Electricity booklet

based on Wolfson chapter 20 — chapter 22

Carlo Margio 2018-05-07

Lecture 1

1 Overview
Imagine a force that is a billion, billion, billion, billion times stronger than gravity, except that
unlike gravity which only attracts, this force can attract and repel. This force exists; it is the electric
force.
The electric force or interaction (or electromagnetic interaction if we include magnetism) is one of
the four fundamental interactions of nature. Along with one other interaction gravity, it can be used
to describe most of what we experience.

The electric force is what keeps electrons near the nucleus of an atom, it also explains all chemical
reactions seeing it is the basis of chemical bonds. If you are standing, the electric force stops your
feet falling through the floor. This is because the outer electron in atoms of the soul of your foot, or
your shoe repel the electrons in the contact area of the floor. The enourmous strength of the
electric force means that the electric repulsion of this small area of contact can overcome the
gravitational attraction of the whole earth to your body mass.

The electric force gives materials such as steel their strength and stiffness and it is the electric force
that powers the explosion of an atomic bomb.
Control of the electron and the electric interaction, especially in the form of electronic equipment is
a one of the defining characteristics of our modern society — and helps to entertained and inform
us.

2 Electric charge, force, and field

Wolfson Chapter 20

2.1 Charge
Wolfson 20.1
2 | Electricity booklet

Charge description
◼ Electric charge is a property of some particles such as electrons and protons.
◼ There are two varieties of electric charge called positive and negative — but the names were
assigned arbitrarily for historical reasons.
◼ Like charges repel, opposite charges attract.
◼ Particles have an integer multiple of the elementary charge e. So an electron has a charge of
negative e, and a proton a charge of positive e. (An exception is quarks which have charges ± 13 e
or ± 23 e, but quarks never appear in isolation and always combine to give integer charges.)

◼ The particles that we are most o�en concerned with have a single elementary charge or are
electrically neutral. These particles are:

�������� ������
proton e+
neutron 0
electron e-
photon 0

Table 2.1 the particles we are most interested in and their charge
◼ The S.I. unit of charge is the coulomb (C). In coulombs, the elementary charge is very small

e ≃ 1.602 × 10-19 C the elementary charge in coulomb (1)

So a coulomb is an enourmous number of elementary charges. There are 1e , or roughly 1019 elec-
trons in a coulomb.

2.2 Coulomb force law

Wolfson 20.2

Scalar form of the Coulomb force law

q1 q2
F12 = ke — scalar Coulomb force law (2)
r2

where:
F12 — the force that charge 1 exerts on charge 2
ke — the coulomb constant 8.99×109 N·m2 ·C-2
r — the distance between the charges

Example problem 1
We have a 1 μC positive charge at position x = 1 metre, and a -2 μC negative charge at position
x = 4 metres. What is the force F12 that charge 1 exerts on charge 2?
 Electricity booklet | 3

Figure 2.2 a 1 μC positive charge at x = 1, and a -2 μC negative charge at x = 4

Solution
q1 q2
F12 = ke r12 2

���� × ��� × � × ��-� -� × ��-� 

��
-����������

= -2 mN
Seeing we chose the x-axis increasing to the right, the negative sign here means that the force on
charge 2 is directed to the le� — the charges attract. (But notice that we would have also got a
negative sign for F21 so our equation is not complete.)

Example problem 2
If we double the separation for the above example problem from 3 m to 6 m, what happens to the
force?
Solution
The new distance r ' = 2 r, where r is the original distance
q1 q2 q1 q2 1 q1 q2 1
F '12 = ke r '2
= ke = ke = F12
(2 r)2 4 r2 4

So the new force of charge 1 on charge 2 is one quarter of the original force, or -0.5 mN.

Example problem 3
Take the original set-up on Example problem 1 again, but this time double the charges and halve
the distance. What is the new force that charge 1 exerts on charge 2?
Solution
q'1 q'2 2 q1 2 q2 4 q1 q2
F '12 = ke r '2
= ke = ke = 16 F12
(0.5 r)2 0.25 r2

The force will be 16 times greater or -32 mN.

Vector or two dimensional (2D) form of the Coulomb force law

We live in a three dimensional (3D) world, and while the scalar form of Coulomb’s law can be used
in many situations, the vector form is more general and handles any problem. We will deal in this
4 | Electricity booklet

course only with 2D vector problems because they contain all the concepts required for 3D vectors
and it will be easy for you to expand to 3D when you need to.
For the vector version of Coulomb’s law we get the magnitude of the force from the scalar version,
and we add a unit vector in the direction of the force.
This gives

 q1 q2
F 12 = ke r 12 — vector Coulomb force law (3)
r212

where:

F 12 — the vector force that charge 1 exerts on charge 2
ke — the coulomb constant 8.99×109 N·m2 ·C-2

r12 — the distance between charge 1 and charge 2 (the magnitude of vector r12 )
r 12 — the unit vector from charge 1 toward charge 2
Just to clarify the notation, the vector that starts at charge 1 and finishes at charge 2 is represented
as

r12 (4)

The length or magnitude of this vector is shown without the arrow above it

r12 = r12 (5)

and the unit vector is a vector in the direction of r12 but with a length of 1. We use a hat or circum-
flex above the symbol to show a unit vector

 r12
r12 =
r12 (6)

r = 1

Demo — Interactive example of the Coulomb force law

6
5
4
3 +
2 +
1
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30

Figure 2.3 1 μC charge and 2 μC showing the force on each — interactive model

So picture a +1 μC charge at the origin, and a +2 μC charge at coordinates (x = 3, y = 2) or in vector

ordered pair notation 
r = (rx , ry ) = (3, 2).
 Electricity booklet | 5

Figure 2.4 1 μC at the origin 

r 1 = (0, 0), and 2 μC charge a 
r 2 = (3, 2)

Example problem 4
Find F12 the force of charge 1 on charge 2 for the setup described in Figure 2.4.
Solution
First let’s calculate some of the vector quantities
  
� �� = � � + � �
���� = �� + ��  = �� � ���� �� ��� ��������� �������

 � �� �  
��� = =  � � + � � � ��� ���� ������
��� ��
So now we can get the result
�� �� 
��� = � ���
����

���� × ��� × � × ��-� � × ��-�

{�� �}
�� ��
{����������� �����������}

This gives

F 12 = 1.15 i + 0.77 j mN
The units of force are newtons, and we chose millinewtons here to make it easier to read.

