PHY121-Electricity and Magnetism, Vibrations and

waves I
Electricity

G.T. Taulo

Department of Physics and Electronics, School of Natural and

Applied Sciences, UNIMA.
 1. Electric Charge
• A number of simple experiments demonstrate the existence of electric forces.
• For example, after rubbing a balloon on your hair on a dry day, you will find that the balloon attracts
bits of paper. The attractive force is often strong enough to suspend the paper from the balloon.

• When materials behave in this way, they are said to be electrified or to have become electrically
charged.

• Experiments have demonstrated that there are two types of charges, positive (+) and negative
(-) charges, with the following basic property:
• Like charges repel each other and unlike charges attract each other.

• Charge is never created nor destroyed, rather it is conserved.

• Charge always exists in integral multiples of a fundamental basic unit of charge, i.e., it is quantized.

• This basic unit of charge is conventionally denoted by “𝒆”: 𝑒 = 1.60218 × 10−19 𝐶, where unit C is
the SI unit of charge called coulomb.

• In an atom, the charge on an electron is -e and that on a proton is +e .

 Electric Charge
• It has to be noted that the symbol for an electric charge is “q” which is different from the SI
unit of coulomb (C).

• Below is a comparison of electric charge of an electron, proton, and a neutron against their
mass.
Particle Charge (C) Mass (kg)
Electron −1.60218 × 10−19 9.1094 × 10−31
Proton +1.60218 × 10−19 1.67262 × 10−27
Neutron 0 1.67493 × 10−27

• The movement of charge is limited by the substance the charge is trying to pass through.
• Conductors: Allow charge to move readily through them, example: copper wire.

• Insulators: Restrict the movement of charge through them, example: plastic sheath.

• Semiconductors are a third class of materials, and their electrical properties are somewhere
between those of insulators and those of conductors.
 Charging and Discharging
• There are basically two ways you can charge an object:
• Friction
• Induction

• The frictional charging process results in a transfer of electrons between the two objects that
are rubbed together.
• Atom of one object gains electrons from another, making it negatively charged while the other
object becomes positively charged.

• For example, the charge on the glass rod below is + while the charge on the silk is -.
 Charging and Discharging
• The second way to charge an object is via induction, which requires no physical contact.

• We bring a negatively charged rod near a neutral sphere. While the electrons are repelled to
the other side of the sphere, they leave a net positive charge at the side near the rod.
 2. Force Between Point Charges
• Under force between charges, we primarily use the Coulomb’s Law that was established by
Charles Coulomb in 1785.

• We want to know how strong the attraction or repulsion is between charged objects - this is
given by Coulomb's Law that gives the strength of force between two charged objects.
• Point charges – refer to charges whose physical sizes are much smaller than the distance between
them.
 Coulomb’s Law
• An electric force has the following properties:
1. It is directed along a line joining the two particles and is inversely proportional to the square of the
separation distance r, between them.

2. It is proportional to the product of the magnitudes of the charges, 𝑞1 and 𝑞2 , of the two
particles.

3. It is attractive if the charges are of opposite sign and repulsive if the charges have the same sign.

• The electric force is a vector.

• This means that when working with electric forces acting at an angle, its better to always separate
the components of the force into x and y components and add them up as vectors.
 Coulomb’s Law
• The magnitude of electric force between the two charges is given by:
𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟐
𝑭𝒆 = 𝒌 𝒆
𝒓𝟐
• Where 𝐤 𝐞 = 𝟖. 𝟗𝟖𝟕𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎𝟗 𝐍 ∙ 𝐦𝟐 /𝐂𝟐 is called the Coulomb constant and r is the separation
distance between the charges.

• If you double the charge on one object, the force doubles. If you double the distance, the
force decreases by a factor of four. The direction of the force is determined from the sign of
the charges.

• To solve problems with Coulomb's law, you must always use the absolute value of the
charges, then determine the direction from the sign of the charges.

• Sometimes the coulomb’s constant 𝑘𝑒 is given in terms of permittivity of free space, ∈0 , as

1
𝑘𝑒 = 4𝜋𝜖 , where:
0
∈0 = 8.8542 × 10−12 C2 ΤN ∙ m2
 Example 1
• What is the force between the two point charges given that 𝑞1 = 12.0 × 10−9 𝐶 and 𝑞2 =
−18.0 × 10−9 𝐶?

Solution
• Using the Coulomb’s law:
𝑞1 𝑞2
𝐹𝑒 = 𝑘𝑒
𝑟2

9 2 2
(12.0 × 10−9 𝐶)(18.0 × 10−9 )
(8.9875 × 10 N ∙ m /C )
(0.300 𝑚)2

𝟐. 𝟏𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟓 𝑵
• The force is attractive.
 Example 2
• What is the total force on 𝑞3 from 𝑞2 and 𝑞1 given that?
• 𝑞1 = 6.00 × 10−9 𝐶

• 𝑞2 = −2.00 × 10−9 𝐶

• 𝑞3 = 5.00 × 10−9 𝐶

A system of charged particles free-body diagram of forces acting on q3

 Solution
3
• To find angle 𝜃; 𝜃 = tan−1 4 = 36.9°.

