l = (600+200) mm) (F = NI)

46
Q2. The poles of an electromagnet are shown below relative to a steel bar.
If the effects of leakage flux may be neglected, estimate the forces of
alignment that act laterally on the steel bar due to each pole.

Steel bar

47
Solution:
There is no lateral force of alignment at the left-hand pole since motion
in either direction would not change the reluctance of the airgap and
hence there can be no change in the field energy stored in that gap.

There is a lateral force of alignment at the right-hand gap given as follows:

48
Q3. A solenoid relay shown below is operated from a 110 V DC supply
and the 5000-turn coil resistance is 5.5 kΩ. The core diameter of the relay
is 20 mm and the gap length is 1.5 mm, the armature being stationary.
The gap faces may be taken as parallel and the permeability of the
ferromagnetic parts as very high. Estimate:
(a) the gap flux density;
20
(b) the coil inductance;
(c) the pull on the armature.
lg =
1.5 mm

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Solution: 20

lg =
1.5 mm

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(c) The inductance L is inversely proportional to the gap length lg,
hence in general for a variable gap ‘x’:
20

lg =
1.5 mm
=>

=> Magnetic force

The positive polarity indicates that it is a force of attraction
(same direction as velocity)
51
Q4. In the electromagnetic relay shown below excited from a
voltage source, the current i and flux linkages λ are related as
i    2 (1  x) ; x  1
2 2

Find the force on the armature as a function of 

52
Solution: The change in field energy due to an infinitesimal change
in flux linkage dλ at a current i(λ) is dWf = idλ

=> Total field energy at flux linkage λ

( i    2 (1  x) ;) x  1
2 2

(1 – x)
(magnetic force of alignment/attraction)
53
Q5. The magnetic flux density on the surface of an iron face is 1.6 T,
which is a typical saturation level value for ferromagnetic materials.
Find the force density on the iron face.

54
Solution: Let the cross-sectional area of the iron face be A.
Consider the field energy in the airgap volume contained between
two parallel faces separated by a distance x.

The mechanical force due to the field is

0
The negative sign indicates that the force acts in a direction to reduce x
(i.e. it is an attractive force between the two faces).

The force per unit area is

0

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PRACTICE PROBLEMS

56
Q1. A coil of fixed inductance 4.0 H and effective resistance 30 Ω is
suddenly connected to a 100 V, DC supply. What is the rate of energy
storage in the field of the coil at each of the following instants: (a) when
the current is 1.0 A; (b) when the current is 2.0 A; (c) when the current is
at its final steady value? (Ans: 70 W, 80 W, 0)

Q2. A simple relay has an airgap of length 1.0 mm and effective cross-
sectional area 1000 mm2. The magnetizing coil consists of 1000 turns of
wire carrying a current of 200 mA. Calculate the energy stored in the
airgap. The reluctance of the ferromagnetic part of the magnetic circuit
may be neglected. (Ans: 4.2 A)

57
Q3. The electromagnet illustrated in Fig. a supports a mass of 11 kg. The
cross-section of the magnetic parts of the magnetic circuit is 600 mm2,
and the excitation current is 2 A. Find the number of turns in the
magnetizing coil to achieve the required supporting force. The
permeability of the core material varies with flux density as in the
following table:

Ans: 19 turns
Fig. a
58
Q4. A cylindrical pot magnet is shown in Fig. b. The coil, which has
1000 turns and a resistance of 20 Ω, is connected to a constant-voltage
source of 60 V DC. The plunger passes the point at which the airgap is
10 mm travelling upwards with a uniform velocity of 2.0 m/s. Make an
estimate of the value of the current at this instant, assuming that the
initial airgap length was 15 mm. Apportion the instantaneous input
power into heat, magnetic-energy storage-rate and mechanical
components. Hence estimate the magnetic force on the plunger.
Ans: 80 W, -78.4 W, 118.4 W, 49.2 N

Fig. b
59
 REFERENCES
[1] Edward Hughes, John Hiley, Keith Brown, Ian McKenzie Smith: Hughes Electrical
& Electronic Technology, 10th Edition, Pearson Education Limited, 2008

[2] D. P. Kothari, I. J. Nagrath: ELECTRIC MACHINES, 4th Edition, Mc Graw Hill

Education, 2010

[3] Sergey N. Makarov, Reinhold Ludwig, Stephen J. Bitar: Practical Electrical

Engineering, 2nd Edition, Springer International Publishing, Switzerland, 2019

[4] Allan R. Hambley: Electrical Engineering Principles & Applications, 6th Edition,
Prentice Hall, 2013

[5] Jacek F. Gieras: Electrical Machines-Fundamentals of Electromechanical Energy

Conversion, 1st Edition, CRC Press, 2017
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