ELECTRICAL MACHINE II

CHAPTER 2: ELECTROMECHANICAL ENERGY CONVERSION PRINCIPLES

OUTLINES:

- Electromechanical Energy Conversion

- Energy Balance
- Determination of Magnetic Force and Torque from Energy &
Coenergy
- Forces and Torques in Systems with Permanent Magnets
- Dynamic Equations

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ELECTROMECHANICAL ENERGY CONVERSION

Electromechanical Devices
 Converts electrical energy into mechanical energy or mechanical energy
into electrical energy. There are various electromechanical conversion
devices, which may categorized as:
▪ Transducers (for measurement and control): These devices transform the signals
of different forms. Examples are microphones, pickups, and speakers.
▪ Force producing devices (linear motion devices): These type of devices
produce forces mostly for linear motion drives, such as relays, solenoids (linear
actuators), and electromagnets.
▪ Continuous energy conversion devices: These devices operate in rotating
mode. A device would be known as a generator if it convert mechanical energy
into electrical energy, or as a motor if it does the other way around (from
electrical to mechanical).

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FORCE AND TORQUE IN MAGNETIC FIELD
SYSTEM
Lorentz Force Law:
F = q (E + v  B ) N
For many charged particle
Fv =  (E + v  B) N/m3
Current density J = v A/m2
Current I=JA A
( where, ρ is in coulombs/m3)
Fv = J  B N/m3
F = IB N/m

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EXAMPLE 2.1

A nonmagnetic motor containing

a single-turn coil is placed in a
uniform magnetic field of
magnitude B0, as shown in Fig.
3.2. The coil sides are at radius R
and the wire carries current I as
indicated. Find the θ-directed
torque as a function of rotor
position α when I=10 A, Bo=0.02
T and R=0.05 m. Assume that the
rotor is of length l=0.3 m.

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FORCE AND TORQUE IN MAGNETIC FIELD
SYSTEM

Solution:
F1=-IBoSinα, the second conductor is at 180 degree out of the page,
hence, F2=-IBoSinα, therefore the total torque is
T=-2RIBoSinα=2*0.05*10*0.02*0.3*Sin α = -0.006 Sin α (N.m)
Note:
✓ Very few problems can be solved using Lorentz force, where current-carrying
elements and simple structures exist.
✓ Most electromechanical-energy-conversion devices contain magnetic material
and forces can not be calculated from Lorentz force.
✓ Thus,We will use ENERGY METHOD based on conservation of energy.

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 ENERGY BALANCE

 According to the principle of conservation of energy, energy can neither be

created nor destroyed, it can merely be converted from one form into another.
 The total energy in a system is therefore constant.
 In an energy conversion device, out of the total input energy, some
energy is converted into the required form, some energy is stored, and
the rest is dissipated.
 It is possible to write an equation describing energy conversion in
electromechanical system:
Energy
Electrical
= Mechanical + Increase of
+ converted to
energy from energy to load field energy
source heat (losses)

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ENERGY BALANCE

 The last term can be described further:

Friction and
Energy converted = Resistance + + Field losses
windage
to heat (losses) losses
losses

 Therefor, it is true that;

Mechanical energy
Electrical energy Increase of magnetic
= to load plus + coupling field energy
from source minus friction and
resistance losses plus core losses
windage losses
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ENERGY BALANCE
Fixed steel
Bahagian tak boleh
core
gerak
u Moveable
 Let’s consider the R  steel armature
Bahagian boleh
i gerak
electromechanical
system (actuator) in Fm
v e
Figure 2.1: x

dx

Figure 2.1

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ELECTRICAL ENERGY

 At any instant, the emf e induced in the coil by the change in the flux
linkage  is:
d
e= (volt)
dt

 Consider now a differential time interval dt, during which the current in
the coil is changing and the armature is moving.

dWe = vidt − Ri 2 dt
= (v − Ri)idt
 dWe = eidt (Joule)

