THERMAL STORAGE VESSEL SIZING

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Thermal Storage Vessel Sizing

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 THERMAL STORAGE VESSEL SIZING

Summary
This article provides information on sizing a thermal storage vessel. A buffer vessel or
thermal store, captures heat to provide a buffer between load variations and improves
thermal efficiency.

Tags: homemicro.co.uk; buffer vessel; thermal store; biomass boiler; ASHP; GSHP; Sizing a buffer vessel;
accumulator tank; heating vessel

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Contents
Summary ................................................................................................................................................. 2
Contents .................................................................................................................................................. 3
List of figures ........................................................................................................................................... 3
List of tables ............................................................................................................................................ 3
INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................................................... 4
MANUFACTURERS ADVICE ...................................................................................................................... 4
BENEFITS ................................................................................................................................................. 4
PUBLICATION ADVICE ............................................................................................................................. 5
INFORMATION REQUIRED....................................................................................................................... 7
SIZING ...................................................................................................................................................... 7
Method 1 – Rule of Thumb litres per kW ........................................................................................... 7
Method 2 – Minimum Operating Time............................................................................................... 8
Method 3 – Smallest Zone .................................................................................................................. 8
Method 4 – Flow Rate Percentage ..................................................................................................... 9
CAPACITY................................................................................................................................................. 9
STORED ENERGY ................................................................................................................................... 10
ASHP ...................................................................................................................................................... 10
BIOMASS ............................................................................................................................................... 11
CHILLED WATER .................................................................................................................................... 11
CHP ........................................................................................................................................................ 11
GSHP...................................................................................................................................................... 12
HEAT PUMPS ......................................................................................................................................... 12
SOLAR THERMAL ................................................................................................................................... 12
LOCATION OF VESSEL ............................................................................................................................ 12
CONTROL ............................................................................................................................................... 13
STRATIFICATION .................................................................................................................................... 14
ISSUES ................................................................................................................................................... 15
DEFINITIONS.......................................................................................................................................... 16
SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY ...................................................................................................................... 17
CONVERSIONS & DATA ......................................................................................................................... 17

List of figures
Figure 1 - Buffer vessel used with an ASHP .......................................................................................... 13
Figure 2 - Thermal store with a biomass boiler .................................................................................... 13
Figure 3 - Thermal layering in a thermal store...................................................................................... 14
Figure 4 - Mixing in a buffer vessel ....................................................................................................... 15

List of tables
Table 1- Information contained in publications...................................................................................... 5
Table 2- Water specific heat capacity ................................................................................................... 17

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INTRODUCTION
This guide provides information on the sizing of thermal storage vessels. The terms
accumulator, buffer vessel, thermal store, tank and cylinder are often used interchangeably
(see Definitions), including in this guide. Essentially the advice in this guide is on buffer
vessels and thermal stores used to maximise thermal efficiency and provide plant
protection.

A buffer vessel is a vessel that holds water, increasing the overall volume content of the
heating distribution system. The additional water volume absorbs heat (thermal storage)
produced by the heating appliance in low load conditions, which the building or system does
not yet require principally to prevent plant short cycling. The vessels also provide hydraulic
separation between primary and secondary circuits. Buffer vessels are also used with
chilled water systems for the same reasons.

This guide outlines factors that affect the selection and sizing of buffer vessels for a variety
of different heat sources to include heat pumps, biomass boilers and combined heat and
power plant.

MANUFACTURERS ADVICE
Consulting equipment manufacturers for best advice is strongly recommended.
Manufacturers’ advice will be invaluable to ensure the most appropriate type of vessel and
control regime is provided for a particular application. Variable methods of control and
differences in turn-down ratios means that no two items of plant will have the same
operating requirements. As an example, a 900kW chiller manufactured by Carrier requires a
minimum system water content of ≈4,600 litres, whereas Airedale manufacture a chiller
requiring a water content of only ≈1,350 litres.