The superposition principle

The superposition principle says that we can add the forces acting between charges linearly. Or put
another way, if we have a collection of charges, then the force on one charge, is just the vector sum
of the forces from each of the other charges taken one at a time.

So for a collection of charges, select a charge, say charge-1, then take each of the other charges one
at a time and find the force that this other charge would exert on charge-1 if acting alone. Add the
6 | Electricity booklet

force of all the other charges together, and we get the net force action on charge-1.

For example net force on charge-3 in Figure 2.5 is the vector sum of the force that each of charge-1
and charge-2 would exert on charge-3, if it were acting alone.

The principle of superposition of electric forces is not a logical requirement on nature and, like all
laws of physics, it was found by experiment. It is similar to summing the force vectors in Mechanics,
or summing the gravitational forces of two bodies acting on a third.

Figure 2.5 the superposition principle states that the net force acting on a charge is the vector sum
of the forces that each of the other charges exerts on it.

Example problem 5
Let’s take the simplest example of a 1-D problem where the charges are all in a line.
Look first at configuration A in Figure 2.6 below, it shows two positive charges, charge 1 and charge
3 each with a positive elementary charge e+ separated by 1 nm. Configuration A & B is got by adding
positive charge 2 at the same position as charge 1. charge 2 also has a positive elementary charge
e+ . What is the combined force of charge 1 and charge 2 on charge 3.
Note: that when we say at the same position in this problem, we really mean that charge 2 is so
close to charge 1 that it is closer than the number of significant figures we are using.

Figure 2.6 two charges of e+ separated by 1 nm.

 Electricity booklet | 7

Figure 2.7 two charges at the same position both with charge e+ acting on a third charge also with
charge e+ but 1 nm away.
Solution
First we’ll work out the F13 , the magnitude of the force of charge 1 on charge 3
F13 = k qr12q3
13

1.60 × 10-19 1.60 × 10-19

8.99 × 109
1 × 10-9 2
2.30144 × 10-10

so
F13 = 2.3×10-10 N
The calculation for F23 is identical to that for F13 so we again get that
F23 = 2.3 ×10-10 N.
So by superposition
Fnet = F13 + F23 = 2.3×10-10 + 2.3×10-10 = 4.6 × 10-10 N

2.3 The electric field

Wolfson 20.3

Electric field definition


The electric field E is a vector field that is defined at every point in space. Even what we see as
empty space has a value for the electric field vector at every point.
The electric field at a point in space is defined as the force per unit charge that would be felt if a
charge were placed at the point.
 F
E ≡ (7)
q
If there are no conductors in a volume of space, the electric field varies continuously over the
volume. That is to say that the electric field changes smoothly as we move from point to point.
Some useful terms:
Field point — The field point is a point in empty space at which we wish to calculate the
electric field.
8 | Electricity booklet

Test charge — The test charge is always positive. The electric field is the force per unit charge
that would be felt at a field point if there were an imaginary charge at that point. The imaginary
charge is called a test charge.

The Electric field of a point charge

So let’s analyse the electric field of a charge q at a given point in space P. The field of this charge q
at the field point P is defined as the force that q would exert on the test charge qtest per unit charge
of the test charge, when the test charge is placed at the field point. We know from Coulomb's law
that the force between the two charges is
q qtest 
F = k r
r2
so the force per unit charge of test charge is
 F 1 q qtest  q 
E (P) = = k r= k r
qtest qtest r2 r2
where
r — unit vector pointing from the charge q toward the field point P.

So the electric field of a point charge is

 q 
Epoint charge = k r (8)
r2

We can’t draw a vector at every point in space as we would just get a black piece of paper, but
below is a representation of the electric field of a negative point charge that shows a sample of
some of the vectors at a handful of selected points in space.

Figure 2.9 the electric field of a negative point charge — selected vector representation.
 Electricity booklet | 9

Figure 2.10 the electric field of a point charge — field line representation.

Checked to here!
Interesting application of an electric field
Reference: TheGuardian online newspaper “Bumblebee’s electric field sensor identified”
Mo Costandi, Tuesday 31 May, 2016
“Bumblebees use the fine hairs covering their bodies to detect electrical fields produced by the
flowers they feed on and pollinate, according to a new study by researchers at the University of
Bristol. The findings, just published in Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, may help
to solve the mystery of how insects and other terrestrial creatures detect and respond to electric
fields.”

Figure 2.11 Close-up of a bumblebee showing antennae and mechanosensory hairs used to detect
electric fields produced by flowers. Photograph: Gregory Sutton/ Dom Clarke/ Erica Morley/ Daniel
Robert
"[The researcher] believe they have identified the honeybee's electric sensor. They knew that
spiders use mechanosensory hairs covering their bodies to detect fluid flow and the speed of sound
10 | Electricity booklet

particles, and that honeybee antennae move in response to the electrical fields produced by
nestmates performing a waggle dance nearby, and so reasoned that one of these structures might
also be involved in the electric sense of the bumblebee."

"To test this, they mounted dead bees on pins and used lasers to measure the movements of
antennae and mechanosensory body hairs in response to weak electric fields comparable to those
produced by flowers in the wild. They found that both the antennae and the body hairs moved in
response to the applied electric fields – the hairs, however, being shorter and more rigid than the
antennae, moved more than ten times faster, and also deflected further, when the fields were
applied."

Demo — video clip of Mechanosensory hairs covering the bumblebee’s body move in
response to an applied electric field. From Sutton, et al. (2016).

