1

Measurements,
Instrumentation,
and Sensors
1.1 Introduction....................................................................................... 1-1
1.2 Measurements.................................................................................... 1-2
1.3 Instruments........................................................................................ 1-2
Design of Instruments╇ •â•‡ Testing and Use of Instruments╇ •â•‡
Response and Drift╇ •â•‡ Accuracy and Errors╇ •â•‡ Error
Reduction╇ •â•‡ Calibration of Instruments
1.4 Analog and Digital Instruments..................................................... 1-6
Analog Instruments╇ •â•‡ Digital Instruments
1.5 Sensors and Transducers.................................................................. 1-7
Smart Sensors╇ •â•‡ Wireless and Autonomous Sensors
and Instruments
1.6 Instrumentation and Networks......................................................1-10
1.7 Software Support for Sensors and Instruments...........................1-11
1.8 Application Examples..................................................................... 1-12
Halit Eren Bibliography................................................................................................. 1-13
Curtin University Partial List of Vendors and Suppliers.........................................................1-14

1.1╇ Introduction
Measurement is a process of gathering information from a physical world and comparing this
information with agreed standards. As highlighted in this chapter and discussed in detail in
this book, measurements are essential activities for observing and testing scientific and technologi-
cal investigations.
Measurements are carried out by using instruments, which are designed and manufactured to
fulfill specific tasks. Sensors are used as the primary elements in instruments to respond to the
physical variable under investigation. In this book, a diverse range of sensors and instruments
are discussed; the advances and the recent developments in measurements, instrumentation, and
�sensors are introduced in the proceeding sections and chapters.
In many applications, many sensors and instruments are used to collect information about the pro-
cess under investigation. These instruments are connected together using wired, optical, or wireless
networks. The details of the supporting hardware and software technologies behind these networks are
discussed extensively.

1-1
1-2 Instrumentation and Measurement Concepts

1.2╇ Measurements
If the behavior of the physical variable is known, its performance can be monitored and assessed by
means of suitable methods of sensing, signal conditioning, and termination. The applications of instru-
ments range from laboratory conditions to arduous environments such as inside nuclear reactors or
remote locations such as satellite systems and spaceships.
The sensor-output signals of the majority of modern instruments are in electric form. This is due to
electric signals being easy to process, display, store, and transmit. Once converted to electric forms, the
relation between the sensor signals and the physical variations can be expressed in the form of transfer
functions. The transfer function is a mathematical model between the sensor signal and the physical
variable. In a continuous system, the transfer function may be linear or nonlinear. A linear relationship
may be expressed by the following equation:

y = a + bx (1.1)

where
y is the electric signal
x is the physical stimulus
a is the intercept on the y-axis, which gives the output signal for a zero input
b is the slope that is also known as the sensitivity

In ideal cases, this relationship should be consistent without any errors, nonlinearity, or deviation.
However, in measurements, there may be many sources of errors; therefore, it is important to identify
these sources and draw up an error budget by considering factors, such as
• Imperfections in electric and mechanical components (e.g., high tolerances and noise or offset
voltages)
• Changes in component performances (e.g., shift in gains, changes in chemistry, aging, and drifts
in offsets)
• External and ambient influences (e.g., temperature, pressure, and humidity)
• Inherent physical fundamental laws (e.g., thermal and other electric noises, Brownian motion in
materials, and radiation)
Once the measurements are made, various forms of data analysis may be used to extract useful infor-
mation about the measurements and draw conclusions. Data analysis may include statistical methods,
curve fitting, selecting or discarding subsets of data, or many other techniques. For example, a typical
data analysis tool is the data mining, which aims to discover unforeseen patterns hidden in the data.
There is an extensive range of software available for the analysis (e.g., MATLAB®) to suit specific needs
of information obtained from experimental or test results. Further information on measurements and
analysis can be found throughout this book.

1.3╇ Instruments
Instruments are man-made devices for determining the value of the quantity/variable. They are
designed to maintain prescribed relationships between the parameters being measured and the physi-
cal variables under investigation. Instruments can be designed and constructed to be analog, digital,
or hybrid.
The construction of an instrument can be broken into smaller elements, as illustrated in Figure 1.1.
Typically, an instrument will have a sensor or transducer stage, a signal-conditioning stage, and an out-
put or termination stage. All instruments have some or all of these functional blocks.
Measurements, Instrumentation, and Sensors 1-3

Sensor Excitation Transmission

Physical Signal Signal Output
and/or or
quantities conditioner processing
transducer Signal display

Figure 1.1â•… Construction structure of a typical instrument.

A diverse range of sensors and transducers may be available to meet the measurement requirements
of a physical system. The sensors can be categorized in a number of ways depending on the energy input
and output, input variables, sensing elements, and electric or physical principles.
In recent years, the rapid growth of the integrated circuit (IC) electronics and the availability of
cost-effective processors have led to an impressive progress in instrumentation and measurements
in all fields. This coupled with the improvement of mathematical methods, the extensive applica-
tions of digital techniques, and the addition of new application areas enabled modern instruments
to excel to new heights as discussed in detail in this two-volume Measurements, Instrumentation,
and Sensors Handbook.