BENEFITS
As stated above, terminology used to reference thermal storage vessels is often used
interchangeably. For the purpose of this guide, there are two vessel variations:

Buffer Vessel: Used to capture residual heat on shut-down to improve system efficiency

 Dissipate heat from boiler on shutdown

 Protects boiler from overheating
 Improves overall efficiency
 Stored heat can be used by boiler on start-up

Thermal Store: Enables a small boiler to serve a system with a higher capacity

 Boiler can be sized at less than 100% of the system heat demand
 Allows boiler to operate continuously for long periods
 Will serve function of a buffer vessel (takes heat on shut-down and feeds boiler on
start-up as required)
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Buffer vessels extend the life of plant by preventing short cycling. Short cycling will
particularly occur at times of low heat demand when the plant will produce heat at a faster
rate than can be used by the system. The system water temperature will therefore rise
quickly, shutting down the plant after only a short operating period.

The buffer vessel acts as a store to absorb part of the heat generator (boiler, heat pump,
etc.) output when the system load is below the minimum operating output of the plant. This
stored heat is then used at the start of the heating period each day when the buffer will
discharge in a controlled manner to satisfy part or all of the initial peak heat demand while
the central plant heats up. The stored heat can also serve as a preheat to the plant.

A thermal store also provides a heat sink in order that heat pumps can take advantage of
lower night time electricity tariffs and possibly lower energy costs (not a clear cut matter).

Used with a CHP, a buffer can provide a thermal store during periods of low heat demand to
prevent [waste] heat having to be dumped.

PUBLICATION ADVICE
Information from a collection of published technical sources is detailed in Table 1. Specific
guidance is limited in detail, and at best only prescribes rule of thumb parameters. There is
no one size fits all solution as system design and use can vary significantly.
Table 1- Information contained in publications
Source Information Provided
BS EN 14511:2011 Recommends the heat pump should not start more than three times in an
hour. This is due to the relatively high starting current of the compressor
drive motor and the impact this may have on the local electricity supply
infrastructure. Also for the purpose of defrosting, and as a guide, the
capacity of the buffer tank should be based on approximately 25 litres per
kW output of the heat pump.
BS EN 15450:2007 p.20 (4.5) “A higher inertia (capacity) can be achieved …by installing a
Design of heat pump buffer storage (in parallel or series). A buffer storage connected in parallel
heating systems with the heat pump serves additionally as a means of hydraulic
decoupling. A guidance value for sizing the buffer storage volume is 12 to
35 l per kW maximum heat pump capacity”
BSRIA 7/2009 Heat p.37 includes statement: “It [a buffer vessel] is most likely needed for
Pumps (BG7) radiator, fan coil and air-handling-based heat distribution systems where
the system has limited storage capacity.”
p.38 provides a formula for calculating a buffer volume size based upon
minimum operating time. Refer to equation 1.
Guidance indicates buffer vessel located in return feed to heat pump.
Energy Saving Trust p.15 CHP – “…thermal storage is normally required to match the heat
CE299 (2008), the output of the CHP with the heat demand profile.”
applicability of district p.20 Biomass – “Higher levels of biomass penetration will require a greater
heating for new amount of thermal storage to smooth the heat demand.”
dwellings

