Digital Modulation Basics

EEE 367
Telecommunication Engineering

Prof. J.F. Huang, Fiber-Optic Communication Lab.

National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan
 Modulation & Demodulation

Radio
Carrier Carrier
Channel

Baseband Synchronization/Detection/
Modulation Decision

Data in Data out

Prof. J.F. Huang, Fiber-Optic Communication Lab. 2

National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan
 Modulation

▪ Modulation - process (or result of the process) of

translation the baseband message signal to
bandpass (modulated carrier) signal at frequencies
that are very high compared to the baseband
frequencies.
▪ Demodulation is the process of extracting the
baseband message back the modulated carrier.
▪ An information-bearing signal is
non-deterministic, i.e. it changes in an
unpredictable manner.

Prof. J.F. Huang, Fiber-Optic Communication Lab. 3

National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan
 Why Carrier?

▪ Effective radiation of EM waves requires antenna

dimensions comparable with the wavelength:
✔ Antenna for 3 kHz would be ~100 km long
✔ Antenna for 3 GHz carrier is 10 cm long
▪ Sharing the access to the telecommunication channel
resources

Prof. J.F. Huang, Fiber-Optic Communication Lab. 4

National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan
 Modulation Process

▪ Modulation implies varying one or more characteristics

(modulation parameters a1, a2, … an) of a carrier f in
accordance with the information-bearing (modulating)
baseband signal.
▪ Sinusoidal waves, pulse train, square wave, etc. can be
used as carriers

Prof. J.F. Huang, Fiber-Optic Communication Lab. 5

National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan
 Continuous Carrier

Carrier: A sin[ωt +ϕ] ▪ Frequency modulation (FM)

✔ A = const ✔ A = const
✔ ω = const ✔ ω = ω(t)– carries information
✔ ϕ = const ✔ ϕ = const
▪ Amplitude modulation (AM) ▪ Phase modulation (PM)
✔ A = A(t) – carries information ✔ A = const
✔ ω = const ✔ ω = const
✔ ϕ = const ✔ ϕ = ϕ(t) – carries information

Prof. J.F. Huang, Fiber-Optic Communication Lab. 6

National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan
 Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)

Baseband
Data
1 0 0 1 0
ASK
modulated
signal
Acos(ωt) Acos(ωt)

▪ Pulse shaping can be employed to remove spectral spreading

▪ ASK demonstrates poor performance, as it is heavily affected by noise,
fading, and interference

Prof. J.F. Huang, Fiber-Optic Communication Lab. 7

National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan
 Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)

Baseband
Data
1 0 0 1
BFSK
modulated
signal
f1 f0 f0 f1
where f0 =Acos(ωc-Δω)t and f1 =Acos(ωc+Δω)t
• Example: The ITU-T V.21 modem standard uses FSK
• FSK can be expanded to a M-ary scheme, employing multiple frequencies as
different states
Prof. J.F. Huang, Fiber-Optic Communication Lab. 8
National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan
 Phase Shift Keying (PSK)

Baseband
Data
1 0 0 1
BPSK
modulated
signal
s1 s0 s0 s1
where s0 =-Acos(ωct) and s1 =Acos(ωct)
• Major drawback – rapid amplitude change between symbols due to phase
discontinuity, which requires infinite bandwidth. Binary Phase Shift Keying (BPSK)
demonstrates better performance than ASK and BFSK
• BPSK can be expanded to a M-ary scheme, employing multiple phases and
amplitudes as different states
Prof. J.F. Huang, Fiber-Optic Communication Lab. 9
National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan
 Demodulation & Detection

▪ Demodulation
✔ Is process of removing the carrier signal to obtain the original
signal waveform
▪ Detection – extracts the symbols from the waveform
✔ Coherent detection
✔ Non-coherent detection

Prof. J.F. Huang, Fiber-Optic Communication Lab. 10

National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan
 Coherent Detection

▪ An estimate of the channel phase and attenuation

is recovered. It is then possible to reproduce the
transmitted signal and demodulate.
▪ Requires a replica carrier wave of the same
frequency and phase at the receiver.
▪ The received signal and replica carrier are
cross-correlated using information contained in
their amplitudes and phases.
▪ Also known as synchronous detection