1.3.1╇ Design of Instruments

Instruments are designed on the basis of existing knowledge, which is gained either from the experi-
ences of people about the physical process or from structured understanding of the process. In any case,
ideas conceived about an instrument are translated into hardware and software that can perform well
within the expected standards and easily be accepted by the end users.
Usually, the design of instruments requires many multidisciplinary activities. In the wake of a
�rapidly changing technology, instruments are upgraded often to meet the demands of the marketplace.
Depending on the complexity of the proposed instrument, it may take many years to produce an instru-
ment for a relatively short commercial lifetime. In the design and production stages, engineers must
consider factors such as simplicity, appearance, ease and flexibility of use, maintenance requirements,
production costs, lead time to product, and positioning strategy in the marketplace.
The design process of an instrument may follow well-ordered procedures from ideas to marketing
of the final products. The process may be broken down into smaller tasks such as identifying specifica-
tions, developing possible solutions for these specifications, modeling, prototyping, installing and test-
ing, making modifications, manufacturing, planning marketing and distribution, evaluating customer
feedback, and making design and technological improvements. For example, many different specifica-
tions may be considered for particular product, which may include but are not limited to operational
requirements, functionality, technological limitations, quality, installation, maintenance, documenta-
tion, servicing, and acceptance level usage by customers.

1.3.2╇Testing and Use of Instruments

After the instrument is designed and prototyped, various evaluation tests may be conducted. These tests
may be made under reference conditions or under simulated environmental conditions. Some examples
of reference condition tests are accuracy, response time, drift, and warm-up time. Simulated environ-
mental tests may be compulsory, being regulated by governments and other authorities. Some simulated
environment tests include climatic test, drop test, dust test, insulation-resistance test, vibration test,
electromagnetic compatibility tests, and safety and health hazard tests. Many of these are strictly regu-
lated by national and international standards.
For maximum efficiency, an appropriate instrument for the measurement must be selected. Users
should be fully aware of their application requirements, since instruments that do not fit their pur-
poses will deliver false data resulting in wasted time and effort. For a particular application, users must
1-4 Instrumentation and Measurement Concepts

carefully study the documents about all the candidates and make comparisons among all options.
While selecting the instrument, users must evaluate many factors such as accuracy, frequency response,
electric and physical loading effects, sensitivity, response time, calibration intervals, power supply
needs, spare parts, technology, and maintenance requirements. They must ensure compatibility with
the existing equipment.
When selecting and implementing of instruments, quality becomes an important issue from both
quantitative and qualitative perspectives. The quality of an instrument may be viewed differently
depending on the people involved. For example, quality in the eyes of designer may be an instrument
designed on sound physical principles, whereas from the users’ point of view, it may be reliability, main-
tainability, cost, and availability.

1.3.3╇Response and Drift

Instruments respond to physical phenomenon by sensing and generating signals. Depending on the
type of instrument used and the physical phenomenon, the signals may be either slow or fast to change
and may also contain transients. The response of the instruments to the signals can be analyzed in a
number of ways by establishing static and dynamic performance characteristics. Although the static
performances are relatively simple, the dynamic performances may be complex. More information on
this can be found in Chapters 4, 11, and 12.

1.3.4╇Accuracy and Errors

The performance of an instrument depends on its static and dynamic characteristics. The performance
may be indicated by its accuracy, which may be described as the closeness of measured values to the real
values of the variable. The total response is a combination of dynamic and static responses. If the signals
generated by the physical variable are changing rapidly, then the dynamic properties of the instrument
become important. For slow-varying systems, the dynamic errors may be neglected. Further informa-
tion on accuracy can be found in Chapter 5.
The performance of an instrument may also be decided by other factors, such as the magnitudes of
errors; the repeatability, which indicates the closeness of sets of measurements made in the short term;
and the reproducibility of the instrument. The reproducibility is the closeness of sets of measurements
when repeated in similar conditions over a long period of time.
The ideal or perfect instrument would have perfect sensitivity, reliability, and repeatability
without any spread of values and would be within the applicable standards. However, in many
cases, there will be imprecise and inaccurate results because of internal and external factors. The
departure from the expected perfection is called the error. Often, sensitivity analyses are con-
ducted to evaluate the effect of individual components that are causing these errors. Sensitivity
to the �a ffecting parameter can be obtained by varying that one parameter and keeping the others
�constant. This can be done practically by using the developed instruments or mathematically by
means of appropriate models.
When determining the performance of an instrument, it is essential to appreciate how errors arise.
There may be many sources of errors; therefore, it is important to identify these sources and draw
up an error budget. In the error budget, there may be many factors, such as (1) imperfections in
electric and mechanical components (e.g., high tolerances and noise or offset voltages), (2) changes
in component performances (e.g., shift in gains, changes in chemistry, aging, and drifts in offsets),
(3) external and ambient influences (e.g., temperature, pressure, and humidity), and (4) inherent
physical fundamental laws (e.g., thermal and other electric noises, Brownian motion in materials,
and radiation).
In instrumentation systems, errors can be broadly classified as systematic, random, or gross errors.
For further information, readers can refer to Chapters 2 and 4.
Measurements, Instrumentation, and Sensors 1-5

