KALINGA STATE UNIVERSITY GENERAL PHYSICS 2: MODULE 1 Current Resistance and Electromotive Force

CURRENT RESISTANCE AND ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE How to differentiate Source and Load
Electric circuit is a continuous and closed path of an electric Consider two black boxes A and B that are connected by a
current. pair of wires carrying a variable current (I) that is continually
Electric current is expressed as the rate of flow of charges changing in direction shown in the figure.
through a conductor or the quantity of charges flowing
through a conductor in unit time. Measured in ammeter
The device which causes the flow of electrons through a
conductor is called a cell.
𝑸 where:
𝑰= I - Current
𝒕
SI units: Q - Quantity of charge
Electric charge in coulombs (C) T - Time  Each box contains unknown devices &
Current is called ampere (A) components that are connected in some way to the
1 Ampere = 1 Coulomb/ 1 second external terminals A A and B B .
1 2 1 2

Fig 1: Flow of Current  Suppose we have appropriate instruments that

enable us to determine the instantaneous polarity
(+)( -) of the voltage across the terminals and the
instantaneous direction of conventional current
flow. The following rule then applies:
o A device is a source whenever current
flows out of the positive terminal.
o A device is a load whenever current flows
Fig 2: A schematic diagram of an electric circuit comprising of into a positive terminal.
a cell, electric bulb, ammeter and plug key. Therefore applying a voltage between the two ends of a
conductor causes an ‘electron drift’ from negative to positive
giving rise to an electric current.

*****Classify the following as either a load or a source.

Give reason for your answer.
1. Resistor
2. Electric Motors
Symbols of components used in electric circuits 3. Capacitors
4. Generator
Resistors act as a load when a battery delivers electric power
it acts as a source when it is being recharged it acts as a load
Electric motors usually act as loads on a system. But they can
briefly behave like generators if the electromechanical
conditions are appropriate
Capacitors when a capacitor is discharging it acts as a source.
On the other hand when the capacitor is being charged it acts
as a load.
Generator acts as a source but under certain conditions it
CONVENTIONAL AND may act as a load as well which is not desirable and so it is
ELECTRON CURRENT FLOW turned off.
The figure shows
the potential CONDUCTORS AND INSULATORS
difference that exist
between two CONDUCTORS, in electrical circuits are materials that
terminals (positive allow electric current to flow through them because their
and negative) due to atomic structure allows the outermost (free) electrons to
the excess electrons
easily move from one atom to another, and because the
present on the
negative terminal. electrons carry a negative electric charge they are easily
repelled by an applied negative electric charge, and
attracted by a positive charge.
Electron current flow- flow of ***Materials to act as conductors include:
electron that comes from Metal Conductors Metals such as copper, aluminium,
negative terminal move along and some alloys (mixtures of two or more metals),
the wire and end into the e.g. brass, phosphor-bronze and manganin.
positive terminal
Scientists in the 17th century INSULATORS are materials that prevent the flow of
assumed that current flows from electric current. These are mostly solid materials in which
positive terminal to negative
the outer electrons of each atom are tightly bonded to the
terminal and this current is
termed as conventional flow of nucleus of the atom, preventing any electron movement
current. within a ‘normal range’ of applied voltage.
SOURCES AND LOADS ***Materials commonly used in electronic circuits
include: Plastics (e.g Polystyrene, P.V.C. Bakelite and
• Source delivers electrical power Polythene) ; Glass (including Fibre Glass) ; Ceramics ; Resins
• Load absorbs electrical power (e.g. epoxy resins) ; Paper (usually and Rubber (Natural or
• Every electrical device (motor, resistor, battery, synthetic)
generator, etc.) that carries a current can be
classified as either a source or a load.

Page 1 of 4 GR ADE-12 STEM

KALINGA STATE UNIVERSITY GENERAL PHYSICS 2: MODULE 1 Current Resistance and Electromotive Force

RESISTANCE The resistivity of any material is defined as the

resistance of a piece of that material having a length of
Resistance ( R ) is the property of a conductor to resist
the flow of electric current through it. one metre and a cross sectional area of one square metre
𝑽 (i.e. a cube of material one metre square); the resistivity
According to Ohm’s law R = of the material being the resistance across opposite faces
𝑰
where: V(voltage) of the standard cube.
I (current) Resistivity is given the symbol ρ (measured in a unit
The SI unit of resistance is ohm (Ω). The greater the called the OHM METER, ΩM)
𝑽
value of (Note: this is not the same as ohms/metre or ohms per metre)
From ohm’s law; I= resistance of any
𝑹 conductor, the The inverse of resistivity is called conductivity (σ).
less current will Conductors have large values of conductivity or very
The current flowing through a flow and vice small values of ρ.
resistor is inversely proportional versa
to the resistance.