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Carbon Trust CTG012 p.46 “Where a biomass plant is the only item of heating plant, installing a
(2009) Biomass Heating buffer tank (heat store) can smooth out its running profile”
p.46 “Seasonal load conditions – ...If the heat load is below the lower limit
that the biomass plant can provide (typically 20-30% of the plant rating),
this can lead to short-cycling... The inclusion of a heat store can avoid
this... ... improving performance and reducing maintenance issues.”
p.41 Batch-fired systems footnote – “Tank volumes should be at least 40
litres/kW.”
p.47 Biomass plant with buffer tank – “A useful rule of thumb for sizing the
buffer is to allow for 10 litres/kWth plant capacity where loads do not fall
to zero, and at least 20 litres/kWth where they do.”
CIBSE Guide F (2012) p.4-8 (4.7.3) Biomass Heating – “...Unless the system demands a constant
temperature, a buffer tank may be required.” & also: “The energy stored
in the tank can be used to meet the peak heat demand of the building,
thus reducing the required capacity of the boiler.”
& also: “The selection of buffer tank and boiler will therefore depend on
the user profile of the building.”
p.8.11 (8.6.2) Chiller control “adequate system water volume capacity to
minimise the number of starts per hour of a compressor (often requiring a
buffer vessel)”
CIBSE AM12 (2013) p.21 (5.5) Use of thermal storage, lists benefits of thermal storage with
CHP.
p.22 – “To establish the optimum size of the store it is necessary to use an
hour by hour operating model preferably for the whole year, and to carry
out a series of calculations with a range of store sizes.”
CIBSE KS10 Biomass p.15 – “The size of the store will be determined in part by the difference
Heating between design flow and return temperatures of the primary circuit. The
larger the temperature difference the smaller the store required to hold
the same amount of thermal energy. ”
CIBSE TM51 (2013) p.24 (5.3) – “A buffer tank can be used to provide a reservoir of heat…”
Ground source heat p.25 (5.3) – “Buffering can be increased by provision of a buffer tank on
pump the return flow”
Clyde Technical Guide p.13 The volume of the buffer vessel is dependent on system use and can
788/1 (2006) be calculated from:
V (intermittent use) (litre) = heating load (kW) x 25
V (continuous use) (litre) = heating load (kW) x 80 (Spartec, 2006)
DSCF (2007) Biomass p.10 (2.8) “...most biomass boiler systems will work more efficiently if they
for Schools are installed with a thermal store.”
p.22 – “…a rule of thumb minimum of 10 L/kW, although for many
installations the buffer tank provided is 20 L/kW”.
HVCA TR/30 (2007) p.20 – “...the designer should consider the incorporation of a buffer tank,
Heat Pumps or buffering volume.”
HVCA TR/37 (2008) CHP p.13 – “Thermal storage (buffer vessels) may be needed to enable
operation under low load conditions.”

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INFORMATION REQUIRED
Knowing the following information will assist with the sizing of a thermal storage vessel:
1) Plant details – type of heat source, fuel type and heat output.
2) Heat loads to be supplied – space heating, hot water, process heat, etc.
3) Operating temperatures – flow and return temperatures of primary and secondary circuits
4) Operating patterns for all heat loads – start, stop, number of days, etc.
5) System water content – water in all pipe and heat emitters.

SIZING
There are a number of possible solutions for sizing a buffer vessel, and four methods are
provided here. Vessel size will depend upon the application, heat output, fuel quality,
minimum acceptable on-time cycle of compressors (ASHP & GSHP), the operating
temperature differential of the [vessel] controls, hours of operation, etc. Particular criteria
for different sources of heat generation are outline separately below.

Vessels can be large and heavy. For any calculated vessel size, a decision should be made on
the viability of the size according to operational needs, installation and maintenance access,
available space, weight (including the water), material and installation cost, etc.

The following general definition will determine a vessel size:

Vessel capacity = (required system volume) – (actual system volume)

Where the required system volume is that necessary to accommodate the thermal output
of the plant and the actual system volume is the water volume in all pipework and heat
emitters. Plant that has a minimum operating cycle time may require a larger volume than
can be accommodated by the pipe system alone. Adding a buffer vessel ensures the system
volume is matched to the plant thermal output.

The following sizing methods all adopt the above basic rule with some varying degrees of
accuracy.

Method 1 – Rule of Thumb litres per kW

A rough rule of thumb would be to size a vessel volume according to the heating or cooling
plant size (see CAPACITY) based upon volume per kW. A typical value would be 10L·kW-1
(the lower limit for biomass).

Method 1 Rule of thumb: 10 litres x Plant size = storage volume (L)

Example: 10 litres x 200kW = 2,000 litres

The volume required will vary according to the system design. Refer to notes on different
heat sources in this guide for rule of thumb capacities for a range of heat sources. The value
used for plant size will also have some variables – see CAPACITY.

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Method 2 – Minimum Operating Time

Where a [buffer] vessel is provided to reduce cycling of equipment, the size should be
determined by the number of starts per hour. This can be expressed by using equation 1 to
define the minimum operating time the plant operates (see BG7/2009).