1.3.5╇ Error Reduction

Controlling errors is an essential part of measurements and instrumentation. Various techniques are
available to achieve this objective. The error control begins in the design stages by choosing the appro-
priate components, filtering, and bandwidth selection; by reducing the noise; and by eliminating the
errors generated by the individual subunits of the complete system. In a good design, the errors of the
previous group may be compensated adequately by the following groups.
The accuracy of instruments can be increased by postmeasurement corrections. Various calibration
methods may be employed to alter parameters slightly to give correct results. In many cases, calibration
graphs, mathematical equations, tables, the experiences of the operators, and the like are used to reduce
measurement errors. In recent years, with the application of digital techniques and intelligent instru-
ments, error corrections are made automatically by the computers or the devices themselves. More
information is available in Chapters 8 and 9.
In many instrumentation systems, the application of compensation strategy is used to increase static and
dynamic performances. In the case of static characteristics, compensations can be made by many methods,
including introducing opposing nonlinear elements into the system, using isolation and zero environmen-
tal sensitivity, opposing compensating environmental inputs, using differential systems, and employing
feedback systems. On the other hand, dynamic compensation can be achieved by applying these tech-
niques as well as by reducing harmonics, using filters, adjusting bandwidth, using feedback compensation
techniques, and the like. Further information on dynamic error measurements can be found in Chapter 12.

1.3.6╇ Calibration of Instruments

The calibration of all instruments is essential for checking their performances against known standards.
This provides consistency in readings and reduces errors, thus validating the measurements universally.
After an instrument is calibrated, future operation is deemed to be error bound for a given period of
time for similar operational conditions. The calibration procedure involves comparison of the instru-
ment against primary or secondary standards. In some cases, it may be sufficient to calibrate a device
against another one with a known accuracy.
Many nations and organizations maintain laboratories with the primary functions of calibrating
instruments and field measuring systems that are used in everyday operations. Examples of these labo-
ratories are National Association of Testing Authorities (NATA) of Australia and the British Calibration
Services (BCS). Detailed information on calibration is available in Chapter 8.
Calibrations may be made under static or dynamic conditions. A typical calibration procedure of
a complex process involving many instruments is illustrated in Figure 1.2. In an ideal situation, for

Parameter 1 Parameter 2 Parameter n

Standard instrument 1 Standard instrument 2 Standard instrument n

Element or system under calibration

Output 1 Output 2 Output k

Standard instrument 1 Standard instrument 2 Standard instrument k
Calibrated instrument 1 Calibrated instrument 2 Calibrated instrument k

Figure 1.2â•… Instruments need to be frequently calibrated sequentially for all affecting inputs. Calibrations are
made under static or dynamic conditions by varying a single input and observing the corresponding output while
keeping all the other inputs constant until all inputs are covered.
1-6 Instrumentation and Measurement Concepts

an instrument that response to a multitude of physical variables, a commonly employed method is

by keeping all the inputs constant except one. The input is varied in increments in increasing and
decreasing directions over a specified range. The observed output then becomes a function of that
single input. The calibration is continued in a similar manner until all other inputs are covered.
For better results, this procedure may be repeated by varying the sequences of inputs, thus devel-
oping a family of relationships between the inputs and the outputs. As a result of these calibration
readings, the input and output relation usually demonstrates statistical characteristics. From these
characteristics, appropriate calibration curves can be obtained, and other statistical techniques can
be applied.

1.4╇Analog and Digital Instruments

Instruments can be analog or digital or a combination of the two. Nowadays, most instruments are
produced to be digital because of the advantages they offer. However, the front end of majority of
instruments is still analog; that is, most of the sensors and transducers generate analog signals. The
signals initially are conditioned by analog circuits before converting into digital form for further sig-
nal processing. It is important to mention that nowadays, digital instruments operating purely on
digital principles are being developed. For instance, today’s smart sensors contain the complete signal
condition circuits in a single chip integrated with the sensor itself. The output of smart sensors can
be interfaced directly with other digital devices. More information on smart sensors can be found in
Chapter 9.

