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CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 INTRODUCTION

Distributed Generation is an emerging technology in this new era and it

provides clean electric power. DG should be located at or near an electrical load
Centre. Installation of Distributed Generation at optimal places provides the
clean electric power to the customer.

DG is one of the new trends in power systems used to support the

increased energy-demand. There is not a common accepted definition of DG as
the concept involves many technologies and applications. Different countries use
different notations like “embedded generation”, “dispersed generation” or
“decentralized generation”.

In the last decade, technological innovations and a changing economic

and regulatory environment have resulted in a renewed interest for distributed
generation. This is confirmed by the IEA (2002), who lists five major factors that
contribute to this evolution, i.e. developments in distributed generation
technologies, constraints on the construction of new transmission lines, increased
customer demand for highly reliable electricity, the electricity market
liberalization and concerns about climate change.

C.Fortoul et al; 2005 discusses there are variations in the definition

proposed by different organizations (IEEE, CIGRE…) that may cause confusion.
Therefore in this thesis, the following definition is used

“Distributed generation is considered as an electrical source connected to

the power system, in a point very close to/or at consumer´s site, which is small
enough compared with the centralized power plants”
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To clarify about the DG concept, some categories that define the size of
the generation unit are presented in Table 2.1.

Table 2.1 Size of the DG

Type Size
Micro distributed generation 1 kW<5kW
Small distributed generation 5 kW<5MW
Medium distributed generation 5MW<50MW
Large distributed generation 50MW<200MW

The different DG technologies and impacts of distributed generation are

introduced in this chapter; besides, islanded operation and the impact of DG on
distribution feeder protection are presented.

2.2 IMPACT OF DISTRIBUTED GENERATION ON POWER SYSTEM

GRIDS

The introduction of DG in systems originally radial and designed to

operate without any generation on the distribution system, can significantly
impact the power flow and voltage conditions at both, customers and utility
equipment.

Philip P et al; 2000 proposes these impacts can be manifested as having

positive or negative influence, depending on the DG features and distribution
system operation characteristics.

The objective of this thesis is to investigate the technical impact that the
integration of DG have on the protection coordination of distributed power
systems. A method to asses this impact, is based on investigate the behavior of
an electric system, with and without the presence of DG. The difference between
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the results obtained in these two operating conditions, gives important

information for both, companies in the electric sector and customers.

In that sense, a general view of the main problems encountered in the

integration of DG to the distributed network is presented.

2.3 IMPACT OF DG ON VOLTAGE REGULATION

Radial distribution systems regulate the voltage by the aid of load tap
changing transformers (LTC) at substations, additionally by line regulators on
distribution feeders and shunt capacitors on feeders or along the line. Voltage
regulation is based on one way power flow where regulators are equipped with
line drop compensation.

The connection of DG may result in changes in voltage profile along a

feeder by changing the direction and magnitude of real and reactive power flows.
According to Philip P et al; 2000 DG impact on voltage regulation can be
positive or negative depending on distribution system and distributed generator
characteristics as well as DG location.

Figure 2.1 Voltage profiles with and without DG

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In Figure 2.1 the DG is installed downstream the LTC transformer which

is equipped with a line drops compensator (LDC). It is shown that the voltage
becomes lower on the feeder with DG than without the DG installed in the
network. The voltage regulator will be deceived, setting a voltage lower than is
required for sufficient service. The DG reduces the load observed from the load
compensation control side, which makes the regulator to set less voltage at the
end of the feeder. Philip P et al; 2000 suggests that this phenomenon has the
opposite effect to which is expected with the introduction of DG (voltage
support).

There are two possible solutions facing this problem: the first solution is
to move the DG unit to the upstream side of the regulator, while the second
solution is adding regulator controls to compensate for the DG output.

The installation of DG units along the power distribution feeders may

cause overvoltage due to too much injection of active and reactive power. For
instance, a small DG system sharing a common distribution transformer with
several loads may raise the voltage on the secondary side, which is sufficient to
cause high voltage at these customers. This can happen if the location of the
distribution transformer is at a point on the feeder where the primary voltage is
near or above the fixed limits; for instance: ANSI (American National Standards
Institute) upper limit 126+ volts on a 120 volt base.