Prof. J.F. Huang, Fiber-Optic Communication Lab. 11

National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan
 Coherent Detection 2

▪ Carrier recovery methods include

✔ Pilot Tone (such as Transparent Tone in Band)
• Less power in the information bearing signal, High
peak-to-mean power ratio
✔ Carrier recovery from the information signal
• E.g. Costas loop
▪ Applicable to
✔ Phase Shift Keying (PSK)
✔ Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)
✔ Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)

Prof. J.F. Huang, Fiber-Optic Communication Lab. 12

National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan
 Non-Coherent Detection

▪ Requires no reference wave; does not exploit phase

reference information (envelope detection)
✔ Differential Phase Shift Keying (DPSK)
✔ Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)
✔ Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)
✔ Non coherent detection is less complex than coherent detection
(easier to implement), but has worse performance.

Prof. J.F. Huang, Fiber-Optic Communication Lab. 13

National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan
 Amplitude Shift Keying

▪ The general expression for a binary ASK signal is

v(t) = A m(t)cosωct 0<=t<=T
▪ where
v(t)= binary ASK waveform
A = peak unmodulated carrier amplitude
ωc = radian carrier frequency
T = bit duration

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Prof. J.F. Huang, Fiber-Optic Communication Lab.

National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan
 Amplitude Shift Keying

▪ the signal space or constellation

diagram of the BASK signals is
shown in Figure 22.1.
▪ Figure 22.2 shows the BASK signal
sequence generated by the binary
sequence 0 1 0 1 0 0 1.
▪ The amplitude of a carrier is
switched or keyed by the binary
signal m(t).
▪ This is sometimes called on-off
keying (OOK).
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Prof. J.F. Huang, Fiber-Optic Communication Lab.

National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan
 Amplitude Shift Keying

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Prof. J.F. Huang, Fiber-Optic Communication Lab.

National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan
 Amplitude Shift Keying

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Prof. J.F. Huang, Fiber-Optic Communication Lab.

National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan
 Amplitude Shift Keying

▪ Since we define the bandwidth as the range occupied by the

baseband signal m(t) from 0 Hz to the first zero-crossing point,
we have B Hz of bandwidth for the baseband signal and 2B Hz
for the BASK signal.
▪ Figure 22.4 shows the modulator and a possible
implementation of the coherent demodulator for BASK signals.
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Prof. J.F. Huang, Fiber-Optic Communication Lab.

National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan
 Frequency Shift Keying

▪ The general expression for a binary FSK signal is

v(t) = Vccos{[ωc + (½ fm(t)Δω)]t} (13-3)
▪ where
v(t)= binary FSK waveform
Vc = peak unmodulated carrier amplitude
ωc = radian carrier frequency
fm(t) = binary digital modulating signal frequency
Δω = radian difference in output frequency

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Prof. J.F. Huang, Fiber-Optic Communication Lab.

National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan
 Frequency Shift Keying
▪ From Equ. (13-3) it is seen that with binary FSK the
carrier amplitude Vc remains constant with modulation.
However, the output carrier radian frequency (ωc) shifts
by an amount equal to +Δω/2.
▪ The frequency shift Δω/2 is proportional to the amplitude
and polarity of the binary input signal. For example, a
binary ‘1’ could be +1 volt and a binary ‘0’ could be –1
volt producing frequency shifts of +Δω/2 and -Δω/2,
respectively.
▪ The rate the carrier frequency shifts is equal to the input
bit rate fm(t) the binary signal deviates between ωc+Δω/2
and ωc-Δω/2. Thus the output carrier frequency deviates
between ωc+Δω/2 and ωc-Δω/2 at a rate equal to fm(t). 20

Prof. J.F. Huang, Fiber-Optic Communication Lab.

National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan
 FSK Transmitter

▪ With binary FSK, the center carrier frequency is shifted

(deviated) by the binary input data. As the binary input
signal changes from a logic ‘0’ to a logic ‘1’, and vice versa,
the FSK output shifts between mark (or logic ‘1’)
frequency and space (or logic ‘0’) frequency.
▪ The rate of change at the modulator input is called the bit
rate and has the units of bits per second (bps). The rate of
change at the modulator output is called the baud rate and
is equal to the reciprocal of the time of one output
signaling element.
▪ In binary FSK, the input and output rates of change are
equal; therefore, the bit rate and baud rate are equal. A
simple binary FSK transmitter is shown in Figure 13-3.
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Prof. J.F. Huang, Fiber-Optic Communication Lab.