“So if the resistance is doubled, then the current gets The resistance of any conductor can be found by
halved.” relating the three factors;
If the potential difference across the two ends of a wire is 1 V Length: = L Cross Sectional Area: = A Resistivity: = ρ
and the current flowing through it is 1 A then the resistance R
of the conductor is 1 ohm (1 Ω ). The formula can be used to find the resistance (R) of any
conductor, providing that its dimensions and its
Factors on which the resistance of a conductor resistivity are known.
depends:
The resistance of a conductor depends upon its:
1. Length
2. Cross sectional area
3. Material of the conductor. Sample Problems:
PROB#1: Compute the resistivity of the given material
Resistance (R) is directly proportional to the length of whose resistance is 2Ω; area of cross-section and length
the conductor and inversely proportional to the area of are 25cm2 and 15cm respectively?
cross section of the conductor.
Given:
Where: R = 2Ω
ρ (rho) - is a constant of proportionality L = 15cm = 0.15m
RαL called Resistivity of the material of the
conductor. A = 25cm2 = 0.25m2
R α 1 /A Solution:
The SI unit of resistivity is ohm meter
or R α 1/A ( Ωm). Resistance formula is R = ρL / A
Conductors like metals and alloys have From resistance formula, Resistivity ρ = RA / L
or R = ρ1/A low resistivity 10 -8 Ωm to 10 -6 Ωm.
(2Ω)(0.25m² )
Insulators like rubber, glass etc. have ρ=
high resistivity 10 12 Ωm to 10 17 Ωm. 0.15 m

***Therefore the longer the conductor, the more

ρ = 3.333 Ω-m
resistance is present and so less current flows. PROB#2: The length and area of wire are given as 0.2m
and 0.5m2 respectively. The resistance of that wire is 3Ω,
***Therefore the greater the cross sectional area,
the more current can flow along the conductor, so calculate the resistivity?
the lower the value of the conductor’s resistance. Given:
R = 3Ω
L = 0.2m and
A = 0.5m2
Solution:
Resistance formula is R = ρL / A
From resistance formula, Resistivity ρ = RA / L
(3Ω)(0.5 m² )
ρ=
0.2 m
ρ = 37.5 Ω-m

ACTIVITY NO. 1: In a One whole sheet of bond paper

solve the following problems. Show complete solution
RESISTIVITY systematically and box final answers.
How Materials Affect Resistance 1. If the resistance of the wire is 70Ω, what will be the
Provided that the dimensions (length and cross sectional area) resistivity of a metal wire of 3m length and 0.6mm in
of any conductor do not change, its resistance will remain the diameter?
same. If two conductors of exactly the same dimensions have 2. The resistance of an electric wire of an alloy is 20 Ω. If
a different resistance, they must be made of different the thickness of wire is 0.002 meter, and length is 2 m, find
materials. its resistivity.
One way to describe a material (any material) is by its 3. The resistivity of a metal wire is 20 x 10−8 Ω m at 20°C.
RESISTIVITY- This is the amount of resistance present in a Find the resistance of the same wire of 4 meter length and
piece of the material OF STANDARD DIMENSIONS. 0.3 mm thickness.

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KALINGA STATE UNIVERSITY GENERAL PHYSICS 2: MODULE 1 Current Resistance and Electromotive Force

Temperature Effects on Resistance THE CURRENT I = V/R

How Temperature Changes Resistance? Any Electrical device or component that obeys “Ohms
Although the resistance of a conductor changes with the Law” that is, the current flowing through is proportional
size of the conductor (e.g. thicker wires have less to the voltage across it ( I α V ), such as resistors or
resistance to current flow than thinner wires), the cables, are said to be “Ohmic” in nature, and devices
resistance of a conductor also changes with changing that do not, such as transistors or diodes, are said to
temperature. This may be expected to happen because, as be “Non-ohmic” devices.
temperature changes, the dimensions of the conductor
will change as it expands or contracts. Increasing the applied voltage V produces more
current I to light the bulb with more intensity.
These changes in resistance cannot therefore be explained
by a change in dimensions due to thermal expansion or
contraction. In fact for a given size of conductor the
change in resistance is due mainly to a change in the
resistivity of the material, and is caused by the changing
activity of the atoms that make up the material.
Materials that are classed as CONDUCTORS tend to
INCREASE their resistance with an increase in temperature.