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ELECTRICAL ENERGY

 Therefore, the differential energy transferred in time dt from the electric

source to the coupling field is given by the energy output of the source
minus the resistance loss:
 The coupling field forms an energy storage to which energy supplied by the
electric system. At the same time, energy is released from the coupling field
to the mechanical system.
 The rate of release energy is not necessarily equal at any instant to the rate
of supply of energy to the field, so that the amount of energy stored in the
coupling field may vary.
 In time dt, let dWf be the energy supplied to the field and either stored or
dissipated. Let dWm be the energy converted to mechanical form, useful or
as loss, in the same time, dt.

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FIELD ENERGY

 Then, by the principle of conservation of energy, the following equation may

be written for the field:

dWe = dWm + dW f

 To obtain an expression for dWf of the above eqn. in terms of the

system variables, it is first necessary to find an expression for the energy
stored in the magnetic field for any position of the armature. The
armature will therefore be clamped at some value of air-gap length g so
that no mechanical output can be produced.
dWm = 0

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FIELD ENERGY

 If switch SW in Fig. 2.1 is now closed, the current will rise to a value v/R,
and the flux will be established in the magnetic system. Let the
relationship between coil flux linkage  and the current i for the chosen
air-gap length be that shown in Fig. 2.2



Fig. 2.2 dWf

i1 i2 i
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FIELD ENERGY
 Since core loss is being neglected, this will be a single-valued curve
passing through the origin. In the absence of any mechanical output
energy, all of the electric input energy must be stored in the magnetic
field:
dWe = dWf
dWf = dWe = i.edt = id (J)
 If now v is changed, resulting in a change in current from i1 to i2, there
will be a corresponding change in flux linkage from 1 to 2 .
 The increase in energy stored during the transition between these two
states is 𝝀𝟐
𝒅𝑾𝒇 = න 𝒊𝒅𝝀
𝝀𝟏

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FIELD ENERGY

 The area is shown in Fig 2.2. When the flux linkage is increased from
zero to , the total energy stored in the field is

Wf =  id
0
 This integral represents the area between the –i characteristic and the
–axis, the entire shaded area of Fig. 2.2.
 If it is assumed that there is no leakage flux, so that all flux  in the
magnetic system links all N turns of the coil, then:  = N (Wb)
dWf = id = (Ni)d = F d , where F = Ni
F is mmf (magneto-motive force)
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FIELD ENERGY

 The characteristics can also

represent in figure 2.3

Ф
relationship between  
and F . Ф1

Fig:2.3 Ф2 dWf

 Magnetic stored energy

can also expressed as:
i1 i2
F1 F2 Fi
B 
W fld =    H dB  dV
 
V0 

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FIELD ENERGY

Linear Magnetic Material

 If the reluctance of the air gap forms a large part of the total reluctance
of the magnetic system, then that of the steel may be neglected and the
–i characteristic becomes the straight line through the origin.
 = Li
 Where L is the inductance of the coil. Then the energy Wf in several
useful forms:
  2
Li 2 i
Wf =  d = = =
0 L 2L 2 2
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FIELD ENERGY

Linear Magnetic Material

 Also:
i F 1
Wf = = = HBlA
2 2 2
 Where B is the flux density in the air gaps. Since B/H=µ0 and lA is the
total gap volume, it follows that the energy density in the air gaps is:
Wf
1 1 1 B2
wf = = BH = 0 H =
2
(J/m3 )
lA 2 2 2 0

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EXAMPLE 2.1

The relay shown on the figure is made of infinitely-permeable magnetic

material with a movable plunger, also of infinitely-permeable material. The
height of the plunger is much greater than the air-gap length (h>>g).
Calculate the magnetic stored energy Wfld as a function of plunger position
(0<x<d) for N=1000 turns, g=2 mm, d=0.15 m, l=0.1 m, and i=10 A.