𝑚. 𝑐. ∆𝑇
𝑡 = 1
𝑄
Where:
𝑡 Operating time in seconds (s)
𝑚 Mass of store water (kg) – 1kg = 1L
𝑐 Specific heat capacity of water kJ/kgC
∆𝑇 Operating temperature differential (°C)
𝑄 Heat input (kW)

The above formula can be rearranged to find the storage volume (𝑚) as equation 2:

Method 2 Operating Time:

𝑸. 𝒕 (𝒙𝟔𝟎)
𝒎 = 2
𝒄. ∆𝑻
Note multiply minutes by 60 to convert to seconds

Selecting a minimum 6 minute runtime (𝑡) would be a good starting point although 10 or 20
minutes may be more desirable.

Example: for an ASHP with a low differential temperature (5°C) operating for a 6
minute cycle

75 𝑥 6 𝑥 60
𝑚 = = 𝟏, 𝟐𝟗𝟐 𝒍𝒊𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔
4.18 𝑥 5
Always refer to manufacturer’s instructions as some equipment may have a minimum
operating time or advise the number of maximum start-ups (or duty cycles) permitted per
hour.

Method 3 – Smallest Zone

Selecting a vessel to meet the demand of the smallest controlled zone ensures there is
readily available capacity to at least serve that zone and prevent cycling of a [large] heat
source. Selecting the zone with the highest dependency, a north facing zone or area with a
high heat loss ratio may be an alternative consideration.

The equation 3 can be used to estimate the required volume of the tank, where:

Method 3 Smallest Zone:

𝑸𝒎𝒊𝒏 − 𝑸𝒛𝒐𝒏𝒆. 𝒕 (𝒙𝟔𝟎)

𝒎 = 3
𝒄. ∆𝑻
Note multiply minutes by 60 to convert to seconds

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Where:
𝑚 Mass of store water (kg) – 1kg = 1L
𝑄𝑚𝑖𝑛 Minimum heat output of heat source (kW)*
Qzone Heat demand of smallest zone (kW)
𝑡 Operating time in seconds (s)
𝑐 Specific heat capacity of water kJ/kgC
∆𝑇 Operating temperature differential (°C)

*Assumes multi-stage or modulating heat source

ΔT = temperature differential tank experiences between heat pump on and off
t = minimum acceptable on time for a heat pump cycle (minutes)

Method 4 – Flow Rate Percentage

A simpler variation on the smallest zone method is to calculate the vessel size based upon a
percentage of the heat source flow rate as only a small capacity is accounted for, and no
zone heat load information is required.

Typically used for an air source heat pump (ASHP) installation by determining the buffer
vessel size to match 10% of the water flow rate of the heat pump/hour for a single
compressor unit and 8% for a twin compressor (as the second compressor provides load
diversity).

Method 4 Flow Rate Percentage:

Single compressor 10% x water flow rate = storage volume (L)

Twin compressor 8% x water flow rate = storage volume (L)

Example: Twin compressor with a 7.3m3·h-1 water flow rate

Storage volume = 0.08x7.3 = 0.584m3 or 584 litres

CAPACITY
The value used for ‘plant size’ in Method 1 – Rule of Thumb litres per kW will depend upon
the system and plant size selection. The plant size could either represent the central plant
capacity or the actual connected capacity (load of the heating or cooling emitters).

Where the central plant has redundant capacity (run and standby), the plant size value
should normally be equivalent to 100% of the connected capacity. For example, if there are
two 100kW boilers each rated at 66% of capacity, then the connected capacity is 132kW
(66% of 200kW). In this instance the plant size value used for sizing the buffer vessel should
normally be 132kW, but could of course be taken as 200kW in some circumstances. Which
figure is used will depend upon the method used to size the plant as well as the plant
control arrangement and thermal inertia characteristics of the building.

Remember the general rule: Vessel capacity = (required system volume) – (actual system
volume)

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STORED ENERGY
Occasionally the energy storage capacity of a vessel will be quoted. This actually depends
upon the operating conditions of the system. By way of example, using equation 4, the heat
energy can be calculated for a 1,500 litre vessel with a flow and return temperature of 80°C
and 50°C respectively as shown below.