During normal operation conditions, without DG, voltage received at the

load terminals is lower than the voltage at the primary of the transformer. The
connection of DG can cause a reverse power flow, maybe even raising the
voltage somewhat, and the voltage received at the customer´s site could be
higher than on the primary side of the distribution transformer.

According to Philip P et al; 2000 for any small scale DG unit (< 10MW)
the impact on the feeder primary is negligible. Nonetheless, if the aggregate
capacity increases until critical thresholds, then voltage regulation analysis is
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necessary to make sure that the feeder voltage will be fixed within suitable
limits.

2.4 IMPACT OF DG ON LOSSES

One of the major impacts of Distributed generation is on the losses in a

feeder. Locating the DG units is an important criterion that has to be analyzed to
be able to achieve a better reliability of the system with reduced losses.

Chan,T.-F.;2003 suggests that locating DG units to minimize losses is

similar to locating capacitor banks to reduce losses. The main difference between
both situations is that DG may contribute with active power and reactive power
(P and Q). On the other hand, capacitor banks only contribute with reactive
power flow (Q). Mainly, generators in the system operate with a power factor
range between 0.85 lagging and unity, but the presence of inverters and
synchronous generators provides a contribution to reactive power compensation
(leading current).

The optimum location of DG can be obtained using load flow analysis

software, which is able to investigate the suitable location of DG within the
system in order to reduce the losses. For instance: if feeders have high losses,
adding a number of small capacity DGs will show an important positive effect on
the losses and have a great benefit to the system. Philip P et al; 2000 founds that
if larger units are added, they must be installed considering the feeder capacity
boundaries. For example: the feeder capacity may be limited as overhead lines
and cables have thermal characteristic that cannot be exceed.

According to Vu Van Thong, J. D; 2004, most DG units are owned by the

customers. The grid operators cannot decide the locations of the DG units. It is
assumed that losses decrease when generation takes place closer to the load site.
However, as it was mentioned, local increase in power flow in low voltage
cables may have undesired consequences due to thermal characteristics.
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2.5 IMPACT OF DG ON HARMONICS

As shown in Figure 2.2 a wave that does not follow a “pure” sinusoidal wave
is regarded as harmonically distorted.

Figure 2.2 Comparison between pure sinusoidal wave and distorted wave

Harmonics are always present in power systems to some extent. They can
be caused by for instance: non-linearity in transformer exciting impedance or
loads such as fluorescent lights, AC to DC conversion equipment, variable-speed
drives, switch mode power equipment, arc furnaces, and other equipment.

Khan,U.N; 2008 suggests that DG can be a source of harmonics to the

network. Harmonics produced can be either from the generation unit itself
(synchronous generator) or from the power electronics equipment such as
inverters. In the case of inverters, their contribution to the harmonics currents is
in part due to the SCR (Silicon Controlled-Rectifier) type power inverters that
produce high levels of harmonic currents. Nowadays, inverters are designed with
IGBT (Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor) technology that use pulse width
modulation to generate the injected “pure” sinusoidal wave. This new technology
produces a cleaner output with fewer harmonic that should satisfy the IEEE 154-
2003 standards.

Philip P et al; 2000 proposes that rotating generators are another source of
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harmonics, that depends on the design of the generators winding (pitch of the
coils), core non-linearity's, grounding and other factors that may result in
significant harmonics propagation.

When comparing different synchronous generator pitches the best

configuration encountered is with a winding pitch of 2/3 as they are the least
third harmonic producers. Third harmonic is additive in the neutral and is often
the most prevalent. On the other hand, 2/3 winding pitch generators have lower
impedance and may cause more harmonic currents to flow from other sources
connected in parallel with it. Thus, grounding arrangement of the generator and
step-up transformer will have main impact on limiting the feeder penetration of
harmonics. Grounding schemes can be chosen to remove or decrease third
harmonic injection to the utility system. This would tend to confine it to the DG
site only.