National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan
 FSK Transmitter

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Fig. 13-3. Binary FSK transmitter.
Prof. J.F. Huang, Fiber-Optic Communication Lab.
National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan
 Bandwidth Considerations of FSK

▪ Figure 13-4 shows a binary FSK modulator. The fastest

input rate of change occurs when the binary input is a
series of alternating 1’s and 0’s.
▪ Consequently, if only the fundamental frequency of the
input is considered, the highest modulating frequency is
equal to one-half of the input bit rate.
▪ A logic ‘1’ input shifts the VCO from its rest frequency
to the mark frequency, and a logic ‘0’ input shifts the
VCO from its rest frequency to the space frequency.

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Prof. J.F. Huang, Fiber-Optic Communication Lab.

National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan
 Bandwidth Considerations of FSK

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Fig. 13-4. FSK modulator.
Prof. J.F. Huang, Fiber-Optic Communication Lab.
National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan
 Bandwidth Considerations of FSK

▪ Consequently, as the input binary signal changes from

a logic ‘1’ to a logic ‘0’, and vice versa, the VCO output
frequency shifts or deviates back and forth between
the mark and space frequencies.
▪ For binary FSK, modulation index is given as
mf = Δf / fa
= |(fm-fs)/2|/(fb/2)
= |fm - fs|/fb (13-4)
where mf = modulation index
Δf = frequency deviation (Hz)
fa = modulating frequency (Hz)
25

Prof. J.F. Huang, Fiber-Optic Communication Lab.

National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan
 Bandwidth Considerations of FSK

▪ Example 13-1:
For a binary FSK modulator with space, rest, and mark
frequencies of 60, 70, and 80 MHz, respectively and an
input bit rate of 20 Mbps, determine the output baud
and the minimum required bandwidth.
Solution:
Substituting into Equ. (13-4), we have
mf = |(fm – fs)/fb|
= |80MHz–60MHz|/20Mbps
= 20MHz/20Mbps
= 1.0
26

Prof. J.F. Huang, Fiber-Optic Communication Lab.

National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan
 Bandwidth Considerations of FSK

▪ From the Bessel chart (Table 13-1), a modulation index

of 1.0 yields three sets of significant side frequencies.
Each side frequency is separated from the center
frequency or adjacent side frequency by the modulating
frequency, which is 10 MHz (fb/2) in this example.
▪ The output spectrum for this modulator is shown in
Figure 13-5. It can be seen that the minimum
double-sided Nyquist bandwidth is 60 MHz and the
baud rate is 20 megabaud, the same as the bit rate.

27

Prof. J.F. Huang, Fiber-Optic Communication Lab.

National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan
 Bandwidth Considerations of FSK

28

Prof. J.F. Huang, Fiber-Optic Communication Lab.

National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan
 FSK Receiver

▪ The most common circuit used for demodulating binary

FSK signals is the phase-locked loop (PLL), which is
shown in block diagram form in Figure 13-6.
▪ As the input to the PLL shifts between the mark and
space frequencies, the dc error voltage at the output of
the phase comparator follows the frequency shift.
▪ The natural frequency of the PLL is generally made
equal to the center frequency of the FSK modulator.
The changes in the dc error voltage will then follow
the changes in the analog input frequency and are
symmetrical around 0 Vdc.
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Prof. J.F. Huang, Fiber-Optic Communication Lab.

National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan
 FSK Receiver

30

Prof. J.F. Huang, Fiber-Optic Communication Lab.

National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan
 FSK Receiver

▪ Binary FSK has a poorer error performance than PSK

or QAM and, consequently, is seldom used for
high-performance digital radio systems.
▪ Its use is restricted to low-performance, low-cost,
asynchronous data modems that are used for data
communications over analog, voice band telephone lines.

31

Prof. J.F. Huang, Fiber-Optic Communication Lab.