𝒎. 𝒄. ∆𝑻
𝑸 = 4
𝟑𝟔𝟎𝟎

Heat capacity in 1,500 litre vessel with 80°C flow and 50°C return:

1500𝑥4.18𝑥(80 − 50)
𝑄 = = 𝟓𝟐. 𝟐𝟓𝒌𝑾𝒉
3600

ASHP
A buffer is essential for air source heat pumps (ASHP) as it provides the energy for the
defrosting at low external temperatures. Air source heat pumps will defrost the evaporator
to remove ice build-up at low ambient temperatures, usually by switching into a reverse
cycle operation. During this cycle the condenser temporarily becomes the evaporator and
heat is removed from the heat sink starving the building heat system.

In addition to this the performance of an ASHP will fall when the ambient temperature
drops, whilst at the same time the property heat demand increases. So both efficiency and
heat output of an ASHP will decrease at colder times of the year. In the UK, the normal
diurnal temperature swing would permit operation of the ASHP to heat a thermal storage
vessel during the day when the system demand falls, providing a ready supply of heat for
when demand rises and the ASHP performance drops off. Of course this is all subject to
assessing load patterns, and it is common to utilise a back-up boiler with ASHP to cope with
peak demand.

Typical manufacturer recommendations for a buffer vessel with an ASHP are:

1) Size at 10% of the heating water flow rate of the heat pump per hour.
2) A volume of approximately 8% is sufficient for heat pumps with two performance levels.
3) Limit to less than 30% of the heating water flow rate per hour.

BS EN 15450:2007 suggests sizing the buffer storage volume at 12 to 35 L per kW maximum heat
pump capacity.

Oversized buffer vessels lead to longer compressor run times which will be particularly
detrimental in systems with two performance levels where a large store capacity may lead
to the unnecessary switching on of the second compressor.

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BIOMASS
A rule of thumb for biomass is: size vessel between 10 and 20 litres/kWth plant capacity
(CTG012, p.47); a lower value may be used where loads do not fall to zero, for pellet fuelled
boilers which are more responsive and for boilers with a low turndown capability.

Where low grade wood with high moisture content is used, the storage volume may need to
be sized at up to 40 litres/kWth or more.

A buffer vessel for use with biomass boilers must be sized for the specific type of boiler
burning a particular fuel. An undersized buffer will cause the following conditions:
1) Fail to capture sufficient heat from the boiler on shutdown, resulting in inefficient boiler
operation.
2) Short cycling of the boiler when supplying loads lower than its minimum output.
3) Will be unable to supplement the boiler output adequately to meet peak heat demands.

For the above reasons always consult with the boiler manufacturer.

CHILLED WATER
Chillers should not usually exceed six starts per hour; some manufacturers suggest on three
starts. Therefore, capacity is required to ensure the distribution volume size is adequate to
accommodate the chiller thermal input. A rule of thumb should therefore be: allow 10 or
even 20 minutes minimum operating time (see calculation Method 2).

A rule of thumb is to size in the range 2.5 to 8 litres per kW for most cooling applications
and a higher 8 to 14 litres per kW when temperature accuracy is critical.

Another rule of thumb is to size a buffer vessel according to the system use: a minimum of 4
litres/kW for air conditioning and a minimum of 7 litres/kW for process cooling.

Manufacturers may quote a minimum system water volume based upon the plant turndown
capacity.

Tanks used with chilled water should be baffled to ensure there is no stratification and that
all fluid in the tank is adequately mixed.

CHP
Sizing buffer vessels for combined heat and power (CHP) systems is much more
complicated. As stated in CIBSE AM12 “To establish the optimum size of the store it is
necessary to use an hour by hour operating model preferably for the whole year, and to
carry out a series of calculations with a range of store sizes”. It is suggested expert advice is
sought when designing a CHP installation.

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GSHP
According to Clyde, the volume of a buffer vessel is dependent on system use and can be
calculated from:

V (intermittent use) (litre) = heating load (kW) x 25

V (continuous use) (litre) = heating load (kW) x 80

The CIBSE TM51 (2013, p.24) details the implementation of buffer vessels but does not
provide any sizing guidance. It does however provide this cautionary comment:

“[buffer vessels] adds cost, requires space and there is a loss of efficiency due to additional
heat barrier with indirect systems. The buffer tank can be eliminated if there is sufficient
buffering in the heat emitter water circuit”.

Another consideration is that there is unlikely to be sufficient capacity in a modern well

insulated building with small heat emitters.