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EXAMPLE 2.1
Solution

Where,

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EXERCISE

The core and armature dimensions of the actuator of Fig. 2.1 are shown in Fig.
2.4. Both parts are made of mild steel, whose magnetization curve is given in
Fig. 2.5. Given la = 160 mm, lb = 80 mm. The coil has 2000 turns. Leakage flux and
fringing may be neglected. The armature is fixed, so that the length of the air gab,
lu= 9 mm, and a direct current is passed through the coil, producing a flux density
of 0.8 T in the air gap.
a) Determine the required coil current.

b) Determine the energy stored in the air gap.

c) Determine the energy stored in the steel.

d) Determine the total field energy, and comment on the energy stored on the
steel.

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EXERCISE

la

20 mm

The
ketebalan = 20 mm
thickness

lu
The
angker
armature
lb 20 mm

Fig 2.4

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EXERCISE
B (Tesla)

2.0 Keluli keping

Sheet steel
1.8

1.6

mild steel
Keluli tuang
1.4

1.2

1.0

0.8
cast iron
Besi tuang

0.6

0.4

0.2

H (AT/m)
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000

Fig 2.5 characterization curve

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EXERCISE

Solution
(a) Area, A = (20  10-3)(20  10-3) = 4  10-4 m2.
Ni = Htlt + Hulu
lt = 160 + 80 = 240 mm = 240  10-3 m
lu = 2  9 mm = 18 mm = 18  10-3 m
Given Bu = 0.8 T
Bu = Bt = 0.8 T
From Fig. 2.5, magnetic field intensity @0.8T in the mild steel is,
Ht = 450 A/m

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EXERCISE

For the air gaps Bu

0.8
Hu = = = 636.62  10 3

 o 4  10 −7

(450)(240  10 −3 ) + (636.62  10 3 )(18  10 −3 )

i=
2000
11567.16
= 5.78
2000
(b) Energy density in the air gaps is
B2
w fu = = 254.65  10 3
J/m3
2(4  10 −7 )
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EXERCISE

Volume of air gaps = length of air gaps  area of air gaps

= 0.018  0.02  0.02
= 7.2  10-6 m3
Energy stored in the air gaps,
Wfu = the volume of air gaps  wfu
= (7.2  10-6)  254.65  103
= 1.834 Joule.
(c) Energy density in the steel,

0.8
w ft = HdB
0

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EXERCISE

Energy density in the steel is given by the area enclosed between the characteristic and the B axis in
Fig. 2.5 up to value of 0.8 T.
wft  ½  0.8  450 = 180 J/m3 (straight-line approximation)
Volume of steel= length of steel  area of steel
= (240  10-3)  (0.02  0.02)
= 9.6  10-5 m3
Energy stored in the steel,
Wft = 9.6  10-5  180 = 0.01728 Joule
(d) Total field energy, The proportion of field energy stored in
Wf = Wft + Wfu the steel is, therefore, seen to be
= 0.01728 + 1.834 negligibly.
= 1.851 Joule.

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COENERGY

 Coenergy, Wf ’ is the area enclosed between the -i characteristic and the i axis
of Fig.2.6

Wf

Wf'

Fig.2.6 i

 Note: For linear -i characteristic, Wf’ = Wf.

For nonlinear -i characteristic, Wf’ > Wf.

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FORCE AND TORQUE CALCULATION FROM
ENERGY AND COENERGY

A. Singly Excited Linear Actuator

• Electrical terminals: e and i

• Mechanical terminals: ffld and x
• Losses separated from energy
storage mechanism
• Interaction through magnetic
stored energy

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FORCE AND TORQUE CALCULATION FROM
ENERGY AND COENERGY

After a time interval dt, we notice that the plunger has moved for a distance dx
under the action of the force F. The mechanical work done by the force acting
on the plunger during this time interval is thus:

From energy balance

Where,

Then,

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FORCE AND TORQUE CALCULATION FROM
ENERGY AND COENERGY

 From the above equation the energy stored in the magnetic field is a
function of the flux linkage of the excitation winding and of the position
of the plunger.
 Mathematically it can be written as:

 Comparing the above equations:

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FORCE AND TORQUE CALCULATION FROM
ENERGY AND COENERGY

 From the previous discussion energy stored in a magnetic field is:

 For a magnetically linear (with a constant permeability or a straight

line magnetization curve such that the inductance of the coil is
independent of the excitation current) system, the above expression
becomes:
 And the force on the plunger:

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FORCE AND TORQUE CALCULATION FROM
ENERGY AND COENERGY

 In the diagram below, it is shown that the magnetic energy is equivalent

to the area above the magnetization or l-i curve. Mathematically, if we
define the area underneath the magnetization curve as the coenergy
(which does not exist physically), i.e.

 Then it can be obtained:

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FORCE AND TORQUE CALCULATION FROM
ENERGY AND COENERGY

 Therefore,

 From the above diagram the coenergy or the area underneath the
magnetization curve can calculated as:

 For magnetically linear system, the expression becomes:

 And the force acting on the plunger is:

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EXAMPLE 2.2

For a singly excited linear actuator shown below

a. Sketch L(x) and calculate the induced emf in the excitation coil for a
linear actuator shown below.
b. Calculate the force acting on the plunger.

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EXAMPLE 2.2

Solution:

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EXAMPLE 2.2

If i=Idc (DC excitation), then

If i=ImSinωt (Alternating excitation), then

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EXAMPLE 2.2

 Assume the permeability of the magnetic core of the actuator is infinite,

and hence the system can be treated as magnetically linear. From the
equivalent magnetic circuit of the actuator shown in figure above, one
can readily find the self inductance of the excitation winding as:

 Therefore,

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EXAMPLE 2.2

Note:
 The minus sign of the force indicates that the direction of the force is to
reduce the displacement so as to reduce the reluctance of the air gaps.
Since this force is caused by the variation of magnetic reluctance of the
magnetic circuit, it is known as the reluctance force.

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FORCE AND TORQUE CALCULATION FROM
ENERGY AND COENERGY

B. Singly Excited Rotating Actuator

 Through a derivation similar to that for a
singly excited linear actuator, one can
readily obtain that the torque acting on
the rotor can be expressed as the
negative partial derivative of the energy
stored in the magnetic field against the
angular displacement or as the positive
partial derivative of the coenergy against
the angular displacement, as summarized
in the following table.
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FORCE AND TORQUE CALCULATION FROM
ENERGY AND COENERGY

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EXAMPLE 2.3

The magnetic circuit in the figure is made of high-permeability electrical

steel. The rotor is free to turn about a vertical axis. The dimensions are
shown in the figure.
a. Derive an expression for the torque acting on the rotor in terms of
the dimensions and the magnetic field in the two air gaps. Assume the
reluctance of the steel to be negligible and neglect the effects of
fringing.
b. The maximum flux density in the overlapping portions of the air gaps
is to be limited to approximately 1.65 T to avoid excessive saturation
of the steel. Compute the maximum torque for r1=2.5 cm, h=1.8 cm,
and g=3 mm.

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EXAMPLE 2.3

a. There are two air gaps in

series, each of length g, and
hence the air-gap field
intensity Hag is equal to

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EXAMPLE 2.3

Hence the system coenergy is equal to that of the air gaps, in which the
coenergy density in the air gap is

The volume of the two overlapping air gaps is 2gh(rl + 0.5g)θ.

Consequently, the coenergy is equal to the product of the air-gap coenergy
density and the air-gap volume

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EXAMPLE 2.3

b. For Bag =1.65 T

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EXERCISE
The magnetic circuit below consists of a
single-coil stator and an oval rotor. Because
the air-gap is nonuniform, the coil inductance
varies with rotor angular position, measured
between the magnetic axis of the stator coil
and the major axis of the rotor, as
L( ) = L0 + L2 cos (2 )
where where L0=10.6 mH and L2=2.7 mH.
Note the second-harmonic variation of
inductance with rotor angle θ. Find the
torque as a function of θ if the current I is
2A.