• After using the coulomb’s law, we will find that:

• 𝐹13 = 1.0785 × 10−8 𝑁 (away from q1)

• 𝐹23 = 5.6171 × 10−9 𝑁 (towards q2)

• Now we will determine the sum of 𝑥 and 𝑦-components of the forces found above.
 Solution continuing …
• The sum of forces in the x-direction will be found as follows:
• σ 𝐹𝑥 = 𝐹13𝑥 + 𝐹23𝑥
• σ 𝐹𝑥 = 𝐹13 cos 𝜃 − 𝐹23
• σ 𝐹𝑥 = 1.0785 × 10−8 𝑁 cos 36.9° − 5.6171 × 10−9 𝑁 = 3.0075 × 10−9 𝑁

• The sum of forces in the y-direction will be found as follows:

• σ 𝐹𝑦 = 𝐹13𝑦 + 𝐹23𝑦
• σ 𝐹𝑦 = 𝐹13 (sin 𝜃) + 0
• σ 𝐹𝑦 = (1.0785 × 10−8 𝑁)(sin 36.9°) = 6.476 × 10−9 𝑁

• Now to find the resultant force:

• σ𝑭 = σ 𝑭𝒙 𝟐 + σ 𝑭𝒚 𝟐 = 𝟕. 𝟏𝟒 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟗 𝑵.
σ 𝑭𝒚
• Resultant angle,𝜱 = 𝐭𝐚𝐧−𝟏 σ = 𝟔𝟓. 𝟏° with respect to the x-axis.
𝑭𝒙
 Example 3
• What is the angle and tension in the string?
• Attached at the end of the string is q1 with mass 𝑚1 = 8.00 × 10−2 𝑘𝑔. It has a charge 𝑞1 =
0.600 × 10−6 𝐶 while 𝑞2 = −0.900 × 10−6 𝐶.

• Hint: the system is at equilibrium (i.e. it is not moving).

A system of charged particles free-body diagram of forces acting on q1

 Solution
• The sum of forces in y:
𝑚𝑔
• σ 𝐹𝑦 = 𝑇𝑦 − 𝑚𝑔 → 𝑇 cos 𝜃 − 𝑚𝑔 = 0 → 𝑇 = … (𝑖)
cos 𝜃

• The sum of forces in x:

𝑞1 𝑞2
• σ 𝐹𝑥 = 𝐹𝑒 − 𝑇𝑥 = 0 → 𝑘𝑒 − 𝑇 sin 𝜃 = 0 … (𝑖𝑖)
𝑟2

𝑞1 𝑞2 𝑚𝑔 𝑞1 𝑞2
• Now we substitute (i) into (ii) to get: 𝑘𝑒 − sin 𝜃 = 𝑘𝑒 − 𝑚𝑔 tan 𝜃 = 0.
𝑟2 cos 𝜃 𝑟2

𝑞1 𝑞2
• Then, tan 𝜃 = 𝑘𝑒 = 0.275, and 𝜃 = tan−1 0.275 = 𝟏𝟓. 𝟒°.
𝑚𝑔𝑟 2

• Lastly, to get the tension:

(8.00 × 10−2 𝑘𝑔)(9.80 𝑚Τ𝑠 2 )
𝑇=
cos 15.4°

𝑻 = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟏𝟑 𝑵
 Exercise 1
• Two charges are positioned as shown in figure below. The coordinates are in the units of cm.
Apart from at infinity, where else would a third negative charge experience a net electric force
of zero? Indicate the coordinates of the point.
 3. Electric Field
• An electric field surrounds an electric charge.

• An electric field is a vector quantity meaning it has a magnitude and a direction.

• Its direction is determined as the direction of the electrical force that would be exerted on a small
positive test charge.
• However, the magnitude of the electric field does not depend on the test charge.
• A test charge doesn't disturb the field. A field leads to a force on a charged object.

• The electric field 𝑬 produced by a charge Q at the location of a small “test” charge q0 is
defined as the electric force 𝑭 exerted by Q on q0 divided by the test charge q0:
𝑭 𝑄
𝑬= → 𝐸 = 𝑘𝑒 2
𝑞0 𝑟
• Electric field has units of newtons per coulomb (N/C).
 Illustration of Electric Field with Electric Field Lines
• We illustrate electric fields with electric field lines.
• They point in the direction that a positive charge would move.

• The electric field vector 𝑬 is tangential to the electric field lines at each point

• Their density is proportional to the magnitude of the electric field.

 Electric Field Lines

Like charges (++) Unlike charges (+-)

 Force From an Electric Field
• Electric field can exist due to a variety of sources.
• There may be a small charge nearby, or from a nearby capacitor.

• If an electric charge is placed in an electric field, it then feels an electric force.

• But how big is the force?

• It depends on the size of the field and on the amount of the charge since:
𝑭 = 𝑞𝑬

• NB: Both the force and the field are vectors.

 Example 4
• Compute the total electric field 30 cm above a point charge 𝑞2 if 𝑞1 = −25.0 × 10−6 𝐶 and
𝑞2 = 25.0 × 10−6 𝐶.

Solution
• First of all, the angle 𝐸1 makes with the x-axis is given by:
−1
40 𝑐𝑚
cos = 36.9°
50 𝑐𝑚
 Solution continuing …
• Electric field from 𝑞1 :
𝑘𝑒 𝑞1 (8.9875×109 N∙m2 /C2 )(25.0×10−6 𝐶)
• 𝐸1 = = = 8.99 × 105 𝑁/𝐶
𝑟2 (0.500 𝑚)2

• Electric field from 𝑞2 :

𝑘𝑒 𝑞2 (8.9875×109 N∙m2 /C2 )(25.0×10−6 𝐶)
• 𝐸2 = = = 2.50 × 106 𝑁/𝐶
𝑟2 (0.300 𝑚)2

• We will then sum the total electric field in x and y directions.

• σ 𝐸𝑥 = 𝐸1𝑥 + 𝐸2𝑥 = 𝐸1 cos 𝜃 + 0 = (8.99 × 105 𝑁/𝐶) cos 36.9° = 7.19 × 105 𝑁/𝐶

• σ 𝐸𝑦 = 𝐸1𝑦 + 𝐸2𝑦 = −𝐸1 sin 𝜃 + 𝐸2 = − 8.99 × 105 𝑁Τ𝐶 sin 36.9 + 2.50 × 106 𝑁Τ𝐶 =
1.96 × 106 𝑁Τ𝐶

• The total electric field will be: 𝐸 = (σ 𝐸𝑥 )2 +(σ 𝐸𝑦 )2 = 𝟐. 𝟎𝟗 × 𝟏𝟎𝟔 𝑵Τ𝑪.

