An American National Standard

Designation: E 241 – 04

Standard Guide for

Limiting Water-Induced Damage to Buildings1
This standard is issued under the fixed designation E 241; the number immediately following the designation indicates the year of
original adoption or, in the case of revision, the year of last revision. A number in parentheses indicates the year of last reapproval. A
superscript epsilon (e) indicates an editorial change since the last revision or reapproval.

1. Scope 2. Referenced Documents

1.1 This guide concerns building design, construction, com- 2.1 ASTM Standards: 2
missioning, operation, and maintenance. C 168 Terminology Relating to Thermal Insulating Materi-
1.2 This guide addresses the need for systematic evaluation als
of factors that can result in moisture-induced damage to a C 717 Terminology of Building Seals and Sealants
building or its components. Although of great potential impor- C 755 Practice for Selection of Vapor Retarders for Thermal
tance, serviceability issues which are often, but not necessarily, Insulation
related to physical damage of the building or its components C 1193 Guide for Use of Joint Sealants
(for example indoor air quality or electrical safety) are not D 1079 Terminology Relating to Roofing, Waterproofing,
directly addressed in this guide. and Bituminous Materials
1.3 The emphasis of this guide is on low-rise buildings. E 331 Test Method for Water Penetration of Exterior Win-
Portions of this guide, in particular sections 5, 6, and 7, may dows, Skylights, Doors, and Curtain Walls by Uniform
also be applicable to high-rise buildings. Static Air Pressure Difference
1.4 This standard is not intended for direct use in codes and E 547 Test Method for Water Penetration of Exterior Win-
specifications. It does not attempt to prescribe acceptable limits dows, Skylights, Doors, and Curtain Walls by Cyclic Static
of damage. Buildings intended for different uses may have Air Pressure Differential
different service life expectancies, and expected service lives E 631 Terminology of Building Constructions
of different components within a given building often differ. E 632 Practice for Developing Accelerated Tests to Aid
Furthermore, some building owners may be satisfied with Prediction of the Service Life of Building Components and
substantially shorter service life expectancies of building Materials
components or of the entire building than other building E 1105 Test Method for Field Determination of Water
owners. Lastly, the level of damage that renders a component Penetration of Installed Exterior Windows, Skylights,
unserviceable may vary with the type of component, the degree Doors, and Curtain Walls by Uniform or Cyclic Static Air
to which failure of the component is critical (for example Pressure Difference
whether failure constitutes a life-safety hazard), and the judge- E 1643 Practice for Installation of Water Vapor Retarders
ment (i.e. tolerance for damage) of the building owner. For the Used in Contact with Earth or Granular Fills and Concrete
reasons stated in this paragraph, prescribing limits of damage Slabs
would require listing many pages of exceptions and qualifiers E 1677 Specification for an Air Retarder (AR) Material or
and is beyond the scope of this standard. System for Low-Rise Framed Building Walls
1.5 This standard does not purport to address the safety E 1745 Specification for Water Vapor Retarders Used in
problems associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the Contact with Soil or Granular Fill Under Concrete Slabs
user of this standard to establish appropriate safety and health E 2112 Practice for Installation of Exterior Windows,
practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limita- Doors, and Skylights
tions prior to use. 2.2 Other Documents:
ASHRAE Handbook of Fundamentals (1997) Chapter 22:
Thermal and moisture control in insulated assemblies -
fundamentals. Amer. Soc. of Heating Refrigerating, and
Air Conditioning Engineers, Atlanta, GA.

1
This guide is under the jurisdiction of ASTM Committee E06 on Building
2
Constructions and is the direct responsibility of Subcommittee E06.41 on Air For referenced ASTM standards, visit the ASTM website, www.astm.org, or
Leakage and Ventilation Performance. contact ASTM Customer Service at service@astm.org. For Annual Book of ASTM
Current edition approved April 1, 2004. Published April 2004. Originally Standards volume information, refer to the standard’s Document Summary page on
approved in 1964. Last previous edition approved in 2000 as E 241 – 00. the ASTM website.

Copyright © ASTM International, 100 Barr Harbor Drive, PO Box C700, West Conshohocken, PA 19428-2959, United States.

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 E 241 – 04
ASHRAE Standard 55, Thermal Environmental Conditions 3.2.1 air retarder, n—a material or system in building
for Human Occupancy construction that is designed and installed to reduce air leakage
ASHRAE Standard 62, Ventilation for Acceptable Indoor either into or through an opaque wall or across a ceiling.
Air Quality NOTE 1—Source of this definition is Specification E 1677.
ASHRAE Technical Data Bulletin Vol. 10 Number 3. Rec-
ommended Practices for Controlling Moisture in Crawl 3.2.2 opaque wall, n—exposed areas of a wall that enclose
Spaces, Amer. Soc. of Heating Refrigerating and Air conditioned space, except openings for windows, doors and
Conditioning Engineers, Atlanta, GA., 1994. building service systems.
Bateman, R. Nail-On Windows: Installation & Flashing NOTE 2—Source of this definition is Specification E 1677.
Procedures for Windows & Sliding Glass Doors. DTA,
Inc., Mill Valley, CA. 1995. 3.3 Consensus Definitions from Other Sources: The follow-
Connolly, J. “Humidity and Building Materials” in Proceed- ing definitions are taken verbatim from the ASHRAE Hand-
ings: Bugs, Mold & Rot II (W. Rose and A. TenWolde, book of Fundamentals (1997).
eds). National Institute of Building Sciences, Washington 3.3.1 exfiltration, n—the uncontrolled flow of indoor air out
DC. 1993. of a building through cracks and other unintentional openings
Lstiburek, J. and J. Carmody. “Moisture Control Handbook: and through the normal use of exterior doors for entrance and
New, Low-rise, Residential Construction”, prepared for egress.
U. S. Dept. of Energy. 1991. 3.3.2 infiltration, n—the uncontrolled flow of outdoor air
Rogers, T. S., Design of Insulated Buildings for Various into a building through cracks and other unintentional openings
Climates, Roberts Printing Co., Toledo, OH, 1951 (out of and through the normal use of exterior doors for entrance and
print but available in some libraries). egress.
Trechsel, H. (ed.) “Moisture Control in Buildings” Ameri- 3.3.3 ventilation, n—the intentional introduction of air from
can Society for Testing and Materials, ASTM MNL 18, the outside of a building.
West Conshohocken, PA, 1994. 3.4 Definitions of Terms Specific to This Standard:
Timusk, J., Seskus, A., and K. Linger. 1992. A systems 3.4.1 air leakage, n—infiltration or exfiltration, in other
approach to extend the limit of envelope performance. In words uncontrolled air flow into or out of a building through
Proceedings: Thermal Performance of the Exterior Enve- cracks and other unintentional openings and through normal
lopes of Buildings V. Amer. Soc. of Heating, Refrigerat- use of exterior doors for entrance and egress.
ing, and Air-Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE), Atlanta, 3.4.2 building component, n—an inclusive term to collec-
GA. tively refer to building materials, products, or assemblies.
3.4.3 capillary break, n—a term applied to a material, most
3. Terminology commonly a synthetic membrane material, used to limit liquid
3.1 Standard Definitions—Refer to Terminologies C 168, water transfer by diffusion or capillary suction from wet
C 717, D 1079, and E 631 for definitions of general terms. ground or from a wet or damp building component to another
Three definitions from C 168 are reiterated (verbatim) in building component that can absorb liquid water.
3.1.1-3.1.3. 3.4.3.1 Discussion—Capillary breaks may also be com-
3.1.1 vapor retarder (barrier), n—a material or system that posed of corrosion-resistant sheet metal, asphalt impregnated
adequately impedes the transmission of water vapor under and coated felt, or where lesser degrees of resistance to
specified conditions. capillary transfer are required, asphalt-impregnated felt.
3.1.1.1 Discussion—For low-rise residential construction, 3.4.4 critical moisture content, n—a moisture condition
materials or components with a water vapor permeance not parameter. This parameter is expressed as a moisture content
exceeding one perm are generally considered vapor retarders level above which immediate or virtually immediate damage
(see Practice C 755). will occur to a building component at a given temperature,
3.1.2 water vapor permeance, n—the time rate of water such that the level of damage is deemed unacceptable.
vapor transmission through unit area of fiat material or 3.4.5 critical cumulative exposure time, n—a moisture con-
construction induced by unit vapor pressure difference between dition parameter, this parameter is expressed as a time sum
two specific surfaces, under specified temperature and humid- when moisture conditions are above a level that results in
ity conditions. cumulative damage to a building component, such that the
3.1.2.1 Discussion—Permeance is a performance evaluation level of cumulative damage is deemed unacceptable.
and not a property of a material. 3.4.5.1 Discussion—cumulative damage to a component
3.1.3 water vapor permeability, n—the time rate of water may occur over a range of moisture and temperature combi-
vapor transmission through unit area of flat material of unit nations, and damage is frequently more rapid at some combi-
thickness induced by unit vapor pressure difference between nations than at others. The differing rate of damage accumu-
two specific surfaces, under specified temperature and humid- lation at different sets of conditions is accounted for with
ity conditions. intensity factors, which are discussed in Chapter 26 of ASTM
3.1.3.1 Discussion—Permeability is a property of a mate- MNL 18.
rial. Permeability is the arithmetic product of permeance and 3.4.6 durability, n—in constructions, the capacity of a
thickness. building component or a construction to remain serviceable as
3.2 Other definitions found in ASTM Standards: intended with usual and customary operation and maintenance