2.6 IMPACT OF DG ON SHORT CIRCUIT LEVELS OF THE

NETWORK

Philip P et al; 2000 narrates the presence of DG in a network affects the

short circuit levels of the network. It creates an increase in the fault currents
when compared to normal conditions at which no DG is installed in the network.

The fault contribution from a single small DG is not large, but even so, it
will be an increase in the fault current. In the case of many small units, or few
large units, the short circuits levels can be altered enough to cause miss
coordination between protective devices, like fuses or relays.

The influence of DG to faults depends on some factors such as the

generating size of the DG, the distance of the DG from the fault location and the
type of DG. This could affect the reliability and safety of the distribution system.

According to Philip P et al; 2000, Martin-Arnedo, J. A; 2009, In the case

of one small DG embedded in the system, it will have little effect on the increase
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of the level of short circuit currents. On the other hand, if many small units or a
few large units are installed in the system, they can alter the short circuit levels
sufficient to cause fuse-breaker miss-coordination. This could affect the
reliability and safety of the distribution system. Figure 2.3 shows a typical fused
lateral on a feeder where fuse saving (fault selective relaying) is utilized and
DGs are embedded in the system. In this case if the fault current is large enough,
the fuse may no longer coordinates with the feeder circuit breaker during a fault.
This can lead to unnecessary fuse operations and decreased reliability on the
lateral.

Figure 2.3 Fault contributions due to DG units 1, 2 and 3 are embedded in

the system.

Khan, U. N; 2008 narrates that If the DG is located between the utility

substation and the fault, a decrease in fault current from the utility substation
may be observed. This decrease needs to be investigated for minimum tripping
or coordination problems. On the other hand, if the DG source (or combined DG
sources) is strong compared to the utility substation source, it may have a
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significant impact on the fault current coming from the utility substation. This
may cause fail to trip, sequential tripping, or coordination problems.

Martin-Arnedo, J. A; 2009 suggests that the nature of the DG also affects

the short circuit levels. The highest contributing DG to faults is the synchronous
generator. During the first few cycles its contribution is equal to the induction
generator and self excited synchronous generator, while after the first few cycles
the synchronous generator is the most fault current contributing DG type. The
DG type that contributes the least amount of fault current is the inverter
interfaced DG type, in some inverter types the fault contribution lasts for less
than one cycle. Even though a few cycles are a short time, it may be long enough
to impact fuse breaker coordination and breaker duties in some cases.

2.7 PROTECTION COORDINATION

B. Chattopadhyay, M. S; 1996 discusses that for DG to have a positive

benefit, it must be at least suitably coordinated with the system operating
philosophy and feeder design. DG is connected to the network through an
interconnection point called the point of common coupling (PCC). The PCC has
to be properly protected to avoid any damage to both sides, the DG equipment
and the utility equipment, during fault conditions.

According to L. G. Perez et al; 1999 In the interconnection of the DG to

the distribution utility grid, there are some protection requirements that are
established by the utility. Adequate interconnection protection should consider
both parties ensuring the fulfillment of the utility requirements. Interconnection
protection is usually dependent on size, type of generator, interconnection point
and interconnecting transformer connection.

Khan, U. N; 2008 found that DG generation must be installed with a

transformer characteristics and grounding arrangement compatible with the
utility system to which it is to be connected. If this requirement is not satisfied,
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over voltages may arise this can cause damage in the utility system or customer
equipment. The type of transformer selected has a major impact on the
grounding perceived by the utility primary distribution system and for the
generator to appear as a grounded source to the utility primary system.
Therefore, it is demanded that the transformer allows a ground path (zero-
sequence path) from the low voltage side to the high voltage side.

Each of these connections has advantages and disadvantages to the utility

with both circuit design and protection coordination affected. The utility
establish the connection requirements and determines which type of connection
is appropriate.

According to Khan, U. N; 2008 the two bottom configurations shows that,

even though the source is properly grounded on the low voltage side of the
transformer, the system may still appear to the utility primary to be ungrounded
at the high voltage side. These two arrangements act as grounded sources and are
preferred on three-wire ungrounded distribution systems.

According to B. Chattopadhyay, M. S.;1996, Alberto J et al; 1988 to

fulfill the desired safe scenario, the protection is based on the following factors:

 Protection should respond to the failure of parallel operation of the DG and

the utility.