σ 𝐸𝑦
• The direction will be: Φ = tan−1 σ 𝐸 = 𝟕𝟎. 𝟎° with respect to the + x-axis.
𝑥
 4. Electric Potential Energy & Potential Differences
• Recall that near the surface of the earth, the acceleration due to gravity is constant.

• This is analogous to saying that the gravitational field is a constant.

• Therefore, a constant electric field interacts with charge the same way a constant gravitational
field interacts with mass. Positive charge plays the role of mass.

• There is potential energy in gravity, and so in electricity. A constant electric field can be
produced with a parallel plate capacitor.

• For a given position of the test charge in a field, the charge–field system has a potential
energy U relative to the configuration of the system that is defined as 𝑈=0.

• Dividing the potential energy by the test charge gives a physical quantity that depends only
on the source charge distribution and has a value at every point in an electric field.
• This quantity is called the electric potential (or simply the potential) V.
 Electric Potential Energy & Potential Differences
• The electric potential is not the same as the electric potential energy. It is related to the
electric potential energy by the formula
𝑈𝐸
𝑉=
𝑞0
• where 𝑉 is the electric potential and 𝑈𝐸 is the electric potential energy.

• Note that this is a scalar, so potentials can be added easily.

• The SI Units of Electric Potential is joule/coulomb (J/C) = volt (V).

• The electric field, like the gravitational field, is a conservative field. That means the work
done to move a charged object from one point to another in an electric field does not depend
on the path taken, but just on the total displacement.

• We don't have any absolute reference frame for electric potential, just like we didn't have one
for gravitational potential, and like gravity we can only measure changes in potential energy.
 Work Done in a Conservative Field
• The work done to move a charge in a conservative field, like a gravitational or electrical field is
given by:
• 𝑊 = 𝐹𝑑 cos 𝜃, where θ is the angle between F and d.

• Being a conservative field (like gravity), work done in a constant electric field will then be
𝑊 = 𝐸𝑞𝑑 cos 𝜃 .

• Recall from mechanics that we can relate the change in potential energy to work done.

• The work done by the conservative field on an object is always negative of the change in
potential energy.
 Work Done in a Conservative Field
• Consider figure below where a charge is moving from point A to B under the influence of an
electric field 𝑬.

• The work done on the charge by the electric field is equal to the part of the electric force 𝑞𝑬
acting parallel to the displacement times the displacement ∆𝑥 = 𝑥𝑓 − 𝑥𝑖 :
𝑊𝐴𝐵 = 𝐹𝑥 ∆𝑥 = 𝑞𝐸𝑥 (𝑥𝑓 − 𝑥𝑖 )

• Now relating the change in electric potential energy to work done. Recall work done by an
electric force which is a conservative force is equal to −∆𝑈𝐸 .
 Work Done in a Conservative Field
• Then the change in the electric potential energy, ∆𝑈𝐸 , of a system consisting of an object of
charge q moving through a displacement ∆𝑥 in a constant electric field 𝐸 is given by:
∆𝑈𝐸 = −𝑊𝐴𝐵 = −𝑞𝐸𝑥 ∆𝑥

• Since the electric potential difference ∆𝑉 between points A and B is the change in electric
potential energy as a charge q moves from A to B divided by the charge q, then:
∆𝑈𝐸
∆𝑉 = 𝑉𝐵 − 𝑉𝐴 = = −𝐸𝑥 ∆𝑥
𝑞
• Note, 𝐸𝑥 is a constant electric field between ∆𝑥.

• Therefore, the work done by the electric field to move an object from a to b is given by;
• 𝑊 = −𝑞 𝑉𝑓 − 𝑉𝑖 = −𝑞(𝑉𝑏 − 𝑉𝑎 ).

𝑊 𝐸𝑞𝑑 cos 𝜃
• And ∆𝑉 = ∆𝑈Τ𝑞 = − =− = −𝐸𝑑,
𝑞 𝑞

• Where 𝜃 = 0° and cos 𝜃 = 1.

 Work Done in a Conservative Field
• But the relationship between the change in potential energy (∆𝑈𝐸 ) and the work done (W)
depends on whether we talk about the work done by the field or by an object against the field.

• If it is the work done by the conservative field we get 𝑊𝐶 = −∆𝑈𝐶 .

• But if it is work done by an object against the field, we get 𝑊𝐶 = +∆𝑈𝐶 . Everything about
work and potential energy can be applied in the case of the electric field.
 Example 5
• A proton with a charge of 1.60 × 10−19 𝐶 is released from rest in a uniform electric field of
magnitude 8.00 × 104 𝑉/𝑚. After the proton has moved 0.500 m,
a. What is the change in electric potential? Ans ∆𝑉 = −𝐸𝑑 = −4.00 × 104 𝑉

b. What is the change in the electric potential energy? Ans ∆𝑈𝐸 = 𝑈𝑓 − 𝑈𝑖 = 𝑞∆𝑉 =
−6.40 × 10−15 𝐽, the sign shows that its at a lower electric potential.

c. What is the speed of the proton given that mass of an electron, 𝑚𝑝 = 1.67 × 10−27 𝑘𝑔?
 Solution for Example 5(c)
• We use the conservation of mechanical energy.
• 𝐾𝐸𝑖 + 𝑈𝐸𝑖 = 𝐾𝐸𝑓 + 𝑈𝐸𝑓 then 𝐾𝐸𝑓 = 𝑈𝐸𝑖 − 𝑈𝐸𝑓 = −∆𝑈𝐸

𝐾𝐸𝑓 = −∆𝑈𝐸

1 −2∆𝑈𝐸
→ 𝑚𝑣 2 = −∆𝑈𝐸 → 𝑣 =
2 𝑚

−2(−6.40 × 10−15 𝐽)
𝑣= −27
= 𝟐. 𝟕𝟕 × 𝟏𝟎𝟔 𝒎/𝒔
1.67 × 10 𝑘𝑔
 Potential of a Point Charge
• A point charge creates an electric potential.