HEAT PUMPS
See both ASHP and GSHP. BS EN 14511 recommends for a heat pump not to start more
than three times in an hour. This is due to the relatively high starting current of the
compressor drive motor and the impact this may have on the local electricity supply
infrastructure; starting current is normally reduced with inverter controlled compressors.

BS EN 14511 recommends for the purpose of defrosting, and as a guide, a buffer tank
should be sized on approximately 25 litres per kW output of the heat pump.

SOLAR THERMAL
Solar thermal systems for the production of hot water are often complex with multiple heat
sources. Thermal stores usually provide indirectly pre-heated water to the domestic hot
water system and their size may be dependent upon both the property heat requirements
and domestic hot water consumption. Storage capacity for domestic water only should
maximise the solar gain and be matched to the demand.

LOCATION OF VESSEL
The location of the vessel that achieves optimum performance will depend on the system.
Typically, buffer tanks are used with heat pump systems and thermal stores with biomass
boilers.

For fastest response, a buffer vessel should be positioned in the return pipework to the heat
pump (see Figure 1) as heat will always be delivered to the system first. However, where a

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vessel is used to preheat domestic hot water it should be installed in the flow from the heat
pump.

Figure 1 - Buffer vessel used with an ASHP

As biomass boilers usually have a long heat-up period, thermal store vessel arrangements
are favoured as illustrated in Figure 2. Thermal layering is a necessity in this arrangement
(see STRATIFICATION).

Figure 2 - Thermal store with a biomass boiler

CONTROL
A high level temperature sensor in a buffer vessel can be used to switch-off the heat source
and a low level sensor switch the heat source on when the stored temperature drops.
Sensors at intermediate levels permit plant modulation control.

A thermal store used with a biomass boiler will include a 3-port valve. This prevents cooler
water returning directly to the boiler from the base of the accumulator and avoids
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condensation (that can cause boiler corrosion) in the boiler. As a biomass boiler increases in
temperature the valve will slow open to permit circulation through the vessel.

STRATIFICATION
Thermal stores, as used with biomass boilers, rely on temperature stratification or thermal
layering to work effectively. This results in a high temperature at the top of the vessel than
at the bottom. As hot water is lighter (80°C water density 972kg·m-3) than cold water (20°C
water density 998.3Kg·m-3), the hot water will stay at the top of the tank, and the cooler
water at the bottom. Turbulence can disturb this stratification affecting efficiency, therefore
high water flowrates through a vessel must be avoided. Multiple energy sources, which may
operate at different temperatures, connecting to a thermal store can also cause disruption
to the stratification.

The thermal layering effect is shown in Figure 3. This works because of the four pipe
connections. Heated water from the boiler flows through the top of the storage vessel at
peak demand, providing the system with high temperature water. As the system demand
falls, the overall temperature of the store will rise, with the hot layer slowly moving down to
replace the cooler layer as the boiler satisfies the diminishing demand. Of course, this will
not happen without control that regulates demand on both the primary and secondary side
of the thermal store.

Figure 3 - Thermal layering in a thermal store

However, mixing is desirable where a buffer vessel is installed in-line and with plant
operating to a small temperature differential (such as heat pumps), so stratification should
be avoided.

With heat pumps this mixing ensures the circulation temperature returning to the heat
pump is not above the heat pump maximum, preventing the heat pump from operating.
Buffer vessels, particularly large volumes, used in such systems may contain a baffle plate
(see Figure 4) that prevents short-circuiting between the piped inlet and outlet to promote
good mixing within the vessel.

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The position of the inlet and outlet is also important to promote mixing and ensure the
return water to the heat source is the lower system return temperature.

Figure 4 - Mixing in a buffer vessel

ISSUES
There are many precautions that should be observed to ensure a heating or cooling system
with a buffer vessel is safe, controllable, energy efficient and effective at delivering thermal
comfort.

An undersized buffer vessel will not capture sufficient heat from the central plant on
shutdown, resulting in inefficient operation. Also an undersized buffer will not adequately
supplement the plant output to meet peak load demands.

An oversized boiler attempting to meet a load less than its minimum output without a
buffer vessel, or with an undersized buffer vessel, will operate by constantly switching on
and off, resulting in under-temperature operation of the plant, inefficient combustion and
excessive emissions of pollutants.