1.4.1╇Analog Instruments
Analog instruments are characterized by continuous signals. A purely analog system measures, trans-
mits, displays, and stores data in analog form. The signal conditioning is usually made by integrating
many functional blocks such as bridges, amplifiers, filters, oscillators, modulators, offsets and level con-
verters, and buffers, as illustrated in Figure 1.3. Generally, in the initial stages, the signals produced by
the sensors and transducers are conditioned mainly by analog electronics, even if they are configured
as digital instruments later.
In analog instruments, the changes in amplitudes, phases, or frequencies or a combination of the
three convey the useful information in response to physical variables. These signals can be deterministic
or nondeterministic. As in the case with all signal-bearing systems, there are useful signals that respond
to the physical phenomena and unwanted signal resulting from various forms of noise requiring exten-
sive filtering and other signal processing as explained in the chapters in Electrical, Optical, Chemical,
and Biomedical Measurement.
Analog signals can also be nondeterministic; that is, the future state of the signal cannot be deter-
mined. If the signal varies in a probabilistic manner, its future can be determined only by statistical
methods. The mathematical and practical treatment of analog and digital signals, having foreseen, sto-
chastic, and nondeterministic properties, is a very lengthy subject, and a vast body of information can
be found in the literature; therefore, they will not be treated here.

Sensor
Physical Input Pre- Filters and Transmission Output
and/or
variable circuit amplifier amplifiers display
transducer

Figure 1.3â•… Analog instruments measure, transmit, display, and store data in analog form. The signal condition-
ing involves such components as bridges, amplifiers, filters, oscillators, modulators, offsets and level converters,
buffers, and so on.
Measurements, Instrumentation, and Sensors 1-7

Sensor Analog Computer

Physical A/D D/A
and/or signal Multiplexer or
signal converter converter
transducer conditioner microprocessor

Figure 1.4â•… Digital instruments have more signal-processing components than analog counterparts. However,
they have the advantage of data handling, storing, displaying, and transmitting.

1.4.2╇ Digital Instruments

In modern instruments, the original data acquired from the physical variables are usually in analog form.
This analog signal is converted to digital before being passed onto the other parts of the system. For conver-
sion purposes, analog-to-digital (A/D) converters are used together with appropriate sample-and-hold and
multiplexing devices. The typical components of a digital instrument are illustrated in Figure 1.4. The digital
systems are particularly useful in performing mathematical operations and storing and transmitting data.
A/D conversion involves three stages: sampling, quantization, and encoding. The Nyquist sampling
theorem must be observed during sampling; that is, “the number of samples per second must be at least
twice the highest frequency present in the continuous signal.” As a rule of thumb, depending on the
significance of the high frequencies, the sampling must be about 5 to 10 times the highest frequency of
the signal. The next stage is the quantization, which determines the resolution of the sampled signals.
The quantization error decreases as the number of bits increases. In the encoding stage, the quantized
values are converted to binary numbers to be processed digitally. Once in digital form, the data can
further be processed by employing various techniques such as FFT analysis, digital filtering, sequential
or logical decision making, correlation methods, spectrum analysis, and more.

1.5╇ Sensors and Transducers

A sensor is a device that responds to a changing phenomenon. A transducer is a device that transfers
energy from one form to another.
Sensors and transducers can be categorized in a number of ways depending on factors such as the
energy input and output, input variables, sensing elements, and electric or physical principles. From
the energy input and output point of view, there are three types: the modifiers, the self-generators, and
the modulators.
In modifiers, a particular form of energy is modified rather than converted; therefore, the same form
of energy exists in both the input and the output stages. In self-generators, electric signals are produced
from nonelectric inputs without the application of external energy. Typical examples are piezoelectric
transducers and photovoltaic cells. Modulators, on the other hand, produce electric outputs from non-
electric inputs, but they require an external source of energy. Strain gages are typical examples of such
devices. Some examples of sensors and measurements are listed as follows:
• Spatial variables, discussed in Part II of this book
• Displacements, discussed in Part III of this book
• Mechanical variables, discussed in Part IV of this book
• Acoustics, discussed in Part V of this book
• Flow measurements and sensors, discussed in Part VI of this book
• Thermal and temperature, discussed in Part VII of this book
• Radiation, Part VIII of this book
• Electric variables, discussed in Part II of Electrical, Optical, Chemical, and Biomedical
Measurement
• Electromagnetic variables discussed in Part III of Electrical, Optical, Chemical, and Biomedical
Measurement
1-8 Instrumentation and Measurement Concepts