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 E 241 – 04
during the designed service-life under anticipated internal and stages of the design process, construction, and building com-
external environments. missioning. It must also be considered in building operation
3.4.7 flashing, n—a term applied to elements, most com- and maintenance, and when the building is renovated, rehabili-
monly fabricated of sheet metal, but which may also be tated or undergoes a change in use.
fabricated of synthetic materials, used at interruptions and 4.3 This guide is intended to alert designers and builders,
terminations of water shedding systems of roofs and walls, and and also building owners and managers, to potential damages
intended to prevent intrusion of liquid water at these points. that may be induced by water, regardless of its source. This
3.4.8 limit, v—to keep the value or level of some parameter, guide discusses moisture sources and moisture migration.
which is recognized as being problematic or potentially prob- Limit states (or specific moisture conditions that are likely to
lematic, below a value or level which is deemed to be impact construction or component durability), and design
objectionable. methods are also cursorily discussed. Examples of practices
3.4.9 limit state, n—a value which expresses a moisture that enhance durability are listed and discussed, as are ex-
condition parameter, generally a critical moisture content or a amples of constructions or circumstances to avoid. The ex-
critical cumulative exposure time, that is deemed to be at the amples listed are not all-inclusive. Lastly, field check lists are
border of what is acceptable, and beyond which an unaccept- given. The checklists are not intended for use as is, but as
able level of damage to a building component may be guides for development of checklists which may vary with
expected. specific building designs and climates.
3.4.10 perm, n—the time rate of water vapor migration by
diffusion through a material or component equal to 1 grain per 5. Moisture Sources and Migration
hour, square foot, inch of mercury vapor pressure difference. In 5.1 Moisture sources for buildings can be broadly classified
SI units, one perm is 57.2 ng/(Pa·s·m2). as follows: (1) surface runoff of precipitation from land areas,
3.4.11 serviceability, n—in a construction, the capacity of a (2) ground water or wet soil, (3) precipitation or irrigation
building component or a construction to perform the func- water that falls on the building, (4) indoor humidity, (5)
tion(s) for which it was designed and constructed. outdoor humidity, (6) moisture from use of wet building
3.4.12 water or moisture, n—water as liquid, vapor, or solid materials or construction under wet conditions, and (7) errors,
(ice, frost, or snow) in any combination or in transition. accidents, and maintenance problems associated with indoor
plumbing. At a given instant of time the categories are distinct
4. Significance and Use from each other. Water can change phase and can be trans-
4.1 Moisture degradation is frequently a significant factor ported over space by various mechanisms. Water may therefore
that either limits the useful life of a building or necessitates be expected to move between categories over time, blurring the
costly repairs. Examples of moisture degradation include: (1) distinctions between categories. Chapter 8 of ASTM MNL 18
decay of wood-based materials, (2) spalling of masonry caused provides quantitative estimates of potential moisture load from
by freeze-thaw cycles, (3) damage to gypsum plasters by various sources.
dissolution, (4) corrosion of metals, (5) damage due to expan- 5.1.1 High indoor humidity during winter is often a major
sion of materials or components (by swelling due to moisture cause of moisture problems in cold or temperate climates.
pickup, or by expansion due to corrosion, hydration, or delayed Moisture-induced damage may be expected unless the building
ettringite formation), (6) spalling and degradation caused by is designed to tolerate the levels of indoor humidity that occur
salt migration, (7) failure of finishes, and (8) creep deformation in use. Conversely, moisture induced damage may be expected
and reduction in strength or stiffness. unless indoor humidity is kept within limits that the building
4.1.1 Moisture accumulation within construction compo- will tolerate. Buildings should be designed and built so as to
nents or constructions may adversely affect serviceability of a tolerate indoor humidity levels commensurate with their in-
building, without necessarily causing immediate and serious tended use. For some buildings, (for example, those intended
degradation of the construction components. Examples of such for habitation by persons with certain medical conditions or
serviceability issues are: (1) indoor air quality, (2) electrical those housing swimming pools or textile production equip-
safety, (3) degradation of thermal performance of insulations, ment), the levels of indoor humidity which the building should
and (4) decline in physical appearance. Mold or mildew growth be expected to tolerate are moderately high, even if the
can influence indoor air quality and physical appearance. With building is located in a cold climate. Conversely however, most
some components, in particular interior surface finishes, mold buildings are not designed nor built to tolerate high indoor
or mildew growth may limit service life of the component. humidities during winter. It is therefore unreasonable to expect
Moisture conditions that affect serviceability issues can fre- such buildings to perform adequately if operated at high indoor
quently be expected, unless corrected, to eventually result in humidities during winter.
degradation of the building or its components. This guide does 5.1.1.1 The potential for indoor humidity to cause damage
not attempt however to address serviceability issues that could depends on the local climate. Occupant density, that is number
be corrected by cleaning and change in building operation, and of occupants per given unit of space, and occupant activities
that would not require repair or replacement of components to frequently have a large influence on indoor humidity levels.
return the building (or portions or components of the building) Among occupant activities that influence indoor humidity,
to serviceability. cooking, bathing and laundry activities, and use of unvented
4.2 Prevention of water-induced damage must be consid- combustion appliances are those most likely to be significant.
ered throughout the construction process including the various Air exchange between the living space and the exterior can