• We can use calculus to determine the potential created by a point charge to be:
𝒒
𝑽 = 𝒌𝒆
𝒓

• Change in potential due to a point charge between points A and B is:

1 1
∆𝑉 = 𝑉𝐵 − 𝑉𝐴 = 𝑘𝑒 𝑞 −
𝑟𝐵 𝑟𝐴

• This means that the potential from a point charge at an infinite distance away is usually
chosen to be zero, since 1/∞ = 0.
 Example 6
• How much work does it take to move a charge of 𝑞 = −3.00 𝜇𝐶 in the diagram below to a
point 0.500 meters from a charge of 𝑄2 = 20.0 𝜇𝐶? For now ignore 𝑸𝟏 .

Solution
• Since 𝑟𝑖 = ∞
1 1
𝑊 = ∆𝑈𝐸 = 𝑞∆𝑉 = 𝑞𝑘𝑒 𝑄 −
𝑟𝑓 𝑟𝑖
20 𝜇𝐶
𝑊 = −3.0 𝜇𝐶 (8.987 × 109 𝑁 ∙ 𝑚2 /𝐶 2 )
0.5 𝑚
= −𝟏. 𝟎𝟖 𝑱
 What if I add another charge as the figure below shows?
• What if I add another charge Q1 as the figure below shows?

• From above, the work to move 𝑞 = −3.00 𝜇𝐶 to a point 0.500 m from the charge Q2 is
− 1.08 𝐽.

• Now we must move Q1 to within 0.300 m of Q2 and to within 0.600 m of q. The work to move
it to within 0.300 m of Q2 is the same calculation as above with r2 = 0.300 m and r1 = ∞.
 Solution continuing …
1 1
• 𝑊2 = ∆𝑈𝐸 = 𝑄1 ∆𝑉 = 𝑄1 𝑘𝑒 𝑄2 −𝑟 = 𝟑. 𝟎𝟎 𝑱.
𝑟2 1

• And finally, the work it takes to move Q1 to within 0.600 m of q is given by the same equation.
1 1
• 𝑊3 = ∆𝑈𝐸 = 𝑄1 ∆𝑉 = 𝑄1 𝑘𝑒 𝑞 − = −𝟎. 𝟐𝟐𝟎 𝑱
𝑟2 𝑟1

• So the total work is given by:

• 𝑊 = 𝑊1 + 𝑊2 + 𝑊3 = 𝟏. 𝟕𝟎 𝑱

• Exercise: what would be the total work done by the system?

 5. Capacitors and Capacitance
• When a patient receives a shock from a defibrillator, the energy received by the patient is
initially stored in a capacitor.

• A capacitor consists of two conducting plates separated by an insulator called the dielectric.
The separation of the two plates is often very small.

• When a voltage, V, is applied across the two conducting plates, they store some electric
charges, Q (+Q on one plate and –Q on the other).
 Makeup of a Capacitor
• A capacitor consists of two conductors.
• These conductors are called plates

• When the conductor is charged, the plates carry charges of equal magnitude and opposite
directions.

• A potential difference is the created between the plates due to the charge
 Capacitance
• The capacitance, C, of a capacitor is defined as the ratio of the magnitude of the charge on
either conductor (or plates) to the potential difference between the conductors.
𝑄
𝐶=
∆𝑉

• The SI unit of capacitance is the farad (F).

• Capacitance will always be a positive quantity.

• The capacitance of a given capacitor is constant.

• The capacitance is a measure of the capacitor’s ability to store charge.

• The farad is a large unit, typically you will see microfarads (mF) and pico-farads (pF).

• mF = 10-3 F, μF = 10-6 F, nF = 10-9 F , pF = 10-12 F.

 Parallel Plate Capacitor
• Each plate is connected to a terminal of the battery. The battery is a source of potential
difference.

• If the capacitor is initially uncharged, the battery establishes an electric field in the connecting
wires.

• One plate carries a + charge while the other carries a – charge.

 Parallel Plate Capacitor
• The charge density on the plates is 𝜎 = 𝑄Τ𝐴.
• A is the area of each plate.

• Q is the charge on each plate, equal but with opposite signs

• The electric field is uniform between the plates and is assumed zero elsewhere

• The electric field between the plates is;

𝜎 𝑄
𝐸= =
𝜖0 𝜖0 𝐴

• The capacitance is proportional to the area of its plates and inversely proportional to the
distance between the plates.
𝑄 𝑄 𝑄 𝑨
𝐶= = = = 𝝐𝟎
∆𝑉 𝐸𝑑 𝑄𝑑Τ𝜖0 𝐴 𝒅
 Example 7
• A parallel plate capacitor has an area 𝐴 = 2.00 × 10−4 𝑚2 and a plate separation distance
𝑑 = 1.00 𝑚𝑚. find its capacitance.
Solution
𝐴
𝐶 = 𝜖0
𝑑

2.00 × 10−4 𝑚2
= 8.8542 × 10−12 C 2 ΤN ∙ m2
1.00 × 10−3 𝑚

= 𝟏. 𝟕𝟕 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟐 𝑭 = 𝟏. 𝟕𝟕 𝒑𝑭
 Capacitors
• When selecting capacitors for a particular use, factors to be considered are as follows:
• The capacitance

• The tolerance

• The working voltage. This is the largest voltage which can be applied across the plate before the
dielectric breaks down and conducts.

• The leakage current. No dielectric is a perfect insulator but the loss of charge through it should be
small.

Capacitors in real life The Markings On A Fixed Capacitor

 Capacitors
• Capacitors in the previous slide with markings on them have been described below.
• Types (a) and (b) are typical of close tolerance capacitors which have their value, working voltage
and tolerance marked.

• Type (c) represents a ceramic capacitor with its value (474 470000pF 0.47F) and working voltage
marked.