• Time and frequency, discussed in Part IV of Electrical, Optical, Chemical, and Biomedical
Measurement
• Optical variables, Part V of Electrical, Optical, Chemical, and Biomedical Measurement
• Chemical variables, discussed in Part VI of Electrical, Optical, Chemical, and Biomedical
Measurement
• Medical, biomedical, and health, Part VII of Electrical, Optical, Chemical, and Biomedical
Measurement
• Environmental sensors and measurements, Part VIII of Electrical, Optical, Chemical, and
Biomedical Measurement
The present trend in sensor technology has been shifted toward IC sensors in the form of microsys-
tems, intelligent sensors, nanosensors, and others. The usefulness of semiconductor-based IC sen-
sors is enhanced considerably by the integrations of microprocessors, microcontroller, converters,
logic circuits, and other digital components in the same chip. Further, micromachining techniques
combined with semiconductor processing technology provide a multiple range of sensors all inte-
grated in the same chip for mechanical, optical, magnetic, chemical, biological, and other types of
measurements.
IC devices refer to the dimensions of devices in micrometer (10−6 m) ranges, whereas nanotechnology
refers to the dimensions of devices in nanometer (10−9 m) ranges. The microsystems technology (MST)
is well established and simply known as the MST. A subset of MST is the microelectromechanical sys-
tems (MEMS). Another subset of MST is the microelectro-optical systems (MEOMs) and systems-on-chip
(SOC) devices. Most of the sensors manufactured by MEMs and MEOMs are 3D devices with dimen-
sions in the order of few micrometers.
For example, single-chip microsensors and microinstruments are being developed and used exten-
sively for temperature, pressure, and radiation measurements, as well as mechanical, chemical, envi-
ronmental, biomedical, biological variables, and implantable sensors, and many others. A  Â�typical
example is illustrated in Figure 1.5, and detailed information on such devices can be found in Part I of
Electrical, Optical, Chemical, and Biomedical Measurement. This particular single-chip implementation
of Â�microinstrumentation system is based on complementary metal–oxide–semiconductors (CMOS)
and other technologies. It incorporates voltage, current, and capacitive-sensor interface; a temperature
sensor; a 10-channel 12 bit A/D converter; and an 8 bit microcontroller with a 16 bit hardware multiplier
and a 40 bit accumulator. This device operates on 3 V power supply drawing 16 mA when fully powered
or 850 μA at standby.

Timers PWM
Voltage
inputs

USART Tx/Rx
Microprocessor core
Analog multiplexer

PIO
Analog interface

Parallel I/O
Capacitive

Capacitive
12 bit
input

sensor Filters MAC

interface A/D

Program
I/V and
Current

ancillary
inputs

components Data memory

CLK manager

Figure 1.5â•… Block diagram of a typical micro-instrument.

Measurements, Instrumentation, and Sensors 1-9

Modern microsensors and microinstruments are fabricated by making full use of properties of semi-
conductors and their associated technologies. In the manufacturing process, the use of other materials
and the deposition of thick and thin films are often required to give the sensing materials useful proper-
ties otherwise they would not have. For example, piezoelectric material films applied to silicon wafers
provide piezoelectric properties. There are several methods of depositing thin and thick films on sub-
strates or semiconductor wafers. Some of the methods are spin casting, vacuum deposition, sputtering,
electroplating, screen printing, etc.

1.5.1╇ Smart Sensors

A conventional sensor measures physical, biological, or chemical parameters and converts these param-
eters into electric signals. They require extensive external circuits and components for signal processing
and display. The term smart sensor was adopted in the mid-1980s to differentiate a new class of sen-
sors from the conventional ones. Smart sensors have intelligence of some form and can convert a raw
sensor signal into a level that makes them much more convenient to use. They provide value-added
functions, thus increasing the quality of information rather than just passing the raw signal. They can
perform functions such as self-identification, self-testing, lookup tables, calibration curves as well as
ability to communicate with other devices. These functions are conducted by the integration of sensors
with microcontrollers or microprocessor or logic circuits in the same chip. Understandably, the micro-
processor contains RAM and ROM and can conveniently be programmed externally. Smart sensors also
include signal amplification, conditioning, processing, and A/D conversions.
A variety of smart sensors are manufactured with the neural network and other intelligence tech-
niques programmed and held onboard the chip. These sensors are capable of assimilating a large quan-
tity of data; hence, they are capable of taking autonomous and appropriate actions to achieve goals in
any dynamically changing environment. They are adaptable in anticipating events and complexities of
the process; therefore, sensing, learning, and self-configurations are the key elements. Intelligent sen-
sors appear in the marketplace as pressure sensors and accelerometers, biosensors, chemical sensors,
optical sensors, magnetic sensors, and so on. Intelligent vision systems and parallel processors–based
sensors are typical examples of such devices.

1.5.2╇ Wireless and Autonomous Sensors and Instruments

Sudden growth in the wireless communication technology has prompted the expansion of wireless
industry by order of magnitudes. This is largely supported by improvement in digital and RF circuit fab-
rication methods, advances in signal-processing theory and applications, and emergence of new large-
scale wireless-related ICs and other supporting devices. Particularly, the new IC technology makes radio
equipment smaller, cheaper, and more reliable. In parallel to industrial expansion, consumer acceptance
and need for products permit widespread deployment of the wireless communication systems. Trends
will continue at an even greater pace in the coming years.
Wireless technology is used extensively in modern sensors and instrumentation. A typical wireless
sensor contains sensing elements, signal-processing circuits, and wireless communication components
in the same chip. Several miniaturization techniques are available for wireless sensors, including SOC,
MEMS, and ASICs. In a wireless sensor, there are five main components that need to be integrated for a
complete system; these components are sensor, signal-processing circuitry, radio, battery, and package.
Radio, sensors, and signal-processing circuitry can be reduced in size through hybrid circuits, MEMS,
or mixed-signal ASIC design. However, the power supply components must be dealt with separately as
explained in Chapter 90 of this book and Chapter 13 of Electrical, Optical, Chemical, and Biomedical
Measurement.
Wireless instruments consist of five main components—sensors and signal conditioners, programma-
ble digital hardware, memory and storage, input/output and communication components, and others, for
1-10 Instrumentation and Measurement Concepts