INSULATORS however are liable to DECREASE their

resistance with an increase in temperature. Materials used for The three forms of Ohm’s law can be used to define the practical
units of current, voltage, and resistance:
practical insulators (glass, plastic etc.) only exhibit a marked
1 ampere = 1 volt / 1 ohm
drop in their resistance at very high temperatures. They remain 1 volt = 1 ampere × 1 ohm
good insulators over all temperatures they are likely to 1 ohm = 1 volt / 1 ampere
encounter in use.
MULTIPLE and SUB MULTIPLE UNITS
In a material where the resistance INCREASES with an Units of Voltage:
increase in temperature, the material is said to have a  The basic unit of voltage is the volt (V)
POSITIVE TEMPERATURE COEFFICIENT.  Multiple units of voltage are:
 kilovolt (kV) 1 thousand volts or 103 V
When resistance FALLS with an increase in temperature,  megavolt (MV) 1 million volts or 106 V
the material is said to have a NEGATIVE  Submultiple units of voltage are:
 millivolt (mV) 1-thousandth of a volt or 10-3 V
TEMPERATURE COEFFICIENT.  microvolt (µV) 1-millionth of a volt or 10-6 V
“In general, conductors have a POSITIVE temperature Units of Current:
coefficient, whilst (at high temperatures) insulators have  The basic unit of current is ampere (A)
 Submultiple units of current are:
a NEGATIVE temperature coefficient.  milliampere(mA)1-thousandth of an ampere or 10-3 A
 microampere (µA) 1-millionth of an ampere or 10-6 A
Different materials within either group have different
Units of Resistance:
temperature coefficients. Materials chosen for the construction
 The basic unit of resistance is ohm (Ω)
of the resistors used in electronic circuits are carefully selected
 Multiple units of resistance are:
conductors that have a very low positive temperature  kilohm (kΩ) 1 thousand ohms or 103 Ω
coefficient. In use, resistors made from such materials will have  Megohm (MΩ) 1 million ohms or 106 Ω
only very slight increases in resistivity, and therefore their SAMPLE PROBLEMS: Applying OHM’s LAW:
resistance. Using such materials for the manufacture of PROB#1:
resistors creates components whose value changes only slightly
over a given range of temperature.

OHM’s LAW
SOLN #1:
Ohm's law states that, in an electrical circuit, the current 𝟐𝟎 𝐕
passing through most materials is directly proportional to 𝐈=
𝟓Ω
the potential difference applied across them. I=4A
PROB#2:
There are three
SOLN #2:
forms of Ohm’s
Law: V = 2 A X 12 Ω
I = V/R V = 24 V
V = IR
PROB#3:
R = V/I SOLN #3:
𝟗𝐕
𝐑= 𝟑𝐀
where: In practical units, this law
I = Current (A) may be stated as: R=3Ω
V = Voltage (V) amperes = volts / ohms
R = Resistance (Ω)
ACTIVITY NO. 2: Solve the following problems
completely. Present your solution after activity No. 1
Fig shows A circle diagram to help
in memorizing the Ohm’s Law 1. How much is the current, I, in a 470-kΩ resistor if its
formulas V = IR, I = V/R, and R= voltage is 23.5 V?
V/I. The V is always at the top. 2. How much voltage will be dropped across a 40 kΩ
resistance whose current is 250 µA?

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KALINGA STATE UNIVERSITY GENERAL PHYSICS 2: MODULE 1 Current Resistance and Electromotive Force

ELECTRIC POWER IN CIRCUITS Likewise, if we have a short-circuit condition, current flow is