• Type (d) represents an electrolytic capacitor and has its value, maximum working voltage and
polarity marked.

Electrolytic capacitors
• Are made by electrolysis; the two plates are coated with liquid and a current passed between them.
This forms a very thin layer of dielectric on one plate. Electrolytic and tantalum capacitors are
polarised and must be connected the correct way round.
 Uses of Capacitors
• Smoothing out variations in power supplies.

• Removing alternating signals.

• Blocking the passage of direct current while allowing the passage of alternating current.

• Combination with inductors for resonant tuned circuits.

• Combination with resistors as charging and discharging circuits.

 Energy Stored in a Capacitor
• The energy stored in the capacitor is the amount of work it took to put the charge on the
capacitor.

• This is the work done against the capacitor to charge it up, not the work done by the
capacitor.

• Suppose we move charge from one plate to the other. The work required to do that is given
by the change in potential energy as
𝑊 = ∆𝑈𝐸 = 𝒒∆𝑽

• Initially V is 0 so it takes almost no work to move the first charge across the plates. (It is an
equipotential surface).

• However, as soon as we move some charge q we now have a potential, and V = q/C.

• By the time we are moving the last bit of charge we are doing work against the full voltage.
 Energy Stored in a Capacitor
• The work required, then, is the average of the work required to move the first charges and
the work required to move the last charges.
1
𝑊=𝐸= 0 + 𝑞∆𝑉 and since 𝑞 = 𝐶𝑉
2

𝟏
𝑬= 𝑪(∆𝑽)𝟐
𝟐
𝑸𝟐
And since ∆𝑉 = 𝑄/𝐶 then 𝑬 =
𝟐𝑪

𝟏
Again since 𝐶 = 𝑄/∆𝑉 then 𝑬 = 𝟐 𝑸∆𝑽

• All these formulas give the same value. They can be used according to the information that is
available.
 Capacitors in a Circuit
Parallel Connection
• When capacitors are in parallel as shown in figure below, the total charge in the circuit is the sum of
the charge on each individual capacitor. Hint: voltage in parallel is similar:

• 𝑄 = 𝑄1 + 𝑄2 + 𝑄3 = 𝐶1 𝑉 + 𝐶2 𝑉 + 𝐶3 𝑉 = 𝑉 𝐶1 + 𝐶2 + 𝐶3 = 𝑉𝐶𝑝 where 𝐶𝑝 is the total

capacitance in parallel.

• Therefore; 𝑪𝒑 = 𝑪𝟏 + 𝑪𝟐 + 𝑪𝟑 + ⋯ + 𝑪𝒌 for any k number of capacitors in parallel.

Example 8
• If a 0.001 𝜇F capacitor is connected in parallel with an 800 𝑝F capacitor, the total capacitance
is 1.80 𝒏F.
 Capacitors in a Circuit
Parallel Connection
• When capacitors are in series, the charge on each one is the same. Take note that total
voltage in series is sum of individual voltage on each component. so...

𝑄 𝑄 𝑄 1 1 1 1
• 𝑉 = 𝑉1 + 𝑉2 + 𝑉3 → 𝑉 = + + =𝑄 + + =𝑄 .
𝐶1 𝐶2 𝐶3 𝐶1 𝐶2 𝐶3 𝐶𝑠

1 1 1 1
• Therefore: = + + + ⋯ for any number of capacitors in series.
𝐶𝑠 𝐶1 𝐶2 𝐶3

Example 8
• If a 0.001 𝜇F capacitor is connected in series with an 800 𝑝F capacitor, the total capacitance is
444 𝒑F.
 6. EMF and Current
• A battery provides a potential difference called an electromotive force or EMF. This is not truly
a force, but rather a potential difference.

• It is called an "emf" for historical reasons.

• Raising the potential in a circuit (what the battery does) is like raising a ball to a higher potential.

• The battery provides a potential that can cause the charges to flow around a circuit.

• So in a circuit, where you connect wires to a battery, you get charges moving. If I stand in one
place and watch the charge that goes by per unit time (∆𝑡), I get current.
𝑞
𝐼 = ∆𝑡

• SI Units of current is Coulombs/Second = Amps (A).

• Standard current is defined as the direction positive charge would move around the circuit.
 Ohm's Law
• Electrons move more easily through some materials than others when a voltage is applied
across the material.
• The opposition to current flow is called resistance and is measured in ohms (Ω).

• Larger units are usually kilo-ohm, (𝐾 = 103 ) and megaohm, (M = 106 )

• Ohms law’s definition of resistance is defined as follows.

𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑽
𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 = →𝑹=
𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑰

• The resistance will be measured in ohms (Ω) when the voltage is in volts (V) and the current is
in amps (A).

• This formula is often known as Ohm's Law and is probably the most important formula in
electronics.
 Some Circuit Symbols
• The following are some basic symbols of circuit components:
 7. Resistors
• A resistor is a component that restricts the electric current passing through a circuit.

• It is therefore useful to limiting the amount of current passing through a component.

• A resistor is also useful for providing voltage across it when a current passed trough it.

• It consists of two metal end caps with a resistive material placed in between.

• There are three common substances used for the resistive material. These are Carbon, Metal
Oxide and Thin Wire.

• Carbon resistors are cheap but they tend to be unstable (their resistance changes with
temperature and time) and can produce unwanted noise in circuits
 Types of Resistors
• Metal oxide resistors:
• They are more expensive but are more accurate (smaller tolerance), more stable and produce much
less electrical noise.

• Wire wound resistors:

• They are the most expensive and can be very stable and accurate. They can often be designed to
dissipate large amounts of power. However, because they are made from a coil of fine wire they are
of little use in radio circuits since they have appreciable inductance.

• Although manufacturing techniques have improved significantly during the last few years, the
value of a resistor is unlikely to be exactly the same as the value marked on it. The tolerance
of a resistor shows how close its actual value was to its marked value when it was made.