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significantly lower indoor humidity levels during winter in 5.4.1 Moisture typically enters building assemblies from the
temperate climates. Control of indoor humidity is discussed in exterior through three mechanisms: (1) liquid flow by gravity,
greater detail in 8.3 and its subsections. air pressure, surface tension, momentum, or capillary suction,
5.1.1.2 Mathematical evaluation tools (see 7.1.2 and 7.1.3) (2) movement of water vapor by air movement, or (3) water
can be used to identify if a given building design in a given vapor diffusion by vapor pressure differences.
climate will tolerate a given level of indoor humidity, or 5.4.2 Moisture typically enters building assemblies from the
alternatively, to estimate tolerable indoor relative humidities interior through two mechanisms: (1) movement of water
for a given building design and climate. vapor by air movement, or (2) water vapor diffusion by vapor
pressure differences.
5.1.2 Although use of dry building materials is preferable,
5.4.3 Operation of mechanical equipment has not always
wet building materials are commonly used. With some building
been recognized for its potential influence on moisture transfer.
materials (for example cast-in-place concrete) a wet initial
This potential influence should not be overlooked. Most
condition is an inherent characteristic of the material, and thus
notably, air handling equipment can induce a moisture trans-
unavoidable. The influence of moisture from wet building
port mechanism that is capable of moving large amounts of
materials must not be overlooked. With proper design, con- moisture, namely movement of water vapor by air movement.
struction and operation, moisture from wet building materials Unplanned pressurization or depressurization of buildings or
can, within limits, be dissipated without causing damage. portions of buildings by air handlers can result in substantial
5.1.2.1 When wood frame walls are constructed with wet moisture accumulations in the building envelope.
building materials or under wet conditions, the walls should be 5.5 Moisture can typically be removed (dried) to the exte-
allowed to dry by evaporation before they are enclosed. Wall rior or the interior by three mechanisms: (1) liquid flow by
designs that permit more rapid dissipation of moisture can gravity (drainage) or capillary suction, (2) movement of water
accommodate being enclosed at higher moisture conditions vapor by air movement (ventilation), or (3) water vapor
than can wall designs with lower capacity to dissipate mois- diffusion by vapor pressure differences.
ture. Computer models (7.1.2) can be helpful in predicting 5.5.1 Where condensation of water vapor or water leaks can
drying rate in walls enclosed at higher than ideal moisture occur, weep paths to drain liquid water to a place where it can
contents. be dissipated are often effective. Converting liquid water to
5.2 Strategies to prevent or control moisture accumulation vapor, and dissipating the vapor by air movement may also be
in buildings fall into three broad categories: (1) limit moisture practical.
sources, (2) minimize moisture entry into the building or
6. Limit States
building envelope, and (3) remove moisture from the building
or building envelope. Moisture control strategies that combine 6.1 Identification of conditions that must be avoided in
these approaches are usually most effective. order to prevent degradation of building components is an
5.3 Moisture can migrate by a variety of moisture transport important step in making design or operating decisions. How-
ever, precise guidelines for identification of such conditions are
mechanisms. A comprehensive treatment of moisture transport
generally lacking. Rather rough estimates based on empirical
and storage may be found in Chapter 1 of the ASTM Manual
experience are often used.
MNL 18. The following mechanisms are most significant in
6.2 Time and temperature are factors that are interrelated
building constructions and are listed in order of potential
with moisture level in the degradation of building components.
magnitude: (1) liquid flow by gravity, air pressure, surface
The moisture/temperature/time combinations that result in
tension, momentum and capillary suction, (2) movement of
material degradation furthermore vary with the type of mate-
water vapor by air movement, and (3) water vapor diffusion by
rial. For example, wood will not decay, even at elevated
vapor pressure differences. These transport mechanisms can
moisture content when its temperature is near or below
deliver moisture into the building or the building envelope, in
freezing, and even at temperature conditions conducive to
which cases it is desirable that they be controlled. These
decay, wood can withstand intermittent wettings of short
transport mechanisms can also act to remove moisture from the
duration to elevated moisture contents without decay becoming
building or building envelope, in which cases they may be used
established. Conversely, masonry units can generally be ex-
to promote drying.
pected to withstand elevated moisture conditions at tempera-
5.3.1 In control of moisture delivery to the building or tures above freezing for extended time periods (conditions
building envelope, the transport mechanisms that have the under which wood decay might be expected), but suffer
potential for moving the greatest amounts of moisture should damage if frozen in a saturated condition.
(where practical) be controlled first. In promotion of drying of 6.2.1 Many materials or constructions have threshold water
the building or building envelope, the transport mechanisms contents below which deterioration may be slow enough to be
that have the potential for moving the greatest amounts of negligible for designed life expectancy. As indicated in 6.1
moisture should (where practical) be utilized first. these threshold values are often rather rough estimates. See
5.4 Building assemblies can become wet in three ways: (1) Connolly (National Institute of Building Sciences, 1993) for
moisture can enter from the exterior, (2) moisture can enter estimates.
from the interior, or (3) the assembly can start out wet as a 6.2.2 The concepts of critical moisture content and critical
result of using wet building materials or building under wet cumulative exposure time (see 3.4.5) are discussed in Chapter
conditions. 26 of ASTM MNL 18. Although these concepts are generally

