Database Systems: Design,

Implementation, and
Management
Eighth Edition

Chapter 3
The Relational Database Model
 Objectives
• That the relational database model offers a logical
view of data
• About the relational model’s basic component:
relations
• That relations are logical constructs composed of
rows (tuples) and columns (attributes)
• That relations are implemented as tables in a
relational DBMS
• About relational database operators, the data
dictionary, and the system catalog
• How data redundancy is handled in the relational
database model
• Why indexing is important
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 3.1 A Logical View of Data

• Relational model
– View data logically rather than physically
• Table
– Structural and data independence
– Resembles a file conceptually
• Relational database model easier to
understand than hierarchical and network
models

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 Tables and Their Characteristics

• Logical view of relational database based on relation

– Relation thought of as a table
• Table: two-dimensional structure composed of rows
and columns
– Persistent representation of logical relation
• Contains group of related entities = an entity set

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Database Systems, 8th Edition Primary key 5
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 3.2 Keys
• Each row in a table must be uniquely
identifiable
• Key is one or more attributes that determine
other attributes
• Key’s role is based on determination
– A determines B (represented as A  B)
• If you know the value of attribute A, you can
determine the value of attribute B
• Functional dependence:
– Attribute B functionally dependent on A if all
rows in table that agree in value for A also
agree in value for B
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 Keys (continued)
• Composite key
– Composed of more than one attribute
• Key attribute
– Any attribute that is part of a key
• If attribute B is functionally dependent on a composite
key A but not on any subset of A, B is fully
functionally dependent on A
• Superkey
– Any key that uniquely identifies each row
• Candidate key
– A superkey without unnecessary attributes
– A table may have several candidate keys
• Primary key
– A table has only one primary key, which is chosen from
candidate keys
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 Keys (continued)
• Nulls:
– No data entry
– Not permitted in primary key
– Should be avoided in other attributes
– Can represent
• An unknown attribute value
• A known, but missing, attribute value
• A “not applicable” condition
– Can create problems when functions such as
COUNT, AVERAGE, and SUM are used
– Can create logical problems when relational tables
are linked

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 Keys (continued)
• Controlled redundancy:
– Makes the relational database work
– Tables within the database share common
attributes
• Enables tables to be linked together
– Multiple occurrences of values not redundant
when required to make the relationship work
– Redundancy exists only when there is
unnecessary duplication of attribute values

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A relational schema is a representation of database tables where each
table is listed by its name followed by its attributes in parentheses

VENDOR(VEND_CODE, VEND_CONTACT, VEND_AREACODE, VEND_PHONE)

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 Keys (continued)
• Foreign key (FK)
– An attribute whose values match primary key
values in the related table
• Referential integrity
– FK contains a value that refers to an existing
valid tuple (row) in another relation
• Secondary key
– Key used strictly for data retrieval purposes
– A table may have many secondary keys

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17
Database Systems, 8th Edition Integrity Rule Example 18
 Integrity Rules

• Many RDBMs enforce integrity rules

automatically
• Safer to ensure application design conforms to
entity and referential integrity rules
• Designers may use flags to avoid nulls
– Flags indicate absence of some value

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 3.4 Relational Set Operators
• Relational algebra
– Defines theoretical way of manipulating table
contents using relational operators
– Use of relational algebra operators on existing
relations produces new relations. This is called
the property of closure.
• UNION INTERSECT
• DIFFERENCE PRODUCT
• SELECT PROJECT JOIN DIVIDE

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 • Combines all rows from two
tables,
excluding duplicate rows

• Tables must have the same

attribute
characteristics

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 • Yields all possible pairs of rows
from two tables

• Also known as the Cartesian

product

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 • Yields a horizontal subset of a table
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 • Yields a vertical subset of a table

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• Join
– Allows information to be combined from two or
more tables
– Real power behind the relational database,
allowing the use of independent tables linked
by common attributes

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 Relational Set Operators (continued)
• Natural Join
– Links tables by selecting rows with common
values in common attribute(s)
• Equijoin
– Links tables on the basis of an equality
condition that compares specified columns
• Theta join
– Any other comparison operator is used
• Outer join
– Matched pairs retained and any unmatched
values in other table left null
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Natural Join Step 1: Product

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 Natural Join Step 2: Select

Natural Join Step 3: Project

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 Left Outer Join

Right Outer Join

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3.5 The Data Dictionary and System Catalog

• Data dictionary
– Provides detailed accounting of all tables found
within the user/designer-created database
– Contains (at least) all the attribute names and
characteristics for each table in the system
– Contains metadata: data about data
– Sometimes as “the database designer’s
database” because it records the design
decisions about tables and their structures

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• System catalog
– Contains metadata
– Detailed system data dictionary that describes
all objects within the database
– System catalog allows RDBMS to check for and
eliminate homonyms and synonyms

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 Y

100-999 FK AGENT

100-999

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 3.6 Relationships within the Relational
Database
• 1:M relationship
– Relational modeling ideal
– Should be the norm in any relational database design
• 1:1 relationship
– Should be rare in any relational database design
• M:N relationships
– Cannot be implemented as such in the relational model
– M:N relationships can be changed into two 1:M
relationships

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 The 1:M Relationship

• Relational database norm

• Found in any database environment

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 The 1:1 Relationship
• One entity related to only one other entity, and
vice versa
• Sometimes means that entity components were
not defined properly
• Could indicate that two entities actually belong
in the same table
• Certain conditions absolutely require their use

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 The M:N Relationship

• Implemented by breaking it up to produce a set

of 1:M relationships
• Avoid problems inherent to M:N relationship by
creating a composite entity
– Includes as foreign keys the primary keys of
tables to be linked

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 CLASS_CODE

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 CLASS_CODE

Composite
Entity

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 3.7 Data Redundancy Revisited

• Data redundancy leads to data anomalies

– Such anomalies can destroy the effectiveness of
the database
• Foreign keys
– Control data redundancies by using common
attributes shared by tables
– Crucial to exercising data redundancy control
• Sometimes, data redundancy is necessary

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 3.8 Indexes
• Orderly arrangement to logically access rows
in a table
• Index key
– Index’s reference point
– Points to data location identified by the key
• Unique index
– Index in which the index key can have only one
pointer value (row) associated with it
• Each index is associated with only one table

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 3.9 Codd’s Relational Database Rules
• In 1985, Codd published a list of 12 rules to
define a relational database system
– Products marketed as “relational” that did not
meet minimum relational standards
• Even dominant database vendors do not fully
support all 12 rules

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 Summary
• Tables are basic building blocks of a
relational database
• Keys are central to the use of relational tables
• Keys define functional dependencies
– Superkey
– Candidate key
– Primary key
– Secondary key
– Foreign key

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 Summary (continued)
• Each table row must have a primary key that
uniquely identifies all attributes
• Tables linked by common attributes
• The relational model supports relational
algebra functions
– SELECT, PROJECT, JOIN, INTERSECT
UNION, DIFFERENCE, PRODUCT, DIVIDE
• Good design begins by identifying entities,
attributes, and relationships
– 1:1, 1:M, M:N

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