Lecture 2

2.5 The field of charge distributions and the electric

dipole.
Wolfson 20.3

Field of a charge collection (distribution)

Let’s do a quick inventory of some relevant ideas that we have discussed so far.
◼ In the last section we learned about the electric field of a point charge.
◼ We also know that all charge resides on charged particles and that the charge of these particles is
an integer multiple of the elementary change e.
◼ Finally we know that by the principle of superposition we can add the force vectors of individual
charges to get the total force of a group of changes.
Using just these facts we can determine the electric field of any charge distribution, because any
real charge distribution is always just a collection of point charges with the elementary charge. We
know the electric field of a point charge, so for a charge distribution just sum the field vectors of
each point charge at the filed point and we get the net field of the charge distribution.
 Electricity booklet | 11

Figure 2.12 a distribution of charges showing the field point — the point we want to calculate the
field for.
So the electric field as a function of the point we are interested in, the field point is
N

E ( P) =  
E i ( P) = 
E 1 (P) + 
E 2 (P) + 
E 3 ( P) + 
E 4 ( P)
i=1
(9)
N qi
= k r iP
i=1 riP2
So this approach sounds simple but most real life charge distributions contain an enourmous
number of charges and even if we could overcome the sheer mass of calculations we still have a
problem in that we do not have accurate positions for each particle.

Electric dipole — a most important charge distribution

An electric dipole is two equal and opposite charges a short distance apart. Electric dipoles are
important in practice because many molecules, such as say H2 O can be approximated well by an
electric dipole.

Figure 2.13 an electric dipole showing the resultant electric field at an arbitrary field point on the
12 | Electricity booklet

bisector plane.

Interactive example of an electric dipole (interactive in Mathematica cdf

viewer only)
3

- +
-3 -2 -1 1 2 3

-1

-2

-3

Figure 2.14 interactive electric dipole if you are viewing this notebook in Mathematica cdf player.
And here is a stream field plot of and electric dipole. Notice how the electric field of a charge dipole
mirrors the magnetic field of a magnetic dipole.

-1

-2

-2 -1 0 1 2
 Electricity booklet | 13

Figure 2.15 Two stream plots of an electric dipole.

Figure 2.16 field line plot of an electric dipole.

We define the dipole moment  p as

 
p = qd — the dipole moment (10)

where:
q is magnitude of one of the charges

d is vector from the negative charge to the positive one
Far from a dipole, where far means a distance much greater than d, the field falls off as r13 . Wolfson
has a proof for this for field points on the plane bisecting the dipole.

Example problem 6
At distance l from a dipole where l is much greater than the dipole charge separation, the electric
field strength is 800 μN·C-1 . What is the field strength at 2 l?
Solution
F(l) = C l13 = 800 μN·C-1
F' (2 l) = C (21l)3 = C 81l3 = 1
8
F(l) = 100 μN·C-1

An electric dipole in a uniform electric field

Because an electric dipole has equal an opposite charges in a uniform electric field the net force on
the dipole is zero, the forces on the charges will apply a torque to the dipole.
14 | Electricity booklet

Figure 2.17 electric dipole in a uniform electric field experiences a torque.

τ = r F sinθ
= d2 q E sinθ × 2 — the times 2 at the right is because there are two charges
= p E sinθ — since dipole moment p = dq
τ = p E sinθ (11)

The vector form of the same equation is

  
τ =q d×E
or more simply

 p ×
τ = E = p E sinθ — torque on a dipole in a uniform electric field (12)

An electric dipole in a non-uniform electric field

In a non-uniform electric field an electric dipole may experiment both a net force and a torque.
 Electricity booklet | 15

Figure 2.18 Electric dipole in a non-uniform electric field may experience a net force and a torque.

2.6 The electric field of a continuous charge distribution

(not covered in lectures)
Wolfson 20.4
In reality charges are quantised an reside on particles but they are so numerous it o�en easier to
consider charge to be continuously distributed over a line, a surface, or a volume.
For a volume for instance we chop the volume up into small elements of volume ΔVi and to find the
charge contained in the volume we multiply each volume by the charge density ρ at that point. This
gives is a small charge element
Δqi = ρ(ri ) · ΔVi
So the field from that volume element will be
 Δ qi 
Δ E = ke ri 2
ri

Using superposition the net field is just the sum of all N of the small elements of field
N Δqi  N Δq
 i 
E = k ri = k  ri
ri2 ri2
i=1 i=1

Finally we let the size of the ΔVi approach zero and the sum becomes this integral
 1 
E = k r ⅆq (13)
r2
Where the integral is carried out over the entire volume containing the charge distribution.
The above integral may look strange but it is really just a shorthand used in physics for an integral
over a volume. In its full form, it looks like this.
 z2 y2 x2 ρ (x, y, z) 
E =k   r (x, y, z) ⅆ x ⅆ y ⅆ z (14)
z1 y1 x1 r 2 (x, y, z)

Lecture 3
16 | Electricity booklet

3 Electric flux and Gauss’s law

Wolfson Chapter 21

3.1 Electric field lines

Wolfson 21.1

Overview of field lines

Electric field lines help us visualize electric fields.They are not real. At each point on a field line the

electric field E is tangent to the field line.

Where field lines are closer together the field is stronger. In fact in three dimension, the number of
lines crossing a surface is proportional to the strength of the field at that point — this is only possi-

ble because of the r12 fall off of E and because we live in a three dimension space.

Figure 3.1 field lines closer together near point charge showing that the field is stronger there.
Density falls off as r12 in three dimensions.

Field line rules (static charges)


◼ At each point E is tangent to the field line.
◼ Associate a number of lines with a charge of a given magnitude.
 Electricity booklet | 17

◼ End of a field line goes to a charge or extends to infinity.

◼ Arrows point in the direction of the electric field — away from positive charges and toward
negative charges.
◼ For static charges field lines always begin or end on a charge, or they extend to infinity.
A reminder: field lines ARE NOT REAL! They only help us to visualise an electric field.

Figure 3.2 we have associated 8 lines with q. So we use 16 lines for 2q.