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recognized by building scientists, organized use of these as design tools is found in Chapter 11 of ASTM Manual MNL 18,
limit states by designers has not yet become a well-recognized and in Chapter 22 of the 1997 ASHRAE Handbook of
practice. Fundamentals.
6.3 A limit state is frequently based on avoidance of damage
to a component as the result of its getting wet. A limit state may 8. Examples of Practices that Enhance Durability
also be based on avoidance of damage to a component as a 8.1 Drainage of Precipitation and Surface Runoff:
result of moisture conditions in an adjacent component. For 8.1.1 Surface grading—Ground should slope away from
example, limiting moisture-induced dimensional change of walls so that precipitation runoff from land areas does not pond
plywood sheathing may be critical to prevent cracking of near the foundation.
stucco cladding. 8.1.2 Building external drains—Discharge from drains at
ground level should be carried away from the foundation, and
7. Design Evaluation Tools should flow away from it.
7.1 Means for evaluating the design of building envelopes 8.1.3 Below-grade drainage systems—In some cases
from the perspective of moisture management can be classified below-grade drainage systems may be required. In some cases,
as follows: (1) conceptual, (2) mathematical using computer dissipation of collected water by pumping will be required.
simulation models, and (3) mathematical using calculations Below grade drainage systems are discussed in Chapter 2 of
that can be performed without computer software (sometimes The Moisture Control Handbook.
referred to as manual design tools). 8.2 Limiting Intrusion of Precipitation
7.1.1 Conceptual design evaluation—This approach in- 8.2.1 Precipitation has the potential for delivering excep-
volves the following three-step procedure: (1) determine prob- tionally large moisture loads to buildings, and is usually the
able external and internal environmental loads (determine largest potential moisture source (see Chapter 8 of ASTM
climate and interior design conditions), (2) determine the MNL 18). It is imperative that this source be controlled,
potential moisture transport mechanisms in each assembly, and specifically that precipitation be excluded from the building
(3) select moisture control strategies. This approach provides a envelope. In some cases, entry of limited mounts of precipita-
qualitative perception of how a building will perform under the tion into the envelope can be tolerated provided that it is
influence of all the moisture loads the building is likely to be rapidly dissipated by drainage, or (typically more slowly) by
subjected to. The Moisture Control Handbook (Lstiburek and evaporation.
Carmody, 1991) provides a more comprehensive treatment of 8.2.1.1 Moisture from precipitation enters building enve-
this approach. Conceptual design evaluation can be used to lopes almost exclusively in liquid form, either as rain or as melt
select a construction for a given climate, as well as to evaluate water from ice or snow.
how a proposed construction may perform in a given climate. 8.2.2 The water exposure of horizontal or sloped surfaces
7.1.2 Computer simulation models—These models have (i.e. roofs) is almost always greater than that of walls.
been developed to quantitatively predict moisture and tempera- Shedding and drainage of water from roof surfaces is impera-
ture conditions within proposed assemblies using boundary tive. These surfaces must essentially be water tight (i.e. not
conditions representative for the climate and interior design leak). Penetrations through water shedding membranes of roofs
conditions. These models mathematically model moisture and are common leakage points; flashings are almost always
heat transfer mechanisms at the inner and outer surfaces of the required at such penetrations. Design, installation and mainte-
assemblies and within the assemblies. Some of the models nance of roofs are very important. There is an entire Volume
predict moisture transfer by air movement and liquid water (Vol 4.04) of the ASTM Annual Book of Standards that
flow as well as by vapor diffusion. Use of such models requires contains standards concerning roofing and waterproofing.
knowledge of building physics and of the limitations of the Therefore, a comprehensive treatment of these subjects is not
model used. Most models allow estimates of the duration of a attempted in this standard.
set of temperature and moisture conditions within assemblies. 8.2.3 Water intrusion through building facades (in low rise
A discussion of available models is found in Chapter 2 of construction, this primarily means walls) can be of substantial
ASTM Manual MNL 18. consequence. There are two broad strategies for controlling
7.1.3 Manual design tools—Like computer simulation mod- rainwater intrusion into walls: (1) reduce the amount of
els, these provide quantitative estimates of moisture conditions rainwater deposited on building walls, and (2) control rainwa-
within building envelopes. They only account however for ter that is deposited on building walls.
moisture transfer by vapor diffusion. Their focus is on predict- 8.2.3.1 Reducing rainwater deposition on wall assemblies
ing the occurrence of sustained condensation within building has traditionally been a function of siting and architectural
assemblies. The calculations for manual design tools can be design. The following measures have historically proven ef-
easily performed with a handheld calculator. The traditional fective: (1) site buildings so they are sheltered from wind-
design tool used in North America is a manual design tool and driven rain, (2) provide roof overhangs and gutters or other
is referred to as the dewpoint method. The dewpoint method is piped roof drainage systems to shelter walls from direct rain
the method outlined in section A1.1 of ASTM C 755. The exposure or roof runoff.
validity and usefulness of predictions made with manual design 8.2.3.2 As suggested in 8.2.1, roof runoff is usually an
tools have limitations. Most notably, manual design tools do exceptionally large potential water source. In temperate and
not provide estimates of the time period during which poten- cold climates, exposure to roof runoff is one of the most
tially damaging conditions may occur. A discussion of manual common causes of freeze-thaw spalling of masonry cladding

5
 E 241 – 04
systems. Wood and wood-based cladding systems are widely Cladding termination accessories, window installation ac-
recognized as being incapable of performing adequately if cessories, or site-fabricated trim may provide a transition
exposed to roof runoff. Among the more common water between fenestration units and the surrounding cladding sys-
intrusion points in walls are the interfaces of walls with roofs, tem. Water penetration can occur at the interfaces between
especially with level or nearly-level roofs. Thresholds of doors these entities and either the fenestration unit or the surrounding
that open to balconies represent one of the most common sites cladding system. Adequate building design and adequate work-
of serious water intrusion into walls. Serious water intrusion at manship during construction are both essential to reducing the
these sites can generally be expected unless the balcony surface potential for water intrusion and water-induced damage to the
is pitched to drain water away from the wall. For the reasons building.
stated in this paragraph, it is generally accepted that walls of Appropriate maintenance of the fenestration product and its
buildings must not be exposed to roof runoff. interfaces with the wall system will help ensure long term
8.2.4 Walls are most susceptible to water intrusion at joints delivery of the desired water penetration resistance. If the
in and penetrations of the exterior cladding system. Joints water-shedding capabilities of a unit are compromised by
between the cladding system and windows and doors are mechanical damage or deferred maintenance, water intrusion
locations susceptible to water leakage. Junctures of walls with into the wall can occur.
large horizontal or sloped surfaces (for example roofs, decks or NOTE 3—The considerations mentioned previously in this section as
balconies) are susceptible to leakage. Therefore, particular care applicable to fenestration units in walls (doors and windows) also apply to
is required at these locations. skylights. Skylights, which are installed on roofs, can be expected to have
greater weather exposure than fenestration units in walls.
8.2.5 Strategies for control of rainwater that is deposited on
building walls can be broadly categorized as follows: (1) 8.2.5.3 Sealant Joints—In contrast to high-rise construc-
strategies to prevent water penetration of the outermost face of tion, design of sealant joints in low-rise construction has
the wall system, (2) strategies to dissipate water that penetrates generally not become a well-developed discipline. Design of
the outermost face of the wall system. Strategies in these two reliable sealant joints can include many factors such as:
general categories often are effectively used in combination. sealant-substrate compatibility, avoidance of 3-sided adhesion,
Strategies for control of rainwater deposited on building walls joint geometry and anticipated movements in joints (see
are discussed in Chapter 2 of The Moisture Control Handbook. Standard Guide C 1193). Workmanship, including conditions
Further discussion on the subject, as well as recommendations under which sealant joints are installed, is also important.
concerning design details are found in Nail-On Windows Maintenance of sealant joints must not be overlooked, since
(Bateman, 1995). It is important that the strategy or strategies anticipated life of sealant joints will almost certainly be
selected by the designer be clearly understood by construction substantially less than design life of the building.
contractors and those responsible for maintenance of the 8.3 Control of Indoor Humidity
building. 8.3.1 From the standpoint of building durability, indoor
8.2.5.1 Exterior Mechanicals—Penetrations of this type (for humidity control is primarily of concern during winter in
example electrical equipment) should be of a type suited for temperate or cold climates. It may also be of concern however
exterior service and be installed with adequate moisture seals. in air conditioned buildings in hot humid climates, particularly
if the building is designed to dry toward the interior. In mild
8.2.5.2 Fenestration—Important consideration in selection weather in any climate, humidity control may be of importance
of fenestration units (windows and doors) are (1) the ability of from the standpoint of preservation of property within the
the units themselves to shed water, and (2) the ability with structure or from the standpoint of indoor air quality (for
which the units can be integrated into the building’s water- example preventing mold growth that releases spores and
shedding system. musty odors or inhibiting the propagation of dust mites), but
A unit’s resistance to water penetration can be identified, in generally is not of great concern to durability of the building
part, by laboratory tests such as Test Methods E 331 and E 547. structure.
Third party certification of a product’s water resistance is 8.3.2 Indoor humidity can be limited by controlling mois-
highly recommended to help identify whether the product is ture sources or by removing humidity by air exchange with the
appropriate for its intended application (anticipated in-service exterior or by dehumidification.
exposure of the unit to wind and rain). 8.3.3 As indicated in 5.1.1 and 8.3.1, the indoor humidity
Proper installation and integration of the product with the (RH) level that a given building will tolerate is climate-
building’s water-shedding system are essential. Practice E dependent. ASHRAE 55 recommends that for human comfort,
2112 provides guidance for proper installation and water- dewpoint temperature of occupied spaces not fall below 36° F
shedding system integration for simple fenestration products. (2° C). Over the dry-bulb temperature range of 67°–74° F
For more complex systems (such as mulled units, stacked units, (19°–23° C) (the approximate temperature range outlined in
or new designs), pre-construction mock-up testing and field ASHRAE 55 for winter comfort) this corresponds to an indoor
testing early in the building project can be valuable for RH range of approximately 32–25%. In contrast, experience
purposes of risk reduction and quality assurance. Field testing and computer simulation models suggest that damaging mois-
is especially valuable where water management and integration ture accumulations can be expected in many buildings of
details are unclear or are not provided. Test Method E 1105 customary design in cold climates if winter indoor RH in
outlines a useful field testing technique. heated buildings is maintained at levels in excess of 40%.