Sensors Multiplexers Microprocessor Transmission

Physical
and and and and/or
variables
transducers A/D converters software display

RF RF
transceiver transceiver

Computer or
microprocessor
system

Figure 1.6â•… Components of a wireless instrument.

example, displays, keypads, and power supplies. A typical wireless instrument is illustrated in Figure 1.6.
Instruments differ from each other by the way that they handle, transmit, and display information. Further
information can be found in Part IX, which is dedicated to wireless technology for instruments and sensors.
Autonomous sensors are self-powered measurement devices that are capable of communicating wire-
lessly. They serve as the nodes in distributed data acquisition systems and wireless sensor networks
(WSN) finding applications such as in health care, aerospace, and environmental monitoring. To increase
their autonomy, autonomous sensors seek to reduce their average power consumption by working in low
power modes whenever possible. They spend most of the time in sleep (standby) mode and only wake up
to perform specific actions—namely, measurement, processing, and transmission/reception of data.
Autonomous sensors are composed of sensors, signal conditioners, processors, and transceivers.
Sensors convert a signal from a physical or chemical quantity to a corresponding signal in the electric
domain. Often, commercial transceivers are used for wireless communication. They transmit in the
free-licensed ISM bands and can use a proprietary or standard (e.g., IEEE 802.15.4) protocol. Further
information on autonomous sensors can be found in Chapter 90.

1.6╇ Instrumentation and Networks

Networking of hardware and software resources is essential to bring multiple sensors and instruments
together for exchange of information, collaborative operations, and sharing of functions of equipment
and devices. Networks are made by the collection of devices, the medium that links these devices, and
the software that supports the networking of the entire system. A system is made from a group of inter-
related parts with the focus of establishing an interrelationship between them to improve efficiency, to
facilitate integration of the application, and to share the resources.
Due to recent progress in communications technology, sensors and instruments can easily be net-
worked. Many processes require measurements of hundreds and perhaps thousands of parameters
employing many instruments. The resulting arrangement for performing the overall measurement in
a complex processes is called the measurement system. In measurement systems, instruments operate
autonomously but in a coordinated manner. Information generated by each instrument may be com-
municated between the instruments themselves and the controllers or between instruments and other
digital devices such as recorders, display units, printers, routers, base stations, or host computer.
Connecting devices together to form networks is not a new concept, and it has been operational for
many years in a diverse range of applications. In the earlier networks, almost all the �communicating
devices were connected by wires; hence, they were largely fixed in space. The devices in modern �networks,
as discussed in this book, can be configured by using wireless communication technology and related
software; hence, they can have mobility in space while still maintaining feasible �networks. Therefore,
modern networks can be viewed as (1) wired networks in which the �communication devices are connected
by wires, hence largely fixed in space, (2) wireless networks in which devices communicate wirelessly,
Measurements, Instrumentation, and Sensors 1-11

Application A Application B

Network software Network software

Protocol Protocol

Interface Interface

Medium of
communication

Figure 1.7â•… Process of communication of networked devices.

hence can move in space, and (3) hybrid networks in which both wired and wireless �techniques are
used in combination. At the moment, mobile networks based on wireless �techniques provide �primarily
voice-based services, but they are increasingly handling data and other forms of information. Wireless
networks can match similar functions as fixed networks plus they offer many advantages such as the
reduction in cost for initial setup and maintenance.
Devices need network software to issue the requests and responses that allow them communicate with
each other successfully. A communication process between two devices is illustrated in Figure 1.7. In
this case, communication is taking place in simplex form; device A is sending information to device B.
In many networks, communicating devices invoke a layer of codes, which is called network operat-
ing systems (NOSs). NOSs control the access to network recourses. Examples of common NOSs used in
computers are Windows.NET, WindowsXP, Novell’s NetWare, etc.
Most network software packages come with modules for logging on and off the network. Logging on and
logging off network modules may include considerations such as password security, validation of user access
to specific files and software, automatic log-on feature for some devices, help menus, and error messages.
More information on instrument networks can be found in Part IX of this book and Part I of
Electrical, Optical, Chemical, and Biomedical Measurement.