Field lines and closed surfaces

To count field lines emerging from a closed surface
◼ count +1 for an outgoing crossing
◼ count -1 for an ingoing crossing.

· The number of field lines emerging from a closed surface

is proportional to the net charge enclosed by the surface.
(15)
· This net charge will be negative if more lines enter
the surface that leave it.

The surface we choose is completely up to us. Is is an imaginary 3D surface that does not have to
align with any real objects.
18 | Electricity booklet

Figure 3.3 net ›+8 line crossings so +q enclosed.

Figure 3.4 net +8 line crossings so +q enclosed.

 Electricity booklet | 19

Figure 3.5 net zero crossings so no charge enclosed.

Figure 3.6 S1 - small surface has 0 net crossings so 0 charge enclosed.

S2 - large surface has +4 net crossings of + q2 enclosed.

3.2 Electric flux

Wolfson 21.2

Overview
Electric flux is a real quantity. It is the physical quantity that is represented visually by the number
of field lines crossing a surface.

Vector area
We will now define a vector quantity that represents the area and alignment of a flat surface.

The area vector A is defined as the perpendicular or normal to a surface and its length is equal to

the area of the surface measured in m2 . That is A = area of surface.
20 | Electricity booklet


Figure 3.7 Area vector A of a flat surface
If we have a closed surface the area vectors of segments of the surface point outward.

Electric flux definition for flat surface and uniform electric field
 
The electric flux through an area A in a uniform field E is defined as

  — electric flux for flat surface in uniform electric field

ΦE = E · A = E A cos θ (16)

with

E — electric field vector

A — area vector of surface


If A and E are parallel (that is the surface is normal to the electric field) the dot product is then just
the product of their magnitudes A time E, and the flux becomes
ΦE = E A — for A and E parallel (17)

Flux in some sense measures flow through a surface such as sunlight coming from a particular
angle and falling on a square metre patch of ground, or a river flowing through a wire rectangle that
is place at different angles to the direction of water flow.

 
Figure 3.8 A and E parallel so ΦE = E A
FIX USING
 Electricity booklet | 21

THIS

If the field and surface are not parallel then we use

ΦE = A E cos θ — any orientation (18)

 
Figure 3.9 A and E at any orientation the ΦE = E A cos θ

Example problem 1
Find the electric flux through one side of a cube of edge length s where the side is aligned at 45 ° to
the electric field.

Figure 3.10 Flux through cube with edge length s. Side at 45 ° to the electric field.
Solution
22 | Electricity booklet

ΦE = E s 2 cos 45 °
1
= E s2
2

Example problem 2
For the cube in Figure 3.10 of example problem 1, find the total net flux through all the faces of the
cube
Solution
There are two of the cube’s faces to the le� where the electric field and the area vector point in
opposite directions so the flux is negative and two faces to the right where the electric field and the
area vector point in the same direction so the flux is positive. Because the cube is tilted at 45 ° the
magnitude of the flux in these four faces is the same (ΦE = E s 2 cos 45 °) so the positives and
negatives add to zero.

The cube face that is toward us has an area vector perpendicular to the electric field so the flux is
zero. The same for the cube face on the far side of the cube.
The net electric flux for the whole cube is zero.

Electric flux for curved surfaces and non-uniform electric fields

To find the electric flux for a curved surface in a non-uniform electric field, divide the surface into

very small sections ΔA i . Make these sections small enough so that over their extent the surface is
approximately flat and the field is approximately uniform.
 Electricity booklet | 23

Figure 3.11 divide surface into small sections so that for its extent field is uniform and surface flat.
So for each of these small segments we can calculate the flux as before

ΔΦEi ≃ E · Δ A i = E ΔAi cosθ
Flux is a scalar so to get the total flux through the entire surface we just sum the flux of each seg-
ment. We can make the relation exact by making the segments infinitesimally small and the sum
then becomes an integral.


ΦE ≡  E ·ⅆ
A — definition of fux for a curved surface or non - uniform 
E (19)
surface

The integral extends over the surface we are analysing.

Lecture 4

3.3 Gauss’s law

Wolfson 21.3
We now convert what we learned diagrammatically about field lines emerging from closed surfaces
to the mathematical language of flux. As you remember the number of field lines emerging from a
closed surface is proportional to the net charge enclosed in the surface.

First chose any closed surface. In the language of Gauss’s law the closed surface is called a Gaussian
surface. Then Gauss’s law states that
24 | Electricity booklet

  qenclosed
ΦE ≡ E ⅆA = — Gauss' s law (20)
ϵ0

where:

— integral taken over the closed Gaussian surface

qenclosed — the net charge enclosed inside the surface

ϵ0 — 8.85×10-12 C-2 ·N-1 ·m-2
Note: ke = 4 π1 ϵ0

In words, Gauss’s law says that the flux emerging from any closed surface is equal the net charge
enclosed divided by the universal constant ϵ0 .

So we have converted the language of field lines and counting crossings to a mathematical basis.
Gauss’s law is one of four Maxwell equations. It is always true.

3.4 Using Gauss’s law

Wolfson 21.4
Even though Gauss’s law is one of the four fundamental equations of electricity and magnetism and
it always holds true, we can only find exact solutions the equation in situations with high symmetry.
In other circumstances we must resort to numerical methods to find solutions. We can use Gauss’s
law to find the electric field exactly in the following situations (as well as others that we won’t cover
here).

If the charge distribution has:

◼ 3 dimensional spherical symmetry.
◼ 2 dimensional planar symmetry.
◼ 1 dimensional linear symmetry.
Let’s look first at a point charge.