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These observations suggest that it is reasonable to expect generally been a greatly reduced rate of furnace-induced
buildings of customary design in cold climates to tolerate exhaust of interior air via the chimney. In addition, the building
indoor RH levels above the minimum for human comfort, but envelope, including fenestration units, have become more
not much above such levels. When higher indoor humidity resistant to air leakage. The result is that some buildings now
levels are necessary or desired in cold climates, the building operate at much lower air exchange rates than recommended
must be carefully designed, built, and operated to tolerate such by ASHRAE Standard 62, and the low air exchange rates have
levels. in some cases resulted in excessive indoor humidity levels.
8.3.4 In most heating climates during cool or cold weather, With reduced rates of furnace-induced exhaust of indoor air,
air exchange with the exterior can significantly reduce indoor the probability for negative pressurization of the building is
humidity (Chapter 15 of ASTM MNL 18 and Chapter 23 of reduced. This in turn means that a greater proportion of the
ASHRAE Handbook of Fundamentals). Chapter 23 of the building’s air leakage (than had previously been the case) is
ASHRAE Handbook of Fundamentals suggests that at normal likely to be exfiltration.
rates for residential occupancy and moisture generation and in 8.3.4.3.1 Building scientists generally agree that modem
all but mild humid climates, ventilation to a level of 0.35 air buildings in heating climates that are reasonably energy effi-
changes per hour (as recommended in ASHRAE Standard 62, cient will in many cases have insufficient air exchange rates
Ventilation for Acceptable Air Quality) will usually be suffi- (from the perspective of either indoor air quality, as outlined in
cient to prevent excessive indoor humidity. Mechanical dehu- ASHRAE Standard 62, or from the perspective of indoor
midification is rarely used for indoor humidity control during humidity control) unless they are provided with some type of
cold weather. In mild humid climates, air exchange with the ventilation system. From a prescriptive standpoint, there is not
exterior may be of limited effectiveness for control of indoor full consensus concerning what constitutes an adequate venti-
humidity. In these climates, dehumidification may be more lation system. Powered ventilation systems, passive stack
effective than ventilation for controlling indoor RH, but as vents, and passive ventilation by use of window trickle
indicated in 8.3.1 is more likely to be deemed necessary for ventilators may all potentially provide for adequate ventilation
reasons other than that of durability of the building structure. rates. In North America there is more practical experience with
8.3.4.1 In designing for provision of air exchange between powered ventilation systems than with the other two alterna-
the living space and the exterior, energy efficiency and air tives. Powered ventilation systems are generally recognized as
quality considerations as well as durability considerations are being easier to control that the alternative systems. If powered
usually important. ventilation or passive stack vents are chosen, the air exchange
8.3.4.2 In buildings constructed prior to 1970, air exchange passageway(s) for these systems should be directly between the
between building interiors and the exterior during winter in interior and exterior of the building; no passageway should
temperate and cold climates has occurred primarily by a terminate within the building’s thermal envelope. Fans in
combination of infiltration (much of which occurred through kitchens or bathrooms (which are frequently thought of as spot
fenestration units) and escape of air up chimneys (a combina- ventilation devices) have been used effectively as building
tion of air movement through furnaces, draft hoods, and ventilation systems when carefully selected and installed and
barometric draft dampers). The effect of chimney draft has properly operated by occupants. Use of heat recovery ventilat-
often been sufficiently great that the buildings have operated at ing systems may be justified where energy use is a concern,
a negative air pressure relative to the exterior, causing air although heat losses associated with the ventilation levels
leakage through the building envelope to be predominantly prescribed as minimums by ASHRAE Standard 62 are gener-
infiltrative. Infiltrative air leakage is not capable of transporting ally not excessive. Design of ventilation systems is its own
interior moisture into the envelope. Air exchange rates have discipline and beyond the scope of this standard.
been uncontrolled, responding to air temperature differences 8.3.5 Spot ventilation (at localized sources of indoor humid-
and wind effects. During cold windy weather, air exchange ity) is recognized as a generally effective method to help
rates have often been well in excess of the amounts recom- control indoor humidity levels in buildings.
mended as necessary by ASHRAE Standard 62. In some cases, 8.3.5.1 Venting of clothes dryers to the exterior is a form of
the air exchange rates during cold weather have been overly spot ventilation, and is recommended for all climates. In
effective at reducing indoor humidity levels (sometimes to modem energy-efficient houses, efforts to assure that clothes
below the comfort range outlined in ASHRAE Standard 55). dryers are provided with adequate make-up air are recom-
Although substantially less than ideal from an energy use mended.
perspective, buildings that operate in this traditional mode 8.3.5.2 Spot ventilation in kitchens and bathrooms is com-
generally have not suffered significant moisture-induced dura- mon practice and is most commonly accomplished with
bility problems. Many existing buildings, perhaps a majority of exhaust fans, although it may also be accomplished with
existing buildings, operate in this traditional mode during cold operable windows. Spot ventilation has the theoretical poten-
weather. tial to dissipate given quantities of indoor humidity efficiently
8.3.4.3 Since the 1970s, buildings have generally been built (i.e. with lower quantities of air exchange than whole-building
so that they can be heated with less energy. For a building of ventilation). If moisture from the source becomes well mixed
a given size, the increased energy efficiency has resulted in into the interior air however before the fan or window can
furnaces of smaller size and/or furnaces that run a lower exhaust it, the theoretical advantage of spot ventilation is not
percentage of the time during the heating season. The result has attained.