Electrical Power, (P) in a circuit is the rate at which energy is present but there is no voltage V= 0, therefore 0*I = 0 so again
absorbed or produced within a circuit. “If one joule of work is the power dissipated within the circuit is 0.
either absorbed or delivered at a constant rate of one second,
then the corresponding power will be equivalent to one watt so ELECTRICAL ENERGY IN CIRCUITS
power can be defined as “1Joule/sec = 1Watt”. Electrical Energy is the capacity to do work, and the unit of
work or energy is the joule ( J ). So if we know how much
A source of energy such as a voltage will produce or power, in Watts is being consumed and the time, in seconds
deliver power while the connected load absorbs it. for which it is used, we can find the total energy used in watt-
Light bulbs and heaters for example, absorb electrical power seconds.
and convert it into either heat, or light, or both. In other words, Energy = power x time and
The higher their value or rating in watts the more Power = voltage x current. Therefore electrical power is
electrical power they are likely to consume. related to energy and the unit given for electrical energy is the
watt-seconds or joules.
Power (P) = voltage (V) X current (A)
unit of measurement :Watt ( W ). Electrical Power and Energy Triangle
Prefixes are used to denote the various multiples or sub-
multiples of a watt, such as:
milliwatts (mW = 10-3W)
kilowatts (kW = 103W).
Then by using Ohm’s law and substituting for the values of
V, I and R the formula for electrical power can be found as: To find the various individual quantities:
To find the Power (P)
[P = V x I]: P (watts) = V (volts) x I (amps) also;
[P = V2 ÷ R]: P (watts) = V2 (volts) ÷ R (Ω) also;
[P = I2 x R]: P (watts) = I2 (amps) x R (Ω)
Again, the three quantities have been superimposed into a
triangle this time called a Power Triangle with power at the top
and current and voltage at the bottom, this arrangement Sample Problem:
represents the actual position of each quantity within the Ohms
PROB#1: If a 120 watt light bulb is left-“ON” for 24
law power formulas.
hours, how much the energy is consumed?
The Power Triangle
E = P x t = 120 W X 86,400 seconds = 10,368,000 Joules
By transposing the basic Ohms Law equation
above for power gives us the following ***prefixes such as kilojoules (kJ = 103J) or megajoules (MJ =
combinations of the same equation to find the 106J) are used instead and in this simple example, the energy
various individual quantities: consumed will be 10.368 MJ (mega-joules).
If the electrical power consumed (or generated) is measured in
watts or kilowatts (thousands of watts) and the time is measure
in hours not seconds, then the unit of electrical energy will be
the kilowatt-hours,(kWhr).

***Then our 120 watt light bulb in above example will

 If the calculated power is positive, (+P) in value for any
consume 2,880 watt hours (120W x 24 hrs) or 2.88kWhr,
formula the component absorbs the power, that is it is
which is much easier to understand the 10,368,000 Joules
consuming or using power.
 But if the calculated power is negative, (–P) in value the ELECTRICAL SAFETY
component produces or generates power, in other words it For more info read
is a source of electrical power such as batteries and https://opentextbc.ca/physicstestbook2/chapter/electrical-safety-systems-and-
generators.
Electricity has two hazards. A thermal hazard occurs when
Sample Problem: there is electrical overheating. A shock hazard occurs when
PROB#1: For the circuit shown below, find the voltage electric current passes through a person.
(V), the current (I), the resistance (R) and the power (P).
*Electrical safety systems and devices are employed to
prevent thermal and shock hazards.
*Circuit breakers and fuses interrupt excessive currents to
prevent thermal hazards.
*The three-wire system guards against thermal and shock
hazards, utilizing live/hot, neutral, and earth/ground wires, and
grounding the neutral wire and case of the appliance.
 Solution: *A ground fault interrupter (GFI) prevents shock by
a) Voltage [V = I x R] = 2 x 6Ω = 12V detecting the loss of current to unintentional paths.
b) Current [I = V ÷ R] = 24 ÷ 6Ω = 4A *An isolation transformer insulates the device being powered
from the original source, also to prevent shock.
c) Resistance [R = V ÷ I] = 24 ÷ 2 = 12 Ω *Many of these devices use induction to perform their basic
function.
d) Power [P = V x I] = 24 x 2 = 48W
References:
“Power within an electrical circuit is only present when https://www.learnabout electronics.org/Resistors/resistors_01a.php
BOTH voltage and current are present” https://www.oakton.edu/user/1/agero/ELT101/Presentations/Chapter0
For example, in an open-circuit condition, voltage is present but 3.pdf
https://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/dccircuits/dcp_2.html
there is no current flow I= 0 (zero) therefore V*0 is 0 so the https://courses.lumenlearning.com/austincc-physics2/chapter/23-8-
power dissipated within the circuit must also be 0. electrical-safety-systems-and-devices/

Page 4 of 4 GR ADE-12 STEM