• For example, a 100 Ω resistor with a tolerance of 10% could have a value between 90 (100 -
10) Ω and 110 (100 + 10) Ω.

• Typical tolerances are 1%, 2%, 5% and 10% and individual resistors are marked accordingly.
 Resistivity
• All material has a resistivity. For some it is very low (conductors), for others it is quite high
(insulators). For semi-conductors it is somewhere in between.

• Resistivity is a property of the material. Resistance is a property of the resistivity, plus how
the material is constructed. For many materials, we find that:
𝑙
𝑅=𝜌
𝐴
• Where 𝜌 is the resistivity, 𝑙 is the length, and 𝐴 is the cross-section area of the conducting material.

• If you want to have less resistance, you can get a material with a lower resistivity, or you can
use the same material and get a larger cross sectional area.

• A wire that has to carry a lot of current or is used across a large potential difference is often
very thick so that it has a low resistance.

• For many metals resistivity is a function of temperature and is given by:

𝜌 = 𝜌0 [1 + 𝛼 𝑇 − 𝑇0 ]
 Resistivity
• Since resistivity varies with temperature, resistance also varies with temperature.

• Over a small temperature range (up to 100 C°), the resistance of a metal can be represented
by the equation;
𝑅 𝑇 = 𝑅0 1 + 𝛼 𝑇 − 𝑇0
 Resistor Band Color Coding
• A resistor has either four or five coloured bands painted on it, as in figure below.
• The first two or three bands give the value in significant figures, the next gives the multiplier and the
last the tolerance.

Colour. First Second Third Next Last

Black 0 0 0 — —

Brown 1 1 1 0 ±1%

Red 2 2 2 00 ±2%

Orange 3 3 3 000 —
Yellow 4 4 4 0000 —

Green 5 5 5 00000 —

Blue 6 6 6 000000 —

Violet 7 7 7 — —

Grey 8 8 8 — —

White 9 9 9 — —

Silver — — — 0.01 ±10%

Gold — — — 0.1 ±5%

 Resistor Band Color Coding
• A 5 band resistor with bands of green, blue, black, yellow, red has a value of 5 - 6 - 0 - 0000 -
±2%
• i.e. 5.6 MΩ ± 2%.

• A 4 band resistor with bands of yellow, violet, brown and gold has a value of 4 - 7 - 0 - ±5%
• i.e. 470 Ω ±5%.

• Since exact values of fixed resistors are unnecessary in most circuits, only certain preferred
values are made. The values chosen for the E24 series (with ± 5% tolerance ) are as follows.
• 1.0, 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.5, 1.6, 1.8, 2.0, 2.2, 2.4,

• 2.7, 3.0, 3.3, 3.6, 3.9, 4.3, 4.7, 5.1, 5.6, 6.2,

• 6.8, 7.5, 8.2, 9.1, and multiples that are powers of ten
 Resistors in Circuit
Series Wiring
• Two or more resistors are said to be in series if an identical current flows through each of the
elements.

• The sum of the voltages across the two resistors equals the voltage externally provided by the
battery.
𝑉0 = 𝑉1 + 𝑉2 → 𝑉0 = 𝐼𝑅1 + 𝐼𝑅2 = 𝐼 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 = 𝐼𝑅𝑠

• In general, k resistors in series will produce a total resistance of:

𝑹𝒕𝒐𝒕 = 𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐 + ⋯ + 𝑹𝒌
 Resistors in Circuit
Parallel Wiring
• Two or more resistors are said to be in parallel if an identical voltage appears across each of
the elements.

• Consider two resistors in a parallel circuit, current flowing through the individual resistors
equals the total current from the source.
𝑉 𝑉 1 1 1
𝐼 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 = + =𝑉 + =𝑉
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡

• In general, k resistors in parallel will have a total resistance expressed as:

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= + +⋯+
𝑹𝒕𝒐𝒕 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝒌
 Example 9
a) What is the current flowing through the circuit below when the resistors are connected to a
12 V battery?

b) What is the voltage drop across each resistor?

• Hint: the resistors are connected in series.

 Solution
a) Firstly, we will find the total resistance in the circuit: 𝑅𝑇 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 .
𝑅𝑇 = 3  + 6  + 9  = 18 
𝑉 12 𝑉
• Since from ohms law, 𝐼 = , then 𝐼 = = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟕 𝑨
𝑅 18 

• The equivalent resistance is 18 Ω which is greater than the resistance of any single resistor. We can
draw equivalent circuits with fewer resistors.

b) Since V = IR and the current is the same for each one, the voltage drop across each resistor is
given as:
• 𝑉1 = 𝐼𝑅1 = 0.67 𝐴 3  = 2 𝑉

• 𝑉2 = 𝐼𝑅2 = 0.67 𝐴 6  = 4 𝑉

• 𝑉3 = 𝐼𝑅3 = 0.67 𝐴 9  = 6 𝑉

• Note that 𝑉1 + 𝑉2 + 𝑉3 = 12 𝑉 which is the voltage across the battery.

 Example 10
a) What is the total current in a circuit if 3 Ω, 6 Ω, and 9 Ω resistors connected to a 12 V battery
as shown below?

b) What is the current in each resistor?

• Hint: the resistors are connected in parallel.

 Solution
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
a) Rtot
=R +R +R =3Ω+6Ω+9Ω
1 2 3
1 11
= → 𝑹𝒕𝒐𝒕 = 1.6 Ω
𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡 18 Ω
• Note how the resistance of resistors in parallel is less than the resistance of any single resistor.
• Therefore to find total current, we will use the coulomb’s law.
𝑉 12 𝑉
𝐼= = = 𝟕. 𝟑 𝑨
𝑅 1.6 Ω

b) To find current through each resistor:

𝑉 12𝑉
𝐼1 = = =𝟒𝑨
𝑅1 3Ω
𝑉 12𝑉
𝐼2 = = =𝟐𝑨
𝑅1 6Ω
𝑉 12𝑉
𝐼3 = = = 𝟏. 𝟑 𝑨
𝑅3 9Ω
• Note how 𝑰𝟏 + 𝑰𝟐 + 𝑰𝟑 = 𝟕. 𝟑 𝑨 which is equal to the total current.
 Example 11
• Parallel and Series Together:
• What is the equivalent resistance of this circuit?