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8.3.5.2.1 The effective capacity of exhaust fans can be Modifications either to the air handling system or to the
substantially reduced by long exhaust duct runs, bends in the building (for example addition of interior partitions) should be
duct runs, and use of duct materials that restrict air flow evaluated for their potential for creating air pressure differen-
through them. tials.
8.3.5.2.2 High capacity kitchen exhaust fans have become 8.4.1.2 Thermally-induced pressure differentials—
popular in some (generally high-priced) residences. These are Thermally-induced pressure differentials generally cannot be
generally very effective for removal of kitchen-generated prevented. Therefore the strategy used to control air move-
moisture, but require that adequate provision be made for ments created by these differentials is by construction that
make-up air. If adequate provision for make up air is not made, restricts air movement. In heating climates the potential for
they may not vent effectively, and may cause dangerous levels thermally-induced air movement from the heated interior to
of depressurization within the building. If depressurization in roof spaces is generally well recognized, as is its potential for
the location of natural-draft combustion appliances exceeds transporting moisture into the roof space. Ceilings should thus
approximately 5 Pascals, back-drafting of the appliances may be constructed so as to restrict air leakage across them. This
result. Back-drafting has also been observed at negative includes sealing air leakage paths associated with mechanicals
pressures of smaller than 5 Pascals. In some cases, installation (for example ceiling light fixtures and plumbing and wiring
of safety interlocks, which prevent operation of natural draft chases).
combustion appliances when high capacity kitchen exhaust
8.4.1.3 Wind-induced pressure differentials—Assuming
fans are in operation, may be justified.
there is a prevailing wind direction, building siting and
8.3.5.2.3 Exhaust from powered ventilating equipment
landscaping (planting of wind breaks) can limit a building’s
should be ducted all the way to the outdoors. Ducting may pass
exposure to wind pressure differentials. Also assuming that
through locations that are cool or cold. When this occurs,
there is a prevailing wind direction, building orientation may
precautions should be taken to prevent condensation in the
also influence predominant direction of wind-induced pres-
ducting or to drain condensation that occurs in the ducting.
sures on individual portions of the building. Potential changes
8.3.5.2.4 In a significant number of older houses, an oper-
in the neighborhood of the building regarding nearby trees and
able window is the only available means for spot ventilation of
buildings may however make decisions regarding siting, wind-
bathrooms. The potential for dissipation of moisture from
breaks, and orientation of limited value for the entire design
bathrooms via operable windows is considerable in most
life of a building.
climates, although occupants may fail to use them effectively
for this purpose. 8.4.1.3.1 Wind can generally be expected to induce infiltra-
8.3.6 Latent (dehumidification) loads should be taken into tion through exterior walls on the windward side of the
account when sizing air conditioning (mechanical cooling) building and exfiltration through exterior walls on the other
equipment. Although failure to do so generally does not result sides of the building (see ASHRAE Handbook of Fundamen-
in degradation to the building structure, it can reasonably be tals). During cold winter days, the wetting potential to the
expected to result in damage to interior surface finishes by building envelope of a given volume of exfiltrating air gener-
mold or mildew growth. Oversizing cooling equipment can be ally exceeds the drying potential of an equal volume of
expected to result in inadequate dehumidification in humid infiltrating air. Therefore, it is desirable to limit wind-induced
summer climates. air movement through assemblies in the thermal envelope. This
8.3.6.1 In many existing buildings, air conditioning equip- is generally done by designing and constructing such assem-
ment is oversized, and therefore unable to adequately control blies so as restrict air leakage.
indoor humidity. In these cases, dehumidification equipment is 8.4.2 Air leakage effects
often necessary, although as indicated in 8.3.6, usually for 8.4.2.1 Air leakage effects in cold climates—In cold cli-
reasons other than durability of the building structure. mates, exfiltration of indoor air through the building envelope
8.4 Limiting Moisture Deposition within Assemblies by Air can result in substantial moisture accumulation in the envelope.
Movement The degree to which exfiltrating air will deposit moisture in the
8.4.1 Driving forces—Air migration occurs from air pres- envelope is influenced by interior humidity levels and by
sure differentials. These are generally induced by mechanical exterior temperature; lower indoor humidity levels and milder
systems, temperature differentials, wind, or a combination of exterior temperatures reduce the potential. The characteristics
these factors. of air exfiltration passageways can also influence the potential
8.4.1.1 Mechanically-induced pressure differentials—Air for moisture accumulation in the building envelope. With a
pressure differentials caused by mechanical air handlers will in passageway that allows for relatively large amounts of air to
most cases be easier to control than the other pressure exit through the envelope in a concentrated area (for example,
differentials. In low-rise buildings these can be of greater a relatively small, direct and unobstructed passageway) the
magnitude than thermally-induced pressure differentials. They edges of the passageway may be warmed by the exfiltrating air,
are usually of lesser magnitude than peak wind-induced and the air may leave the building without depositing much of
pressure differentials, but of more sustained duration. Control the moisture it contains within the building envelope. Although
measures include proper design of air handling systems, air leakage has the potential for depositing substantial quanti-
careful installation of ductwork to minimize duct leakage, and ties of moisture in building envelopes, it does not necessarily
properly balancing the system when it is commissioned. result in damaging accumulations. Substantial quantities of air

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leakage occur in many older buildings, yet damaging accumu- 8.5 Limiting Moisture Uptake from Ground Water or Wet
lations of moisture in the envelopes of these buildings are Soil
relatively rare, in large part because the air leakage is predomi- 8.5.1 There are three broad strategies for limiting moisture
nantly infiltrative and the indoor humidity levels are often very uptake from ground water or wet soil. These may be classified
low (see 8.3.4.2). as follows: (1) limit deposition of surface water onto the soil
8.4.2.1.1 Exfiltration across ceilings—One of the more near the building (see 8.1), (2) remove excessive soil moisture
significant exfiltration sites in many buildings, is between with below-grade drainage systems (see 8.1.3), and (3) isolate
ceilings and attics. In some buildings in cold climates, ceiling the building from soil moisture by use of vapor retarders and
exfiltration is a major factor in air exchange between the capillary breaks.
building interior and exterior. When indoor humidity is low, 8.5.2 Vapor Retarders on Exposed Earth in Crawl Spaces—
damaging moisture accumulations from exfiltration across the Use of vapor retarders to limit evaporation of soil moisture into
ceiling are relatively rare, but some moisture accumulation in the crawlspace air is recognized as one of the most effective
roof sheathing and framing members during winter can be means of preventing elevated moisture conditions in crawl-
expected. Spectacular cases of winter moisture accumulation in spaces (see ASHRAE Technical Data Bulletin Vol. 10, #3).
attics, primarily as a result of exfiltration, (usually in cases Vapor retarder sheets must resist biological attack and have
where indoor humidity levels were moderately high), have adequate strength and impedance to vapor transmission.
occurred. When exfiltration across ceilings substantially influ- 8.5.3 Vapor Retarders Under Concrete Slabs—Vapor re-
ences the building’s air exchange rate, it represents uncon- tarder sheets function as capillary breaks as well as vapor
trolled air exchange and thus may have a significant impact on retarders under concrete slabs. These should be strong, resis-
heating costs. As indicated in 9.6.1.1, exfiltration across tant to biological attack, and have adequate impedance to
ceilings sometimes plays a role in ice dam formation on roofs. moisture movement. Materials conforming to ASTM Standard
8.4.2.2 Air leakage effects in hot humid climates—In hot Specification E 1745 are recommended. Installation should be
humid climates, air infiltration through the envelopes of air in accordance with ASTM Standard Practice E 1643.
conditioned buildings can result in substantial moisture accu- 8.5.4 Perimeter Foundation Walls—Coating or membrane
mulation within them. materials are frequently installed on the exterior of perimeter
8.4.2.3 Limiting air leakage—The two approaches to con- foundation walls to serve primarily as capillary breaks. Their
trol of air leakage are: 1) control of driving pressure differen- use is recommended. During the first few years of a building’s
tials, and 2) construction of the building envelope to restrict air life when the concrete foundation is still fresh, the influence of
leakage. these materials on moisture conditions on the interior side of
8.4.2.3.1 Control of pressure differentials— As indicated in perimeter basement walls will be less than in subsequent years.
8.4.1.1, pressures induced by mechanical systems can be 8.5.4.1 Some coating or membrane materials for application
controlled through design, installation, commissioning, and to the exterior of perimeter foundation walls have been shown
operation of the mechanical systems. As indicated in 8.4.1.2 through testing as being able to prevent liquid water flow
and 8.4.1.3, thermally-induced pressure differentials generally induced by hydrostatic pressure head. Because hydrostatic
cannot be limited, and there are a limited number of things that pressure head can structurally damage the foundation wall, it is
can be done to control wind-induced pressure differentials. preferable to prevent ponding of water at the foundation wall,
8.4.2.3.2 Construction to restrict air movement—Air move- rather than to rely on these materials or products to prevent
ment through assemblies and constructions can be restricted by liquid water flow by pressure head.
a variety of means. Sheet membrane or panel materials may be 8.5.5 Capillary breaks between slabs or concrete foundation
used. Use of tape, caulk, gaskets, or expanding foam sealants walls and framing—Such breaks (made of plastic film or
in conjunction with sheet membrane or panel materials usually corrosion-resistant sheet metal) are recommended, since it is
appreciably increases the resistance of these systems to air usually difficult to assure that the concrete remains dry.
leakage. Sprayed foam insulations are generally recognized as Wood-based sheathing or siding manufacturers typically
being effective at restricting air leakage through constructions. specify that their product not come in direct contact with
The potential for air leakage through constructions made with masonry or concrete.
structural foam-core panels is generally expected to be small, 8.6 Limiting Water Vapor Diffusion by use of Vapor Retard-
and where air leakage occurs it can be expected to be via ers:
relatively direct passageways. Whatever system is used to 8.6.1 Where vapor retarders are required they should gen-
restrict air leakage through the building envelope, sealing of erally be placed on that side of the construction with the higher
joints in the system that may act as passageways is important. average annual temperature. Vapor retarders may be structural,
Where air retarder systems are used on opaque frame walls, may be integral with insulating materials (for example foam
conformance with Standard Specification E 1677 is recom- insulations) or may be in the form of thin sheets or coatings.
mended. Because passageways associated with plumbing and Because of the potential for air movement to transfer appre-
electrical systems are potential air leakage passageways, they ciable quantities of water vapor, vapor retarders can be
should not be overlooked. Workmanship in installation of expected to be of limited effectiveness unless air movement is
plumbing and electrical systems, and in sealing of leakage also controlled.
paths after their installation (and before enclosing walls) can be 8.6.1.1 Use of computer models (7.1.2) permits logical
important in restricting air leakage. decision making regarding use of vapor retarder materials and