1.7╇ Software Support for Sensors and Instruments

The software is a term for describing the role of programs, procedures, and documentation in program-
mable digital devices and computer systems. Software support is an integral part of modern instrumenta-
tion system. It can be divided into three major groups: (1) system software, (2) programming software, and
(3) application software. All are developed using programming languages, scripting languages, machine
languages or assembly codes, or FPGA configurations. Some examples of programming �languages are C
or C++, Java, and Basic.
The software in instrumentation systems includes
• Application software such as Excel, word processors, video games, and Open Office that provides
tasks for users.
• Firmware is software permanently stored in programmable memory devices on the main boards
or other types of integrated hardware carriers.
• Middleware controls and coordinates distributed systems.
• System software such as operating systems that interface with hardware to provide a coordinated
service for applications such as Linux and Microsoft Windows.
• Web pages developed by technologies such as HTML, Perl, JSP, XML, PHP.
1-12 Instrumentation and Measurement Concepts

Sensor 1 Preprocess

Sensor 2 Preprocess
Artificial
Output
neural
Sensor 3 Preprocess network

Sensor N Preprocess

Figure 1.8â•… AI-controlled single-chip multisensor array.

At the lowest level, software consists of a machine language specific to an individual processor. A machine
language consists of groups of binary values signifying processor instructions that change the state of
the computer from its preceding state. Software is an ordered sequence of instructions for changing the
state of hardware in a particular sequence. It is usually written in high-level programming languages
that are easier and more efficient for humans to use than machine language. High-level languages are
compiled or interpreted into machine language object code. Software may also be written in an assem-
bly language that is mnemonic representation of a machine language using a natural language �a lphabet.
Assembly language must be assembled into object code via an assembler.
For example, the microinstrument illustrated in Figure 1.5 is supported by C programming language.
It includes hardware support for a single break point and trace event for code debugging. A develop-
ment system interface provides instructions for halting the processor, single stepping through code, and
reading and writing system registers. Single-cycle interrupt response and direct memory access (DMA)
allow application of this device in time-critical applications. A clock manager is used to divide the sys-
tem clock to reduce power, assign a slow clock, or halt the clock to the different sections of the chip until
a programmed event occurs.
The integration of sensors with complex analog and digital signal-processing circuits and micro-
processors in the same chip has enabled extensive development of the supporting software. The use
of digital signal-processing circuits and the integration of intelligent techniques such as the artificial
neural networks (ANNs) and other techniques serve as nonlinear signal-processing tools leading to
convenient and easy to use devices. The onboard operating system and the additional decision-making
software such as artificial intelligence (AI) and complex logic circuits result in much faster and efficient,
fault-�tolerant and reliable systems. A typical system configuration of an AI-controlled single-chip, mul-
tisensor array is shown in Figure 1.8. In fully integrated decision and control systems, an ANN performs
both sensor enhancement and intelligent control. Fully integrated systems find extensive applications in
aerospace, defense, consumer products, and industrial needs.
There are many different software tools to implement applications of sensors and instruments such as
the LabWindows and LabVIEW from National Instruments and the VEE from Hewlet-Packard. Further
information can be found in Chapter 10.

1.8╇Application Examples
Many different instruments are offered to fulfill specific measurement requirements. Here, some exam-
ples will be discussed briefly. In this book, detailed information can be found on specific instruments,
sensors, and measurements in the proceeding chapters.
In medical technology, there are three basic types of instruments—imaging, physiological measure-
ments, and laboratory analysis. In imaging and physiological measurements, the instruments are closely
Measurements, Instrumentation, and Sensors 1-13

linked with patients. Some examples of these instruments are x-ray tomography, magnetic resonance
imaging (MRI) and magnetic resonance tomography, ultrasound imaging, thermography, brain and
nervous system sensors, and respiratory sensors. Many instruments are based on radiation and sound,
force and tactile sensing, electromagnetic sensing, and chemical and bio-analytical sensors.
Power plants are instrumented for maximum availability, operational safety, and environmental
planning. Therefore, their measurements must be as accurate as possible and reliable. Instruments are
used for temperature, pressure, flow, level, vibration measurements, and water, steam, and gas analysis.
For example, gas analysis requires instruments to measure carbon compounds, sulfur and nitrogen
compounds, and dust and ash contents.
Environmental monitoring requires a diverse range of instruments for air, water, and biological mon-
itoring. Instruments are used for measuring various forms of radiation, chemical hazards, air pollut-
ants, and organic solvents. Many sophisticated instruments are also developed for remote monitoring
via satellites, and they operate on optical, microwave, and RF electromagnetic radiation principles.
Industry uses instruments extensively for online monitoring purposes and off-line analysis. Specific
instruments are used commonly for sensing variables such as temperature, pressure, volumetric and
mass flow rate, density, weight, displacement, pH levels, color, absorbency, viscosity, material flow,
dew point, organic and inorganic components, turbidity, solid and liquid level, humidity, and particle-
size distribution.
In automobiles, instruments are used to assist drivers by sensing variables such as cooling, braking,
fuel consumption, humidity control, speed, travel route monitoring, and position sensing. Instruments
also find applications for safety and security purposes, such as passenger protection and locking and
antitheft systems. Recently, with the advent of micromachined sensors, many diverse instruments such
as engine control, fuel injection, air regulation, and torque sensing are developed.
The manufacturing industry, especially automated manufacturing, requires a diverse range of instru-
ments. Machine diagnosis and process parameters are made by instruments that are based on force,
torque, pressure, speed, temperature, and electric-parameter sensing. Optics, tactile arrays, and acous-
tic scanning instruments are used for pattern recognition. Distance and displacement measurements
are made by many methods (e.g., inductive, capacitive, optical, and acoustic techniques).
Aerospace instrumentation requires an accurate indication of physical variables and the changes in
these variables. Instruments are designed to suit specific conditions of operations. Some of the measure-
ments are gas temperature and pressure, fluid flow, aircraft velocity, aircraft icing, thrust and accelera-
tion, load, strain and force, position, altitude sensing, and direction finding.