 Protecting the system from fault currents and transient over voltages
generated by the DG during fault conditions in the system.

 Protecting the DG from hazards it may face during any disturbance occurring
in the system such as automatic reclosing of re-closers as this can cause
damage depending on the type of the generator used by the DG.

 Network characteristics at the point of DG interconnection. Considering the

capability of power transfer at this point and the type of interconnection.
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L. G. Perez et al; 1999 narrates that the generator protection is one of the
most important devices, typically located at the generator´s terminals. Its
function is to detect internal short circuits and abnormal operating conditions of
the generator itself, for instance: reverse power flow, over excitation of the
generator and unbalanced currents.

For the utilities to operate in a safe mode, some aspects have to be analyzed.

 Configuration of the interconnecting transformer winding.

 Current and voltage transformer requirements.

 Interconnection relays class.

 Speed of DG isolation to be faster than that of the utility system automatic

reclosing during fault conditions to avoid islanding cases.

2.8 ISLANDING OF A POWER NETWORK

According to Philip P et al; 2000 islanding occurs when the distributed generator
(or group of distributed generators) continues to energize a portion of the utility
system that has been separated from the main utility system. Moreover, islanding
only can be supported if the generator(s) can self excite and maintain the load in
the islanded area as shown in Figure 2.4

Figure 2.4 Islanding of a DG system

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K Kauhaniemi, L. K.; 2004 suggests that this separation could be due to

operation of an upstream breaker, fuse, or automatic sectionalizing switch.
Manual switching or “open” upstream conductors could also lead to islanding. In
most of the cases this is not desirable as the reconnection of the islanded part
becomes complicated, mainly when automatic reclosing is used. Furthermore,
the network operator is not able to assurance the power quality in the island (the
DG is no more controlled by the utility protection devices and continues feeding
its own power island). This increases the probability that DG sources may be
allowed to subject the island to out of range voltage and frequency conditions
during its existence and the fault level may be too low, so that the over current
protection will not work the way it is designed. Therefore, the power quality
supplied to customers is worsening.

According to Philip P et al; 2000 if an island is developed on a feeder

during standard reclosing operations, the islanded DG units will be quickly out
of phase respect to the utility system during the “dead period”. Then, the reclose
occurs and unless reclose blocking into an energized circuit is provided at the
breaker control, the islanded DG will be connected out of phase with the utility.
This can lead to damage of utility equipment, the DG supporting the island and
customer loads, which decrease the reliability of the whole network.

Huang, F.S et al.; 2001 suggests that the last drawback encountered with
islanded operation is the safety problems to maintenance crews. Personnel
working on the line maintenance work or repairing a fault may mistakenly
consider the load side of the line as inactive, where distributed sources are
indeed feeding power to utilities.

Islanding has two forms: unintentional islanding, it can be expressed in

other words as “the loss of mains”. It is a situation when the distributed generator
is no more operating in parallel with the utility. And intentional islanding that is
performed on purpose by the utility to increase the reliability of the network.
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2.9 IMPACT OF DG ON FEEDER PROTECTION

Khan, U. N; 2008 proposes that one of the principal features of

distribution systems is that the power flows radially, from the main generating
station down to the feeders to support all loads. In this design, protection devices
are placed on feeders and laterals of the distribution network, in order to
maintain continuous supply to all loads and to protect equipment and different
appliances of the system from power outages.

Khan, U. N; 2008 suggests that during the design of these protection

equipments, some characteristics have to be taken into consideration, keeping in
mind that it is not possible to protect the entire network straight from the
substation. Normally, in large networks the protection is provided by the use of
various protection devices based on the fact that any protection device has a
reach or maximum distance to cover. Moreover, when designing the protection
scheme of a network, coordination between the mentioned protection devices
must be considered to be able to reach a highly reliable network that will isolate
only the faulted zones and will maintain the healthy parts energised. This
purpose increases the global reliability of the network.

The introduction of DG in the radial configuration causes a number of

problems with the protective device coordination. For example in the traditional
system, when using over current protection, it is possible to assume that the fault
current only flows in one direction, whilst, this is not always true if there are DG
embedded in the network.