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their placement in constructions. Manual design tools (7.1.3) create leaks; some leaks may be of temporary duration but
may also be used, although use of computer simulation models nevertheless cause severe unseen damage or start progressive
is usually preferable. leaks.
8.6.1.2 In climates with high humidities and high tempera- 9.2.2 Integration with cladding or roofing systems—Failure
ture, especially where air conditioning is virtually continuous, to properly integrate flashings with roofing or cladding systems
the ingress of moisture may be limited by a vapor retarder is a fairly common error, and must be avoided.
system in the building envelope near the outer surface. 9.3 Entrapments
8.6.1.3 Exterior sheathings with low permeance and low 9.3.1 Rainwater leakage or condensation may cause sub-
insulating values may cause moisture accumulation problems stantial degradation of building components unless the water is
in heating climates. If the exterior sheathing is an effective dissipated. Building components that may become wet should
insulator however, it will prevent low temperatures (that would be designed for dissipation of moisture. Building components
induce condensation) from occurring within the wall. Com- that are built dry and will never be wetted may be constructed
puter models or manual design tools (7.1.2 and 7.1.3) can be without planning for moisture dissipation from them. Assur-
used to predict if moisture accumulation will or will not occur ance that a building component will never undergo wetting
in planned wall constructions. should however not be casually assumed, since rainwater
8.6.2 In building assemblies in which vapor retarders should leakage may migrate for appreciable distances from the source.
be installed, the use of large continuous sheets is often 9.3.2 Vapor Retarders on the Cold Side of a Construction—
preferable to that of smaller discontinuous sheet retarders (for Moisture accumulation at the vapor retarder may occur when it
example preapplied vapor retarders on fibrous batt or blanket is on the cold side of a construction. In addition, the vapor
insulation). Large continuous sheets, if carefully applied, may retarder may prevent subsequent drying.
serve as air retarders as well as vapor retarders (see 8.6.1). 9.3.3 Inappropriate use of Coatings and Paints—Coatings
Where smaller discontinuous sheets are used, the joints be- and paints may act as vapor retarders and thereby prevent
tween them should be taped or otherwise sealed. Large panels drying from the surface. Their use, particularly on the lower
of building material which are integral retarders or to which temperature side of a construction should involve consideration
retarders are applied are likewise usually preferable to small of their potential to prevent drying. In these situations, substi-
discontinuous sheet retarders. If panels are used, joints between tution of higher permeance coatings or paints for those of lower
them should be sealed. permeance is often an option.
8.6.3 Where an interior vapor retarder is required, interior 9.3.4 Inappropriate use of Sealants—Caulking and sealing
finishes with vapor retarding properties, or interior finishes to exterior walls of buildings should be done with caution so that
which vapor retarding materials have been applied may be used intended passages for drainage of water (for example weep-
in lieu of sheet vapor retarders. holes or planned omission of mortar joints) are not obstructed.
9.4 Excessive Air Infiltration or Exfiltration Through the
9. Examples of Constructions and Circumstances to be Building Envelope
Avoided 9.4.1 Air movement through a building’s thermal envelope
9.1 Inappropriate Building siting can potentially deposit substantial volumes of moisture within
9.1.1 In areas that are prone to floods, building of structures the thermal envelope. Therefore if air exchange between the
may be inappropriate. Efforts at preventing moisture accumu- interior and exterior is desired it should be done directly, and
lation due to rainwater leakage, air movement, or vapor not through the building’s thermal envelope. An exception to
diffusion will have been wasted if the building is destroyed or this recommendation can be made when the ventilating system
extensively damaged by flooding. is integrated into the structure in such a way that the direction
9.1.1.1 In areas prone to flooding, building may be appro- of airflow through the envelope is never in a direction that
priate with special procedures and precautions, such as build- would deposit moisture in the thermal envelope (see Timusk et.
ing on piers. Piers systems may however (depending on their al., 1992). Also, unplanned air movements through the thermal
design and the intensity of a flood) be undermined by moving envelope should be limited by means discussed in 8.4.2.3.
waters or demolished by large pieces of floating or partially- 9.5 High Thermal-Conductance Paths
submerged debris in moving flood waters. Building structures 9.5.1 High thermal conductance paths may cause conden-
to withstand the rigors imposed by location in areas prone to sation within assemblies or constructions. These may occur at
flooding is a special discipline, and beyond the scope of this junctions of walls and ceilings, and walls and roofs; around
standard. wall or roof openings; and at perimeters of slabs on the ground.
9.1.2 In areas of high water table certain building designs The impact of high-conductance paths should be considered at
are inappropriate. For example, houses with full basements are the design stage, and avoided where calculations indicate
usually not appropriate in areas of high water table. condensation is prone to occur.
9.2 Inadequate Flashings and Curbs 9.5.2 Window or Door Condensation—Condensation on
9.2.1 Height—Flashings and curbs of inadequate height fenestration units generally poses serviceability problems, but
should be avoided. Consideration should be given to peak may also cause degradation of the fenestration units themselves
rainfall, runoff, and wind velocities when selecting height of or wall components beneath the units if there is drainage of
the vertical leg of flashings. Wind may blow water over the condensation from the units. Options for preventing conden-
tops, and snow may drift higher than flashings or curbs to sation occurrence are (1) reduce indoor humidity, (2) chose