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FORCE AND TORQUE CALCULATION FROM
ENERGY AND COENERGY
C. Doubly Excited Rotating
Actuator
The general principle for force
and torque calculation discussed
above is equally applicable to
multi-excited systems. Consider
a doubly excited rotating
actuator shown schematically in
the diagram below as an example.
The differential energy and
coenergy functions can be
derived as following:

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FORCE AND TORQUE CALCULATION FROM
ENERGY AND COENERGY

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FORCE AND TORQUE CALCULATION FROM
ENERGY AND COENERGY

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FORCE AND TORQUE CALCULATION FROM
ENERGY AND COENERGY

 Therefore, comparing the

corresponding differential terms

 For magnetically linear

systems, currents and flux
linkages can be related by
constant inductances as following
 Where,

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FORCE AND TORQUE CALCULATION FROM
ENERGY AND COENERGY

 The magnetic energy and coenergy can be expressed as

 Therefore the torque acting on the rotor as

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EXAMPLE 2.4

In the figure, the inductances in henrys are given as L11=(3+cos 2θ)x10-3;

L12=0.3 cos θ; L22=30+10 cos 2θ. Find and plot the torque Tfld(θ) for
current i1=0.8 A and i2=0.01 A.

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EXAMPLE 2.4

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EXAMPLE 2.4
T fld = −(1.64 sin 2 + 2.4 sin  ) 10 −3

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FORCES AND TORQUES IN SYSTEMS WITH
PERMANENT MAGNETS
Special case must be taken when dealing with hard magnetic material
because magnetic flux density is zero when H=Hc not when H=0.
 Consider fictitious winding
 In normal operation, the fictitious winding carries NO current
 Current in the winding can be adjusted to zero out the field produced
by permanent magnet in order to achieve the “zero force” starting
point.

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FORCES AND TORQUES IN SYSTEMS WITH
PERMANENT MAGNETS
 (i f , x) =  f di f + f fld dx
dW fld
 (i f = 0, x) =
W fld  +  dW fld
 dW fld 
path 1a path 1b
x 0
 (i f = 0, x) =  f fld (i f = I f0 , x) dx +   f (i f , x) di f
W fld
0 I f0

If0 is the current to zero-out the field.

0
 (i f = 0, x) =
W fld   f (i f , x) di f
I f0

Integration path for calculating Wfld (if = 0, x ) in the permanent magnet system
of previous figure.
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EXAMPLE 2.5
The magnetic circuit is excited by a
samarium-cobalt permanent magnet and
includes a movable plunger. Also shown is the
fictitous winding of Nf turns carrying a
current if which is included here for the sake
of the analysis. The dimensions are: Wm=2 cm,
Wg=3 cm, W0=2 cm, d=2 cm, g0=0.2 cm, and
D=3 cm.
a. Find an expression for the coenergy of the
system as a function of plunger position x,
b. Find an expression for the force on the
plunger as a function of x,
c. Calculate the force at x=0 and x=0.5 cm.
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EXAMPLE 2.5

a. Because it is quite linear over most of its useful operating range, the dc
magnetization curve for samarium-cobalt can be represented as a
straight line of the form

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EXAMPLE 2.5
Thus we see that the flux linkages λf will be zero when

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FORCES AND TORQUES IN SYSTEMS WITH
PERMANENT MAGNETS
A different solution for permanent magnet circuits:

  
 =  R A  − H c − e 
 d 
 ( Ni) eq e 
 =  R A  − 
 d d 
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, (𝑁𝑖)𝑒𝑞 = −𝐻𝑐′ 𝑑
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 EXERCISE
Figure shows an actuator consisting of an infinitely-permeable yoke and plunger,
excited by a section of NdFeB magnet and an excitation winding of N1=1500
turns. The dimensions are: W=4 cm, W1=4.5 cm, D=3.5 cm, d=8 mm, and g0=1
mm.
a. Find x-directed force on the plunger when the current in the excitation winding is
zero and x=3 mm.
b. Calculate the current in the excitation winding required to reduce the plunger
force to zero.