The point charge

A point charge has 3-D, or spherical, symmetry because no matter which direction we rotate the
charge, it remains unchanged. So if we choose a spherical Gaussian surface centred on the charge,
then the field has the same magnitude at every point of the Gaussian surface, and the field is
perpendicular to the surface.
 Electricity booklet | 25

Figure 3.12 A spherical Gaussian surface centred on a point charge. The field is everywhere perpen-
dicular to the surface.
So as always by the definition of flux

ΦE = E·d A
    
But E ·d A = E dA cosθ , and because E is parallel to d A , θ = 0 and cos θ = 1. So E · d A = E dA
and the flux becomes
ΦE = E·d A

Because E is constant over our Gaussian surface, a sphere, we can take it outside of the integral
ΦE = E dA

But the integral for the infinitesimal are d A, over the entire surface of a sphere, is just the surface
area of the sphere.
ΦE = E 4 π r 2 — (1)
So far we have only used the definition of electric flux. Now we will use Gauss’s law
qenclosed
ΦE =
ϵ0
qenclosed
E 4 π r2 = using (1)
ϵ0

1 q
E= — electric field of a point charge (21)
4 π ϵ0 r2
26 | Electricity booklet

Let’s see if the above electric field agrees with Coulomb’s law.
F = q1 E
1 q2
= q1
4 π ϵ0 r 2
1 q1 q2
= 4 π ϵ0 r2

But Coulomb’s constant

ke = 4 π1 ϵ0

So
q1 q2
F = ke r2

and we have recovered Coulomb’s law. It’s good to see that Gauss’s Law is consistent with Coulom-
b’s law and gives the same result. In fact in electrostatics (charges not moving) the two laws are
completely equivalent and one implies the other. Yet in various circumstances we will find that one
or the other is much easier to apply.

Gauss’s law and three dimensional space

Gauss’s law holds essentially because we are in a three dimensional world.

Figure 3.13 A Flux of a point charge is the same for any sphere containing the point.
First we calculate the flux of a point charge through a sphere of radius r. Now if we look at another
sphere of radius 2r, it has 4 times the surface area because the surface area of a sphere is 4 π r2 . But
at twice the distance Coulombs law tells is the field is 14 as strong so the area by the field, or the
flux, remains unchanged.

Process for finding E using Gauss’s law

◼ Decide if the charge distribution has symmetry.
◼ Choose a Gaussian surface where E is either a constant or zero over the surface.
◼ Evaluate the electric flux ΦE over the closed Gaussian surface. It contains the unknown E.
 Electricity booklet | 27

qenclosed
◼ Set ΦE equal to ϵ0
and solve for E.

We need symmetry to solve Gauss’s law

Remember that even though Gauss’s law always holds true, we cannot find exact solutions unless
there is a high degree of symmetry in the charge distribution. We need this symmetry to easily do

the Mathematics required, and to solve for E the electric field.
Have a look at the following two charge distributions. The point charge on the le� has spherical

symmetry and as such E will be constant over a spherical Gaussian surface, so we can take E, the
field strength, outside of the flux integral and calculate the flux. The charge distribution on the

right, however, has no such symmetry. It is not easy to find a Gaussian surface with constant E over
the surface, and therefore we cannot easily calculate the flux in terms of E.

Note, however, that the spherical Gaussian surface shown contains a net qenclosed of 2 q. So if we
could calculate the flux it would be equal to 2ϵ0q because Gauss’s law is still true.

Figure 3.14 A point charge has spherical symmetry but two charges lose this symmetry

Electric field of a uniform sphere of charge

Let’s consider a uniform sphere of charge; that is a charge distribution that has the same charge
density at every point inside a sphere. Let’s say that we have a charge Q, spread evenly throughout
the volume of the sphere.

Electric field inside the uniform sphere of charge


Inside the charge distribution, because we chose the Gaussian surface so that E is constant in
magnitude and perpendicular to the surface, as we saw before

ΦE = E·d A

=E dA

= E 4 π r2 — (1)
28 | Electricity booklet

Figure 3.15 Spherical Gaussian surface inside the uniform sphere of charge
Now because the charge is of uniform density to get qenclosed we just use the ratio of the volume of
our Gaussian sphere to the volume to the sphere of charge
volume of sphere of radius r
qenclosed = Q
volume of sphere of radius R
4
3
π r3
=Q
4
3
π R3
r 3
= Q  — (2)
R
By Gauss’s law we can set (1) equal to (2) divided by ϵ0

1 3
E(r) 4 π r2 = ϵ0
Q Rr 3
1 r
E (r) = 4 π ϵ0
Q R3
Qr
E (r) = k — field inside sphere of charge (22)
R3

Electric field outside the uniform sphere of charge

Outside the charge distribution, the same arguments as above again gives us our flux. This time r is
larger that R.

ΦE = E·d A

=E dA

= E 4 π r2 — (3)
 Electricity booklet | 29

Figure 3.16 Spherical Gaussian surface outside the uniform sphere of charge
Now the charge enclosed qenclosed in the Gaussian surface is just all of the charge Q
qenclosed = Q — (4 )
So by Gauss’s law we an set equation (3) equal to (4) divided by ϵ0
1
E 4 π r2 = Q
ϵ0
1 Q
E (r) =
4 π ϵ 0 r2
Q
E (r) = k — field outside sphere of charge (23)
r2
Note that outside the sphere of charge the field is the same as it would be if we had a point charge
with charge Q at the centre of the charge distribution. This is in fact true for any radially symmetri-
cal charge distribution.

In summary.
Q
E (r) = ke r — inside sphere
R3
1
E (r) = ke Q — outside sphere
r2
The field inside the sphere is just a constant times r (E = const r), so inside the sphere the field
strength increases linearly with r.
Outside the sphere the field falls off with r12 .
Q
Note that for r = R at the edge of the sphere both equations give the same field magnitude of ke R2
.
This means there is no discontinuity in the field at the boundary of the sphere.
30 | Electricity booklet

Figure 3.17 Field strength versus distance r from the centre of a uniform sphere of charge

Lecture 5

3.5 Conductors
Wolfson 21.6
A neutral conductor consists of equal numbers of positive and negative charges.

Figure 3.18 A neutral conductor with equal numbers of positive and negative charges.
Within a conductor positive nuclei form a stationary lattice. Electrons are highly mobile within this
lattice similar to the particles of a gas. Charges in a conductor will move in any electric field until
they are constrained by the surface. The charges move until they counteract the field inside the
conductor. If the field is not zero inside the conductor electrons will continue to move.
 Electricity booklet | 31

Figure 3.19 A conductor coming to equilibrium in and external electric field.