Solution
• First look at R3 and R4. These two resistors are in parallel because any current flow has a
choice of which resistor to go through.
1 1 1 1 1 −1 1 1 −1
• Thus, = + , then 𝑅𝑃 = + = + = 3.33 
𝑅𝑝 𝑅3 𝑅4 𝑅3 𝑅4 5 10

• Now we can easily see that R1, R2, and 𝑅𝑃 are in series because any current must flow through
each resistor (or resistor branch).
• 𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 2  + 4  + 3.33  = 𝟗. 𝟑𝟑 
 8. Resistors and Capacitors in a Circuit (RC circuit)
• If you attach a battery to a capacitor and resistor as in figure below, the charge starts to build
up on the capacitor. But how fast?
𝑄 = 𝑄0 [1 − 𝑒 −𝑡Τ(𝑅𝐶) ]
• Since V = Q/C, this can also be written as;
𝑉 = 𝑉0 [1 − 𝑒 −𝑡Τ(𝑅𝐶) ]
• This formula helps to determine the amount of voltage on the capacitor at any time.

• Do confuse this e with that of electric field. This one is the base of natural logarithm and is
also used in the natural exponential functions like 𝑦 = 𝑒 −𝑧 . It is equal to ≈ 2.71828 … It can
be found on most scientific calculators.

• The 𝑹𝑪 can sometimes be represented by Greek letter 𝝉. It is called the time constant. It is
the time it takes for the capacitor to charge to 63.2% of its total charge
 Resistors and Capacitors in a Circuit (RC circuit)
• The total charge on the capacitor is still given by 𝑞0 = 𝐶𝑉.

• When discharging, we find:

𝑄 = 𝑄0 𝑒 −𝑡Τ𝑅𝐶

• Or in term of voltage:
𝑉 = 𝑉0 𝑒 −𝑡Τ𝑅𝐶

• 𝑅𝐶 = 𝜏 is called the time constant. It is the time it takes for the capacitor to lose (or
discharge) 63.2% of its total charge.
 Example 12
• How long does it take for 50% of the maximum charge to be deposited on the circuit below
when the switch is closed? The resistor is 2 MΩ and each capacitor is 10 nF.

Solution
• Since the capacitors are in series, the total capacitance will be 𝐶𝑇 = 10 𝑛𝐹 + 10 𝑛𝐹 = 20 𝑛𝐹.

• From equation of charging the capacitor:

𝑄
𝑄 = 𝑄0 1 − 𝑒 −𝑡Τ 𝑅𝐶
→ 1− = 𝑒 𝑡Τ𝑅𝐶 → 1 − 0.5 = 𝑒 −𝑡Τ𝑅𝐶
𝑄0
𝑒 −𝑡Τ𝑅𝐶 = 0.5 → ln 𝑒 −𝑡Τ𝑅𝐶
= −𝑡Τ𝑅𝐶 = ln 0.5 = −0.693

• Then 𝑡 = 0.693𝑅𝐶

• To find : 𝜏 = 𝑅𝐶 = 2 × 106 Ω 20 × 10−9 𝐹 = 0.040 𝑠, therefore:

𝑡 = 0.693 0.040 𝑠 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟖 𝒔
 9. Electric Power
• Electric power is given by the formula:
𝑷 = 𝑰𝑽
𝟐 𝑽𝟐
• And since V = IR, then then power can also be expressed as 𝑷 = 𝑰 𝑹 or 𝑷 = .
𝑹

• As we have said mechanics, the SI unit of power is watts (W). Energy is Power multiplied by
time and is often expressed in 𝐤𝐖 ∙ 𝐡, although this is not an SI unit.

• So if a hair dryer uses 1000 watts for 10 minutes, it uses:

1ℎ
1 𝑘𝑊 10 𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟕 𝒌𝑾 ∙ 𝒉
60𝑚𝑖𝑛
 Example 13
• How much does it cost to keep your computer on all the time for one month when a
computer plus screen draws about 4 amps at 120 volts and if electricity costs $0.1 per
kilowatt hour to run?

Solution
• Power is 𝑃 = 𝐼𝑉, 𝑃 = 4 𝐴 120 𝑉 = 480 𝑊 = 0.48 𝑘𝑊

• Therefore the cost will be:

24 ℎ $0.10
$ = 0.48 𝑘𝑊 30 𝑑𝑎𝑦𝑠 = $𝟑𝟒. 𝟔
𝑑𝑎𝑦 𝑘𝑊ℎ
 10. Circuit Analysis by Kirchhoff's Rules
• Sometimes a circuit can be too complicated to reduce to a single resistor, especially if there is
more than one battery in the circuit. Then we use a set of rules below, called Kirchhoff's
Rules, for determining the current through a circuit.
1. Junction Rule. The sum of the magnitudes of the currents directed into a junction equals the sum
of the magnitudes of the currents directed out of the junction. (Conservation of charge). 𝑰𝟏 = 𝑰𝟐 +
𝑰𝟑 .

2. Loop Rule. Around any closed loop, the sum of the potential drops equals the sum of the potential
rises. (Conservation of energy). 𝑰𝑹𝟏 + 𝑰𝑹𝟐 + 𝑰𝑹𝟑 = 𝑽𝟏 + 𝑽𝟐 .
 Important Rules to be Followed
1. Draw the circuit and draw currents with an arrow in every separate branch of the circuit.
• A branch is a section where the current does not change.