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1-14 Instrumentation and Measurement Concepts

Partial List of Vendors and Suppliers

AMETEK Power Instruments, 255 N. Union St., Rochester, NY 14605, Phone: 585-263-7700, 800-881-
4156 (toll free), Fax: 585-262-4777, www.ametekpower.com
Analtech, Inc., 75 Blue Hen Dr., Newark, DE 19713, Phone: 302-737-6960, 800-441-7540 (toll free),
Fax: 302-737-7115, www.ichromatography.com
Davis/Inotek, 1236 Mark St. Bensenville, IL 60106, Phone: 410-358-3900, 800-548-9409 (toll free),
Fax: 410-358-0252, www.davis.com
Dwyer Instruments, Inc., Hwy. 212 at 12 P.O. Box 373 Michigan City, IN 46361, Phone: 219-879-8000,
800-872-9141 (toll free), Fax: 219-872-9057, www.dwyer-inst.com
Electro-Sensors, Inc., 6111 Blue Circle Dr. Minnetonka, MN 55343-9108, Phone: 952-930-0100, 800-328-
6170 (toll free), Fax: 952-930-0130, www.electro-sensors.com
Honeywell Sensing and Control, 1985 Douglas Dr. North, MN10-192B Golden Valley, MN 55422,
Phone: 763-954-4818, 800-446-6555 (toll free), sensing.honeywell.com/index.cfm/ci_id/15…
Instrumented Sensor Technology, Inc., 4704 Moore Street Okemos, MI 48864, Phone: 517-349-8487,
Fax: 517-349-8469, www.isthq.com
Jewell Instruments, LLC, 850 Perimeter Rd. Manchester, NH 03103, Phone: 603-669-6400, 800-638-3771
(toll free), Fax: 603-669-5962, www.jewellinstruments.com
Macro Sensors, Division of Howard A. Schaevitz Technologies, 7300 US Rte. 130 N. Bldg. 22 Pennsauken,
NJ 08110, Phone: 856-662-8000, Fax: 856-317-1005, www.macrosensors.com
Micro Sense, LLC, 70 Industrial Ave. E. Lowell, MA 01852, Phone: 978-843-7673, www.microsense.net
MKS Instruments, Inc., 2 Tech Dr., Suite 201 Andover, MA 01810, Phone: 978-645-5500, 800-227-8766
(toll free), Fax: 978-557-5100, www.mksinst.com
MTI Instruments, Inc., 325 Washington Ave., Extension Albany, NY 12205-5505, Phone: 518-218-2550,
Fax: 518-218-2506, www.mtiinstruments.com
OTP Industrial Solutions, 1900 Jetway Blvd. Columbus, OH 43219, Phone: 614-342-6123, Fax: 614-342-
6490, www.otpnet.com
PCB Piezotronics, Inc., 3425 Walden Ave. Depew, NY 14043-2417, Phone: 716-684-0001, 800-828-8840
(toll free), Fax: 716-684-0987, www.pcb.com
Piezo Technologies, 8431 Georgetown Rd., Suite 300 Indianapolis, IN 46268, Phone: 317-876-4670,
Fax: 317-876-4681, www.piezotechnologies.com
Schneider Electric-Hyde Park, 1875 Founders Dr. Dayton, OH 45420, Phone: 937-514-7207, Fax: 937-
258-5830, www.sesensors.com
Silicon Designs, Inc., 1445 NW Mall St. Issaquah, WA 98027, Phone: (425) 391-8329, Fax: (425) 391-0446,
www.silicondesigns.com/contact.html
Turck, Inc., 3000 Campus Dr. Plymouth, MN 55441-2619, Phone: 763-553-7300, 800-554-4989 (toll free),
Fax: 763-553-0708, www.turck.com
Warren-Knight Instrument Co., 2045 Bennett Dr. Philadelphia, PA 19116-3019, Phone: 215-464-9300,
Fax: 215-464-9303, www.warrenind.com
Wilcoxon Research Inc., 20511 Seneca Meadows Pkwy. Germantown, MD 20876, Phone: 301-330-8811,
800-945-2696 (toll free), Fax: 301-330-8873, www.wilcoxon.com