At electrostatic equilibrium 
E the electric field in a conductor is zero. (24)

Electric field at the surface of a conductor

Picture the electric field at the surface of a conductor. Zoom in to a microscopic level so that the
conductor surface becomes almost flat — viewed from close enough bumps in the surface become
gentle curves.

Figure 3.20 The above field is not possible. A field at the surface of a conductor cannot have a
component parallel to the surface.
Now if this field were not perpendicular to the surface it would have a component lying along the
surface, parallel to it, as shown in Figure 3.20; but this is not possible because the component
parallel to the surface would drive electrons along the surface. So we conclude that,
32 | Electricity booklet

At electrostatic equilibrium 
E the electric field is perpendicular to the surface of a conductor. (25)

Conductor with a surface charge density σ

By convention we use the Greek letter lower case sigma σ (the equivalent of our s) to represent a
2D surface charge density.
σ = charge per unit area of conductor surface (C·m2 )
The σ or s stands for surface.

Figure 3.21 A conductor with a surface charge density of σ showing a closed cylindrical Gaussian
surface.
To analyse the field we will choose a Gaussian surface that is right circular cylinder with its circular
faces of area A. (Actually for the analysis below we could equally well use any prism with base area
A.)
To calculate the flux
ΦE = Φtop + Φside + Φbottom
Because there is no electric field inside a conductor we know that Φbottom is zero. Also the field is
parallel to the side of the cylinder so Φside is also zero.
ΦE = Φtop + Φside + Φbottom
= EA + 0 + 0
= EA — (1)
Now given the surface charge density σ and the area of the cylinder at the surface of A we have
qenclosed = σ A — (2)
So Gauss’s law tells us that
qenclosed
ΦE =
ϵ0
or
σA
EA = — by (1) & (2)
ϵ0

σ
E= — at the surface of a conductor at equilibrium (26)
ϵ0
 Electricity booklet | 33

Using Gauss’s law on a hollow conductor

Picture a hollow conductor that has no net charge on it. Place a +2 μC charge inside the hollow of
this conductor.

Figure 3.22 Point charge placed inside a hollow conductor in the short time before charges on the
conductor move.
We know that in a minute part of a second once equilibrium is reached the electric field inside a
conductor must be zero. So if as in shown in the figure above, we place a Gaussian surface com-

pletely inside the conductor, because E is zero, the flux ΦE through the Gaussian surface must also
be zero. By Gauss's law the charge enclosed by the Gaussian surface must therefore be zero.
ΦE = E·dA

= 0dA
= 0
So by Gauss' s law
qenclosed = 0
and there will be no net charge inside the Gaussian surface.
34 | Electricity booklet

Figure 3.23 A charge inside a neutral hollow conductor. The charges in the hollow conductor
arrange themselves to give a net electric field of zero inside the conductor.
The only way to make the field inside the Gaussian surface zero is if -2μC of charge migrate to the
inside surface of the hollow conductor, because if you remember a conductor can only have an
unbalanced charge on a surface. Now because the hollow conductor is electrically neutral this
means there must be an opposite charge of +2μC on the outside surface of the hollow conductor.

Hollow spherical conductor

We will now use the same analysis as above to analyse a hollow conduction sphere. We give the
sphere an initial charge of +2Q and we place three charges inside the sphere with a net charge of
+1Q.

A equilibrium the sphere will have no electric field inside its conducting shell. This requires that we
get a charge of +3Q on its surface. But this surface charge will distribute itself uniformly because it
is completely cut off from the charges inside the conductor — there being no electric field at the
outside surface from these charges inside. So given that the +3Q is spread evenly over the surface
outside the sphere has the electric field is like that of a point charge of +3Q at the centre of the
sphere.
 Electricity booklet | 35

Figure 3.24 Charges placed inside a hollow conducting sphere. The sphere has a net charge of +2Q
and the charges inside the sphere have a net charge of +1Q.

Lecture 6

4 Electric potential
Wolfson Chapter 22

4.1 Concepts in this lecture

In this lecture you will learn the following:
◼ The concept of electric potential difference
Including the meaning of the familiar term “volt”
◼ To calculate potential difference between two points in an electric field
◼ To calculate potential differences of charge distributions by summing over point charges
◼ The concept of equipotentials
◼ How charge distributes itself on conductors
36 | Electricity booklet

4.2 Overview
◼ We can assign a scalar called the electric potential to each point in space — it is a scalar field.
◼ The negative gradient of the potential gives the electric field.
◼ A benefit is that a scalar is that it is easier to add and subtract than the vector electric field
because a scalar only has one value for each point in space requiring one operation, whereas a
vector has three components and requires three operations.
◼ The unit of electric potential is the familiar volt.
◼ We use the same mathematical trick with gravity where we assign a gravitational potential to
simplify calculation of the gravitational fields.
◼ We can visualise a 2D electric potential as a contoured surface, and a positive charge as a ball
bearing that will roll down the contoured surface.

4.3 Electric potential difference

The electric potential difference between two points is the energy required per unit charge to
move a test charge between the two points

WAB
ΔVAB ≡ — definition of electric potential difference (27)
q

where:
∆VAB — potential difference between points A and B,
∆WAB — work done in moving q between those point
We can get a definition of potential difference that includes electric field as follows:
We know that
 
Wab
q
= - 1q ∫ab F · ⅆ r = - ∫ab Fq · ⅆ r
where:

F — force of the system on the charge (the negative of the force we apply to the charge)

 F
Now E ≡ q
. So

Wab
q
= - ∫ab E · ⅆ r
So an alternative definition for the potential difference between two points is

b

Δ VAB ≡ - E · ⅆ 
r — electric potential difference from electric field (28)
a

Electrostatic field is conservative

Electrostatic fields, like gravitational fields with stationary masses, are conservative so the work
done in moving the test charge between two points is independent of the path taken.
 Electricity booklet | 37


Because Δ VAB ≡ -∫ab 
E · ⅆ r , in a uniform field for instance only the movement that is parallel to E
adds to the work done so all paths require an equivalent amount of work to a straight path.