2. Apply the junction rule to enough junctions so that every current is used at least once.

3. Apply the loop rule to enough closed loops so that each current appears at least once.
Remember the sign convention for the potential changes:
• Going across an "emf" is a plus sign if going from negative to positive and a minus sign if going from
positive to negative. (Plus if going in "normal" direction of current).

• Going across a resistor is a plus sign if going along the current direction and a minus sign if going
against the current. (Minus if going in “opposite" direction of current).
 Example 14
• Determine the values of the current flowing through each of the resistors.

Solution
• The circuit has two junctions (at A and B).
• Junction A: 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 = 𝐼3
• Junction B: 𝐼3 = 𝐼2 + 𝐼1

• We are free to choose only two of the three loops shown (in blue). This is because only two of
the loops are independent.
• Loop 1 : 10 = 𝐼1 𝑅1 + 𝐼3 𝑅3
• Loop 2 : 20 = 𝐼2 𝑅2 + 𝐼3 𝑅3
 Solution continuing …
• Node A: 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 = 𝐼3 … (𝑖)

• Loop 1 : 10 = 10𝐼1 + 40𝐼3 … (𝑖𝑖)

• Loop 2 : 20 = 20𝐼2 + 40𝐼3 … (𝑖𝑖𝑖)

• Solving the three equations simultaneously above we find that:

• 𝑰𝟏 = −𝟎. 𝟏𝟒𝟑 𝑨, 𝑰𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟒𝟐𝟗 𝑨 and 𝑰𝟑 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟖𝟔 𝑨
 Example 15
a) Find the current and power in the 3 Ω resistor in this circuit using Kirchhoff's Rules. Make
sure to specify direction of current.

b) What are the currents in the other two resistors?

 Solution
a) Applying the junction rule at the node:
𝐼1 + 𝐼2 + 𝐼3 = 0 … (𝑖)
• Applying the loop rule:
• Loop 1
3𝐼1 − 6𝐼2 = 3 − 12 → 𝐼1 − 2𝐼2 = −3 … (𝑖𝑖)
• Loop 2
3𝐼1 − 6𝐼3 = 3 → 𝐼1 − 2𝐼3 = 1 … (𝑖𝑖𝑖)

• Solving these equations simultaneously, we will find:

𝑰𝟏 = −𝟎. 𝟓 𝑨
• The negative sign means that the actual direction of 𝐼1 is from left to right.
• Power will be: 𝑃 = 𝐼2 𝑅 = −0.5 𝐴 2
3 Ω = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟓 𝑾

b) 𝐈𝟐 = 𝟏. 𝟐𝟓 𝑨 and 𝑰𝟑 = −𝟎. 𝟕𝟓 𝑨.
 Exercise 2
• Use Kirchhoff’s rules to determine the values of I2, I3 and x in the circuit below
 11. Terminal Voltage
• A real battery has some internal resistance. So if you were to draw a real battery it would
consist of a perfect battery and a resistor.

• You can treat this just like two separate components when you use Kirchhoff's Laws or
equivalent resistance.

• However, when you hook up to the battery you do not quite get the entire potential from the
battery. Instead you get something slightly smaller which is what is referred to as the Terminal
Voltage.

Example 16
• An ideal battery has a voltage of 9.0 V and an internal resistance of 0.5 Ω. When it is drawing
0.3 A, what is the terminal voltage?
Solution
𝑉𝑇𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 = 𝑉0 − 𝐼𝑟 = 9.0 𝑉 − (0.3 𝐴)(0.5 Ω)
= 𝟖. 𝟗 𝑽
 12. Alternating Currents
• An alternating current is a current that changes direction, going first one way and then the
other in a circuit.

• If you were to plot the value of the current as a function of time, you would see that it is
changing in a sinusoidal way.

• This sinusoidal curve is given by the equation

𝐼 = 𝐼0 sin(2𝜋𝑓𝑡)

• I0 is the maximum height of the current, and f is the frequency, which is the number of
complete cycles per second.
 Alternating Currents
• The voltage follows the same curve and is given by 𝑉 = 𝑉0 sin(2𝜋𝑓𝑡), where V0 is the
maximum voltage.

• Suppose we want to state the value of voltage of an alternating current. What should we use?
• We can't really use the average voltage because it is zero. We could maybe use the maximum
voltage.

• But what is actually done is that when describing an alternating circuit, the Root Mean
Square (RMS) values are used.
• RMS is always related to the maximum of a sinusoidal curve by the following formulae.
𝐼0
𝐼𝑅𝑀𝑆 =
2

𝑉0
𝑉𝑅𝑀𝑆 =
2
 Alternating Currents
• So if we talk about average current or average voltage (or when we just use the terminology
of voltage or current) for an alternating current, we mean RMS values.

• If we talk about "peak" voltage or current, we mean their maximum values.

• In the U.S. frequency of an alternating current is f = 60 Hz (cycles/second), and 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 120 𝑉.

• All the formulae we have learned for dc current, work for ac current, either their average
values or their RMS values. For example;
𝑉𝑅𝑀𝑆 = 𝐼𝑅𝑀𝑆 𝑅 or 𝑉0 = 𝐼0 𝑅

2
𝑉𝑅𝑀𝑆
𝑃𝐴𝑉𝐺 = 𝑉𝑅𝑀𝑆 𝐼𝑅𝑀𝑆 = 𝐼𝑅𝑀𝑆 2 𝑅 =
𝑅
 Example 17
• A vacuum cleaner in U.S. has a rating of 11 A. What is the maximum power consumed?
Solution
• 𝐼0 = 𝐼𝑅𝑀𝑆 2 = 11𝐴 2 = 15.6 𝐴

• 𝑉0 = 𝑉𝑅𝑀𝑆 2 = 120𝑉 2 = 170 𝑉

• 𝑃0 = 𝑉0 𝐼0 = 170𝑉 15.6𝐴 = 𝟐. 𝟔𝟓 𝒌𝑾
 The End
Thank you