The presence of DG in a network will have a great impact on the

coordination of the protective device, thus it affects the distribution feeder
protection. It also has a great impact on the utility protection devices. In the
following section the impacts of DG on the protection devices are discussed.
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2.10 METHODS ADOPTED

2.10.1 Dynamic Simulator

Yamaguchi, M. Saito, T. ; Izumitani, M. ; Sugita, S.(1990) presented to

estimate the operational characteristics of dual cell power plants, the authors
developed a dynamic simulator and analyzed the operating characteristics.

2.10.2 Fuel Cell

Ellis, M.W. ; von Spakovsky, M.R. ; Nelson, D.J. (1991) presented about
the fuel cells appear poised to meet the power needs of a variety of applications.
Fuel cells are electrochemical devices that convert chemical energy to electricity
and thermal energy.

2.10.3 Rural Distribution Network

Anshu Bharadwaj and Rahul Tongia (2000) presented an analysis of a

rural distribution network to examine what the benefits of decentralized
generation would be for meeting rural loads. They use load flow analysis to
simulate the line conditions for actual rural feeders in India, and quantify the loss
reduction and system improvement by having decentralized generation available.

2.10.4 Performance Enhancement

Barker, P.P. ; de Mello, R.W (2000). Analyzed the DG has much potential
to improve distribution system performance and it should be encouraged. They
focused on radial systems, although some of the issues discussed are common to
low voltage distribution networks

2.10.5 Interconnection of DG

V.V. Thong, J. Driesen, R. Belmans (2004) explains the Interconnection

of Distributed Generators and Their Influences on Power System. The possibility
of interconnection of DG only analyzed.
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2.10.6 Optimization Techniques

F. Gonzalez-Longatt and C. Fortoul. (2005) Reviewed the Distributed

Generation Concept and Attempt of Unification” .The various concepts of DG
are analysed but there is no optimization techniques used.

2.10.7 Development of Smart Grid

Xia Lili ; Sch. of Electr. Eng. & Inf., Sichuan Univ., Chengdu, China
; Qiu Xiaoyan ; Wei Xiwen ; Li Xingyuan (2010) presented the Smart Grid will
be a new way to the development of the power network. In the development of
Smart Grid, how to integrate the Renewable Energy and the Distributed
generation (DG) safely and reliably is a problem urgent to be solved... The
improved adaptive genetic algorithm is used to solve this optimization problem

2.10.8 Reliability

Rakesh Prasad (2006) discusses the Benefits of DG on Power Delivery

System and reliability improvements.

2.10.9 Voltage Stability

Ferry august viawan (2008). They present an analysis of voltage control

and voltage stability in distribution systems, in the presence of distributed
generation (DG).

2.10.10 Interconnections

Vaziri, M. ; California State Univ. Sacramento (CSUS), Sacramento;

Vadhva, S. ; Oneal, T. ; Johnson, M.(2011) in this paper they discussed and
investigate DG standards and interconnection issues at higher penetration levels.
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2.10.11 Power Quality

Wang bo ; Sch. of Electr. Eng., Wuhan Univ., Wuhan, China ; Lan Ka

(2011) Presented the distributed resource energy has been widely used to cope
with the higher demand for power quality.

2.10.12 Multi DG

Olatoke, A. ; Brunel Univ., Uxbridge, UK; Darwish, M.K. (2012)

discussed in the paper a distribution network fed by multi DG systems. The
power quality of such distribution network is analysed in order to see the impact
of power quality problems generated from DG systems.

2.10.13 DG and FACTS

Nur Asyik Hidayatullah, Zahir J. Paracha, Akhtar Kalam (2014)

discussed in this paper the important issue of stability, Flexible AC Transmission
System (FACTS) device especially Static VAR Compensator (SVC) is used and
explores Smart Grid technologies and distributed generation systems.

2.11 RESEARCH GAP

There are more number of researches and findings in this area. But due to
some practical difficulties in implementation the methods are not able to be
adopted in the power sectors. So a real time study is required to find solution for
the practical problems while implementation and hence the study was carried
out.