For biomass, the size of the buffer vessel will be dependent upon the fuel quality – the
lower the grade of wood (higher the moisture content) the larger the vessel required.
Conversely, a vessel should not be oversized with good quality pellet fuel.

Systems with large temperature differentials will only require a small thermal store,
however low return temperatures can lead to condensation issues with flue gases which
should be avoided with biomass.

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DEFINITIONS
Accumulator Tank A buffer vessel or thermal store.
ASHP Air Source Heat Pump.
Auxiliary Boiler A boiler, usually fossil fuel, which assists the primary (ASHP, biomass, CHP,
etc.) system to meet the peak load. As peak load is infrequent, a biomass
boiler sized to meet the base load can be installed to provide a large capital
saving. The auxiliary boiler is sized at the difference between the base and
peak load.
Back-Up Boiler A second boiler, usually fossil fuel, used to provide 100% back-up to the
primary (ASHP, biomass, CHP, etc.) system.
Base load The minimum heat demand from a system which is maintained throughout a
defined period.
Biomass [Renewable] organic materials, such as wood, agricultural crops or wastes
Bivalent systems Heat is generated by two separate means, using the two heat generators as
alternative heat providers. The low carbon (or higher efficiency) heat source
is the primary heat generator and a second heat generator (see auxiliary
boiler) is provided to satisfy peak load. Often the second heat source will be
sized at 100% to serve as a back-up.
Buffer tank or vessel A vessel that captures residual heat on boiler shut-down preventing frequent
boiler start-ups to improve system efficiency. A buffer effectively prevents
cycling of the boiler when the system demand is less than the boiler
minimum output. Buffer vessels are therefore used with ASHP’s & GSHP’s to
reduce compressor starts. The additional capacity will also reduce the
energy required from an auxiliary boiler. Usually has a simple on/off control
strategy.
GSHP Ground Source Heat Pump.
Heat Pump A device which moves heat energy from one place to another while raising it
from a lower to a higher temperature.
kWth Kilowatts of thermal energy.
Short Cycling Short cycling occurs if the heat source turns on and off within a short period
of time. Can cause electrical fault in a heat pump or fuel blockage in a
biomass boiler.
Thermal Store A vessel that is charged by the primary (ASHP, biomass, CHP, etc.) system
when the heat generator output exceeds the load demand. This, for
example, enables a small biomass boiler to meet a larger demand. A
progressive control strategy using several temperature sensors will control
the boiler output – may not be possible with heat pumps.
Turndown Ratio The ratio of maximum to minimum operating capacity (the boiler or chiller
high to low output). For example, a 100kW system with a 4:1 turndown
would provide 25kW at minimum operating capacity.
Water Storage A vessel storing water to be used as an accumulator, buffer vessel or thermal
Cylinder store.

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SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY

The specific heat capacity (𝑐) value 4.18kJ·kg-1·K has been used in calculations in this
document for convenience. Specific heat capacity values for a range of temperatures are
recorded below.
Table 2- Water specific heat capacity
Temperature (°C) Specific Heat Capacity (kJ·kg-1·K)
10 4.193
20 4.183
30 4.179
40 4.179
50 4.182
60 4.185

CONVERSIONS & DATA

The following conversions and data may be useful.

Centigrade to Fahrenheit: F = (Cx9÷5) +32

Fahrenheit to Centigrade: C = (F-32) x5 ÷9
1 Litre = 0.21996915 Gallons (UK)
1 gallon = 4.54609 litres
1 Gallon of water is equal to 8.33 Pounds
1 Litre of water is equivalent to 1 Kilogram
1 cubic metre of water is 1,000 litres (1m3 = 1,000L)
1 kg = 2.2046 lb
1 lb = 0.4536 kg
1 KW = 3412 BTU/hr
1 BTU/hr = 0.2931 Watts
1 refrigeration ton = 3.5168525 kW
1 kilowatt = 0.284345 refrigeration ton
1 bar = 100 kPa = 10.1972 m.H20 = 14.5037 lb/in2
1m3 = 35.3146667ft3
1ft3 = 0.02831685m3
1 sq.yd = 0.836m2
1m2 = 1.196 sq.yd

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