Figure 4.1 The electrostatic electric field is conservative. The work done and so the potential
difference depends only on the end-points of the test charge’s motion and is independent of the
path taken.

Potential difference in a uniform electric field


◼ In a uniform field, the potential difference is ΔVAB = - E ·Δ 
r

Quick quiz
The figure shows three straight paths AB of the same length, each in a different electric field. Which
one of the three has the largest potential difference between the two points?
◼ (a)
◼ (b)
◼ (c)
38 | Electricity booklet

Answer: (c) because the field gets stronger toward B.

Example problem 1
For the charge movement shown in Figure 4.1 what is the potential difference between a and b if
the uniform electric field E = -3 N·C-1 and r = 0.25 m.
Solution

ΔVAB = -∫ab E · ⅆ 
r

Now since E is uniform and if we choose a path parallel to E then


E · ⅆ r = E ⅆ r
So
ΔVAB = -E ∫ab ⅆ r
= -E Δr
= -(-3)× 0.25
= 0.75 V

Example problem 2
What would be the work required to move 2 C from a to b?
Solution
W = q ΔV
= 2 × 0.75
= 1.5 J
 Electricity booklet | 39

Parachutist grasping a high-voltage wire

Figure 4.2 Parachutist caught on a high voltage wire.

Note that the parachutist’s hand is on the high voltage wire! Why doesn’t he get an electric shock?

The volt
◼ The unit of electric potential difference is the volt (V). 1 volt is 1 joule per coulomb (1 V = 1 J·C-1 ).
◼ The volt is not a unit of energy, but of energy per charge — that is, of electric potential difference.
40 | Electricity booklet

Figure 4.3 Typical potential differences of some common systems.

Example problem
What energy is provided per unit charge by a 9 V battery?
Solution
A 9 V battery supplies 9 joules of energy to every coulomb of charge that passes through an external
circuit connected between its two terminals.

The electronvolt (a unit of energy)

���������������� (1 eV) is defined as the energy required to move an elementary charge e,

through a potential difference of one volt (1 V).

Example problem 3
How many joules in one electronvolt?
Solution
W = q ΔV
By the definition of the electronvolt this is
=e1
= 1.6×10-19 C× 1 CJ
 Electricity booklet | 41

= 1.6×10-19 J

Example problem 4
An alpha particle (charge +2e) moves from a point with a potential of 0 V to a point with a potential
of 10 V. How much work, expressed in eV, is done on the alpha particle?
Solution
W = q ΔV
W = 2 10
= 20 eV

Electric potential of a point charge

Starting with the definition

Δ VAB = -∫ab E · ⅆ 
r

We showed in Section 2.3 that the electric field of a point charge is

q 
E = ke r
r2

Figure 4.4 Electric field of a point charge.

The field is not constant so we must integrate to get the voltage change

Δ VAB = -∫ab E · ⅆ 
r
q r · ⅆ 
= -∫ab k r
r2

r for the radial path we have chosen so r .d 

r is parallel to ⅆ  r = dr
42 | Electricity booklet

q
Δ VAB = -∫ab k ⅆr
r2
= -k q ∫ab r-2 ⅆ r
= -k q -r-1 ba
= k q  r1b - 1
ra


The convention as with gravity is to choose ra = ∞ and set the potential at infinity equal to zero,
then the potential of a point charge becomes simply

q
V(r)point charge = ke potential of point charge (29)
r

Remember that potential only has a meaning if we talk about a potential difference. For a point
charge by using the trick of setting the potential at infinity to zero, we can use a single number for
the potential at a given distance r from the charge.

Example problem 3
You measure a potential difference of 50 V between two points a distance 10 cm apart parallel to
the field produced by a point charge. Suppose you move closer to the point charge. How will the
potential difference over a closer 10 cm interval be different?
Solution
As we see from equation (29) the potential falls off as 1r . The potential difference between the
1 1
points b
- a
is related to the slope of 1r . The slope of 1r increases as we approach the point charge
so the potential difference increases.

Representation of 2D potential of a point charge.

Consider the 2D electric potential of a point charge in the x-y plane. If we picture the x-y plane lying
flat we can use the third upward dimension to sketch the value of the electric potential at each
point. We end up with a plot that is analogous to a contour plot that we used to draw terrain maps.

Figure 4.5 Elevation plot of the two-dimensional electric potential of a point charge.
 Electricity booklet | 43

Potential of a charge distribution

Because of the principle of superposition for electric fields, for a collection of point charges we can
get the potential at a given field point P by summing the potential of each individual charge. So for
N point charges qi , the potential at the field point P is

N N qi
V (P) = Vi (P) = k potential of distribution of point charges
i= 1 i= 1 riP

where:
V(P) — potential difference between infinity and the field-point P in the electric field of a
distribution of point charges q1 , q2 , q3 , ...
Vi (P) — the potential at the field point P due to the charge qi
For a continuous distribution

k ρ (r)
V (P) =  ⅆ q = k ⅆr potential of continuous charge distribution
r r

where
ρ(r) — charge density as a function of position

Potential of an electric dipole

To get the potential of a dipole at a field point P we sum the potential of two equal and opposite
charges.
V(P) = k rq1 + k (-q)
r2
= k q r11 - 1
r2

= k q rr21-rr21 
The above expression is exact for all P.
44 | Electricity booklet

Figure 4.6 Calculating potential at a field point P for an electric dipole.