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units that contain thermal breaks or that are made from low interior may be expected to increase the vapor pressure
conductance materials, and (3) consider double or triple differential between the cladding system and the interior
glazing, or insulating glass units with low emittance glass, low surfaces of the wall. Appreciable accumulation of water
conductance gas fills, or low conductance edge spacers, or vaporized by the sun from the cladding system may then
combinations of these. condense within the wall. This may result in corrosion or decay
9.6 Ice damming of metal or wood-based components respectively within the
9.6.1 Ice damming prevents drainage from sloped roofs. Ice wall. It may also result in mold growth on interior finishes of
damming is caused by melting of snow cover at higher portions sufficient extent to require their replacement. The degree of
of the roof and subsequent refreezing at lower portions of the moisture accumulation within the wall due to solar-induced
roof (frequently those not over heated spaces, such as at the evaporation from wet claddings is usually greater if an interior
eaves). This is associated with upper portions of the roof deck vapor retarder is present. Depending on air leakage character-
attaining temperatures above freezing when ambient tempera- istics of the building and the presence of air pressure differen-
ture is below freezing. Prevention measures may be broadly tials, infiltrating air may become saturated as it infiltrates past
classified as: (1) limiting heat loss from the conditioned space the wet solar heated cladding, and cause subsequent conden-
to the roof space, and (2) cooling the bottom of the roof deck sation within outer walls or even within interior partition walls.
by ventilation. It is often considered prudent to assume that ice 9.8.2 Numerous things, singly or in combination, can be
dams may form despite preventive measures, and thus to done to limit the degree to which water may accumulate in
provide for measures that would limit or prevent leakage if ice walls via the mechanisms outlined in 9.8.1. Cladding materials
dams form. Water barrier flashing sheets that extend far enough that are less absorptive of liquid water may be used. The
up slope to prevent dammed water from leaking into the roof absorptive properties of cladding materials can be modified by
are commonly used for this purpose. use of water repellent sealers. It may be possible to limit the
9.6.1.1 Exfiltration, which can transfer heat from the con- exposure of the wall to large quantities of water by any of the
ditioned space to the roof space, bypassing the ceiling insula- means discussed in 8.2 and its subsections. Assuring that the
tion has in some cases been identified as a significant factor in cladding is not exposed to roof runoff is usually a simple and
ice dam formation. When ice dams form on buildings which very effective measure. Design of the wall system so as to
have substantial levels of attic insulation, it may be wise to allow for dissipation of water from the cladding system by
suspect that air leakage is playing a role. drainage and/or ventilation can drastically reduce the length of
time that the cladding remains wet. If the building is con-
9.7 Incompatible materials
structed in a warm climate, use of a vapor retarder behind the
9.7.1 Consideration must be given to compatibility of adja- cladding material may be justified. See 8.6 and 9.3.2 for
cent materials. An example of compatibility is that of sealants guidance on the use and placement of vapor retarders. As
with substrates. Another example is compatibility of mortars indicated in 8.6.1.1, use of numerical modeling to identify how
with masonry units. When questions concerning material the wall will perform with a proposed vapor retarder is
compatibility arise, testing of a planned constructions is desirable.
recommended. The testing protocol may be for an accelerated
test procedure. ASTM Standard Practice E 632 addresses 10. Suggested Field Check Lists
development of accelerated test procedures. In many cases 10.1 The lists give some items to be considered during and
however, time and cost constraints do not allow for testing of after construction. The lists are intended for use after the
planned constructions. In these cases designers usually have building design has been completed. The assumption is that the
little option other than to rely on their own knowledge and building design has been determined as appropriate for the site,
experience, the experiences of others, and information from climate, and intended use by one or more of the design
material manufacturers. Knowledge of the degradation mecha- methods mentioned in 7.1. Items in the list given in 10.5 apply
nisms of different materials may be helpful in predicting to existing structures in which moisture problems may exist.
whether compatibility problems are relatively likely or un- Obviously the inclusion of all known conditions that might
likely. indicate moisture problems would require an excessively
9.8 Accumulation of vaporized and condensed rainwater in lengthy document. The items listed should serve as guides to
walls development of checklists, which may vary with specific
9.8.1 Some cladding systems on exterior walls, most nota- building design and climate.
bly some masonry cladding systems have the potential to 10.2 The owner or manager should keep a record book of
absorb large quantities of rain water or melt water from snow. building use, maintenance and of performance problems and
If exposed to large quantifies of liquid water they may be responses to those problems. This will aid in explanation of
expected to absorb appreciable quantities. At the point in time future performances. Evaluations of the conditions of building
that absorption takes place, the cladding system may not components and their performances are usually hampered by
necessarily show indication of damage, and there may not be no or few records of events that affected the building or of
any indication of water leakage through the wall. However, if maintenance or repair work done to the building. Records of
the cladding system is exposed to solar radiation while wet, it changes of occupancy characteristics and when they occurred
will be heated, and the resulting vapor pressure differential are essential for realistic evaluations of performance of mate-
from the cladding system to the inner portions of the wall may rials, components, or the construction as a whole.
reach extremely high levels. Air conditioning the building 10.3 During construction

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10.3.1 Assure that the builder understands design intent ances requires immediate attention; it is a potential life-safety
with regard to moisture management. This most commonly hazard as well as a potential source of moisture problems.
concerns installation details that concern management of 10.5.2 Note carefully any treatments for problems and
rainwater. When details given by designer are not practically dates.
executable, resolve problems via communication with de- 10.5.3 Note any changes in occupancy characteristics.
signer. 10.5.4 Keep note of maintenance performed on the building,
10.3.2 Check that components meet specifications and de- including painting and sealant maintenance.
sign intent. If they do not, consult with designer. Either do not 10.5.5 Keep note of renovations or modifications made to
use these components, or modify their installation so as to meet the building, or changes in landscaping. Landscaping changes,
design intent. including those on adjacent properties, may affect site drain-
10.3.3 Check moisture content of materials during construc- age.
tion. Do not use wet materials in locations where design will 10.5.6 Periodically (seasonally) note and record indoor
not permit rapid dissipation of moisture. Alternatively, modify humidity.
construction schedule or on-site practices to allow drying. 10.5.7 Keep note of use of unvented combustion appliances.
10.3.4 Check workmanship: below-grade drainage (where Keep use of such appliances within usual and customary limits.
specified), capillary breaks, vapor retarders, air retarders, 10.5.8 Check condition of windows and caulk seals yearly.
flashing, window installation, ductwork. 10.5.9 Check gutters and downspouts and clear blockages
10.4 At commissioning as need. The needed frequency will depend upon proximity of
trees to the building. Do not overlook the possibility of bird
10.4.1 Check for management of precipitation: proper grad-
nests causing blockages.
ing at foundation, proper pitch of guttering and termination of
10.5.10 Where the roof space is accessible, check for roof
downspouts, inspection of flashings and sealant applications.
leaks yearly, especially at roof penetrations.
10.4.2 Check for pressure balancing of air handling sys- 10.5.11 Check for plumbing leaks twice yearly. In particular
tems. look for leaks associated with sinks, shower enclosures, and
10.4.3 Determine that building operation for first year of bathtubs.
occupancy is adequately planned. This may be necessary for 10.5.12 Keep note of use of landscaping irrigation. Do not
dissipation of moisture from wet building materials. allow irrigation spray to contact the building unless it was
10.5 In Service designed and built to accommodate such wetting.
10.5.1 Promptly note any unexpected performance. This
includes, but is not limited to leaks, window fogging, and 11. Keywords
indoor mold growth. Improper drafting of combustion appli- 11.1 buildings; moisture induced; water induced damage

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