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DYNAMIC EQUATIONS

 We are interested here in the operation of complete electromechanical

system and not just of the electromechanical energy conversion system
around which it is built.

di d L( x) d x
 For Electrical Terminal: v0 = R i + L( x) +i
dt d x dt
Note: For multiple-excited system, we will have similar equation for each terminal

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 DYNAMIC EQUATIONS
For Mechanical Terminal:
Spring: x
K : Spring constant (N/m)
f K = − K ( x − x0 ) K
Damper:
dx B
f D = −B B : Damping constant (N.s/m)
dt f fld
Mass:

d 2x M
fM = −M 2 M : Mass (kg)
dt
d 2x dx
f fld =M 2 +B + K ( x − x0 ) + f 0 f0
dt dt
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DYNAMIC EQUATIONS
Dynamic Equations (Electrical and Mechanical Equations Together):

d i (t ) d L( x) d x(t )
v0 (t ) = R i (t ) + L( x) +i
dt dx dt
d 2 x(t ) d x(t )
f 0 (t ) = − M 2
−B − K ( x(t ) − x0 ) + f fld (i(t ), x(t ))
dt dt
i 2 d L( x)
f fld =
2 dx
Note: These equations completely specify the behavior of electromechanical
device. Solution of these equations will describe the position x and the
current i at any time t in the system.

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DYNAMIC EQUATIONS
For Rotational Mechanical Terminal:
Torsional Spring:

TK = − K ( −  0 ) K : Torsional Spring constant (N.m/rad)

Friction:
d
TF = − B B : Friction constant (N.m.s/rad)
dt
Inertia:

d 2
TJ = − J 2 J : Inertia constant (kg.m2/rad)
dt
d 2 d
T fld =J 2 +B + K ( −  0 ) + T0
dt dt
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EXAMPLE 2.6

Figure shows in cross section a cylindrical solenoid

magnet in which the cylindrical plunger of mass M
moves vertically in brass guide rings of thickness g and
mean diameter d. The permeability of brass is µ0. The
plunger is supported by a spring with K constant. Its
unstretched length is l0. A mechanical load force ft is
applied to the plunger from the mechanical system
connected to it. Assume that frictional force is linearly
proportional to the velocity with coefficient B. The
coil has N turns and resistance R. Its terminal voltage
is vt and its current i.
Derive the dynamic equations of motion of the
electromechanical system.

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EXAMPLE 2.6

 The reluctance of the magnetic circuit is that of the two guide rings in
series, with the flux directed radially through them, as shown by the
dashed flux lines Ф in Fig. Because g << d, the flux density in the guide
rings is very nearly constant with respect to the radial distance. In a
region where the flux density is constant, the reluctance is

 The reluctance of the upper gap is

 Similarly, the reluctance of the lower gap is

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EXAMPLE 2.6

The total reluctance,

Hence, the inductance,

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EXAMPLE 2.6

The magnetic force acting upward on the plunger in the positive x direction
is

or

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EXERCISE

A two poles VR machine is shown in figure. Stator and rotor has infinite
permeability.

a. Find gap cross-sectional area as a function of θ.

b. Find the inductance for the machine.
c. Write down the dynamic equations.
d. Solve the dynamic equations to find the position of rotor as a function of
time initially starting from θ0=25 degrees.

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 EXERCISE

Numerical Values:
N=100 turns, g=0.0005 m, d=0.1 m,
r=0.04 m, J=0.05, B=0.02, θ0=30,
R=0.5ohm, E=10 Volt. es
otor Ax
R
r

Stator Axes
0

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END OF CHAPTER 2