We can make an approximation for r large compared to the dipole separation 2a (r >> 2a). r1 and
r2 are almost equal to r, but for r2 - r1 we are subtracting almost equal quantities so taking
V(P) = k q rr21-rr21 
we need to approximate r2 - r1 ≃ 2 a cos θ, and we get
V(P) = V(r, θ) ≃ k q 2 a cos
r2
θ

Now the dipole moment is

p = 2aq
So

V(r, θ) ≃ k p  r2  cos θ potential of a dipole (r >> a)

where:
θ — angle to field point from perpendicular bisector of dipole
r — radial distance to field point from centre of dipole.
If we plot the potential of the dipole we get a potential hill around the positive point charge and a
potential well around the negative point charge. A positive test charge would feel a force that
corresponds to rolling down these potential hills. Remember however the plot below is of a two
dimensional potential in the x - y plane. The vertical dimension is just the value of the potential at
each point (x, y).

Figure 4.7 Elevation plot of the two-dimensional electric potential of an electric dipole.

Continuous distributions: ring and disk

◼ For a uniformly charged ring of total charge Q, integration gives the potential on the ring axis:

k k √ 2 2
V (x) =  ⅆq =  ⅆq = (ke Q)  x + a  potential of charged ring on the axis
r r
 Electricity booklet | 45

where:
Q — total charge of the ring
x — distance of field point along the axis
a — radius of the charged ring

◼ Integrating the potentials of charged rings gives the potential of a uniformly charged disk:

V (x) = (2 ke Q)  a2  √ x2 + a2  - x potential of a charged disk

This result reduces to the infinite-sheet potential close to the disk, and to the point-charge poten-
tial far from the disk.
46 | Electricity booklet

Getting the electric field from the potential difference

From the one-dimensional definition of potential
ΔV = -∫ab E · ⅆ x

In a very small length Δx, E is roughly constant so the integral simplifies to

ΔV = - E · Δ x

or
ΔV
= -E
Δx

In the limit as Δx become infinitesimally small we get

dV
E=- electic field from 1D potential (30)
dx

It is not part of our course but in case you are curious we can get the three-dimensional field from a
three dimensional scalar potential field using partial derivatives
E = - ∂V i + ∂V j + ∂V k— electric field from 3D potential
∂x ∂y ∂z

Example problem 4
Here is a 1D electric potential plotted against position x. Sketch the electric field.

TO DO — update sketch to match solution below

Figure 4.8 Plot of an electric potential versus position x.

Solution
dV
Use the fact that E is the negative if dx
to sketch the electric field.
 Electricity booklet | 47

Figure 4.9 Plot of electric field based on plot of potential both versus position x.

Equipotentials
In 2D an equipotential is a one-dimensional line where electric potential is a constant. If you picture
a two-dimensional electric potential as an elevation map then equipotentials are the same as
elevation contour lines on a map. (Note that in 3D an equipotential is a surface on which the poten-
tial is constant.)
For instance, here again is our two-dimensional x-y plot of the potential of a point charge with
potential shown in the vertical dimension. The circles are lines of equipotential — lines where the
48 | Electricity booklet

potential has a single value.

Figure 4.10 Elevation plot of the two-dimensional electric potential of a point charge showing lines
of equipotential spaced at 0.25 V.
And below is the an x-y plot of the same point-charge potential showing only the equipotential lines.

Figure 4.11 Same point charge potential plotted in the x-y plane showing lines of equipotential.
Some items of interest about equipotential lines.

◼ E is perpendicular to the equipontential lines. This is the same direction as that in which the
potential is changing most quickly.
◼ Where the equipotentials are closer together the field is stronger because E = - ΔV
Δr
 Electricity booklet | 49

Figure 4.12 The electric field of a point charge derived from its electric potential.

Quick quiz
The figure shows cross sections through two equipotential surfaces. In both diagrams the potential
difference between adjacent equipotentials is the same. Which of these two could represent the
field of a point charge?
(a)
(b)
neither (a) nor (b)

Answer: (a) The field is stronger near the charge so the equipotentials are closer together there.

Example problem 4
Approximate the field strength and direction at the field point P in the x-y equipotential potential
plot below.
50 | Electricity booklet

Figure 4.13 x-y plot of electric equipotentials.

Solution
At the point P get the distance between the 20 V equipontential and the 10 V equipotential. Note
that the x-coordinates are in centimetres. Then
E = - ΔΔ Vr ≃ - 10 - 20
(7.2 - 3.2) x 10-2
= 250 Vm-1

For the direction not the E will point perpendicular to the equipotential contours. So the direction

of E is approximately 20° counterclockwise from the positive direction of the x - axis.

Electric field of a dipole from its potential

Below on the right is a field line plot of the electric field of a dipole. This can be derived using the
slop of the dipole potential

Figure 4.14 On the le� is a dipole 2D potential on the right is the electric field derived from the
 Electricity booklet | 51

slope of this potential.

Electric potential of a charged conductor

There is no electric field inside a conductor at electrostatic equilibrium; that is E = 0 inside the
conductor. Since E = - dV dr
, that means that inside a conductor dV
dr
= 0, or V is a constant.

At equilibrium the whole volume of a conductor is an equipotential.

Below is a two-dimensional cross-section of a conductor at electrostatic equilibrium showing the

equipotential lines. The whole of the conductor is a single equipotential. The electric field is perpen-
dicular to the surface. Now equipotential lines a perpendicular to the electric field.
Note also that the electric field is stronger where the surface of the conductor is has a smaller
radius of curvature. See Appendix 1 for an explanation of this effect.

Figure 4.15 Cross-section of a conductor showing equipotential and the perpendicular electric
field.

Quick quiz
Which one of the following statements is TRUE?
1. The electric potential is zero on the surface of a conductor in electrostatic equilibrium.
2. When the electric field is zero at a point, the electric potential must also be zero there.
52 | Electricity booklet

3. If the electric potential is constant on a surface, then any electric field present can only be
perpendicular to that surface.
4. If the electric field is zero everywhere inside a region of space, the electric potential must also be
zero in that region.

Answer: 3. If the electric potential is constant on a surface, then any electric field present can only
be perpendicular to that surface.
 Electricity booklet | 53

Appendix 1 - Reasonability argument for

more charge on a conductor where the radius
of curvature is smaller.
54 | Electricity booklet
Electricity booklet | 55