National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan
 Minimum Shift-Keying

▪ Minimum shift-keying (MSK) is a form of

continuous-phase FSK (CPFSK). Essentially, MSK is a
binary FSK except that the mark and space frequencies
are synchronized with the input binary bit rate.
▪ With MSK, the mark and space frequencies are selected
such that they are separated from the center frequency
by an exact odd multiple of one-half of the bit rate.
▪ This ensures that there is a smooth phase transition in
the analog output signal when it changes from a mark to
a space frequency, or vice versa.

32

Prof. J.F. Huang, Fiber-Optic Communication Lab.

National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan
 Minimum Shift-Keying

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Prof. J.F. Huang, Fiber-Optic Communication Lab.

National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan
 Minimum Shift-Keying

▪ Figure 13-7 shows a noncontinuous FSK waveform. When

the input changes from a logic ‘1’ to a logic ‘0’, and vice
versa, there is an abrupt phase discontinuity in the analog
output signal.
▪ When this occurs, the demodulator has trouble following
the frequency shift; consequently, an error may occur.
Figure 13-8 shows a continuous phase MSK waveform.
▪ MSK has a better bit-error performance than conventional
binary FSK for a given SNR. The disadvantage of MSK is
that it requires synchronizing circuits and it therefore
more expensive to implement.
34

Prof. J.F. Huang, Fiber-Optic Communication Lab.

National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan
 Minimum Shift-Keying

35

Prof. J.F. Huang, Fiber-Optic Communication Lab.

National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan
 Binary Phase Shift Keying

▪ With binary phase shift keying (BPSK), two output

phases are possible for a single carrier frequency.
One output phase represents a logic ‘1’ and the other
a logic ‘0’.
▪ As the input digital signal changes state, the phase of the
output carrier shifts between two angles that are 180°
out of phase. BPSK is a form of suppressed carrier,
square-wave modulation of a continuous wave (CW)
signal.

36

Prof. J.F. Huang, Fiber-Optic Communication Lab.

National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan
 Binary Phase Shift Keying

▪ BPSK Transmitter
Figure 13-9 shows a simplified block diagram of a BPSK
modulator. The balanced modulator acts like a phase
reversing switch.

Fig. 13-9. BPSK modulator. 37

Prof. J.F. Huang, Fiber-Optic Communication Lab.

National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan
 Binary Phase Shift Keying
▪ In BPSK, depending on the logic condition of the digital
input, the carrier is transferred to the output either in
phase or 180° out of phase with the reference carrier
oscillator.
▪ Figure 13-10a shows the schematic diagram of a
balanced ring modulator.
▪ If the binary input is a logic ‘1’ (positive voltage), diodes
D1 and D2 are forward biased and “on”, while diodes D3
and D4 are reverse biased and “off” (Figure 13-10b).
▪ The carrier voltage developed across transformer T2
is in phase with the carrier voltage across T1.
Consequently, the output signal is in phase with the
reference oscillator. 38

Prof. J.F. Huang, Fiber-Optic Communication Lab.

National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan
 Binary Phase Shift Keying

Fig. 13-10. (a) Balanced ring modulator;

39
(b) Logic ‘1’ input; (c) Logic ‘0’ input.
Prof. J.F. Huang, Fiber-Optic Communication Lab.
National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan
 Binary Phase Shift Keying
▪ If the binary input is a logic ‘0’ (negative voltage), diodes
D1 and D2 are reverse biased and “off,” while diodes D3
and D4 are forward biased and “on” (Figure 13-10c).
▪ The carrier voltage developed across transformer T2
is 180°out of phase with the carrier voltage across T1.
Consequently, the output signal is 180° out of phase with
the reference oscillator.
▪ Figure 13-11 shows the truth table, phasor diagram, and
constellation diagram for a BPSK modulator.
▪ A constellation diagram, or signal state-space diagram, is
similar to a phasor diagram except that the entire phasor
is not drawn. In a constellation diagram, only the relative
positions of the peaks of the phasors are shown. 40

Prof. J.F. Huang, Fiber-Optic Communication Lab.

National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan
 Binary Phase Shift Keying

Fig. 13-11. BPSK modulator: (a) truth table;

(b) phasor diagram; (c) constellation diagram. 41

Prof. J.F. Huang, Fiber-Optic Communication Lab.

National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan
 Bandwidth Considerations of BPSK

▪ For BPSK, the output rate of change (baud) is equal to

the input rate of change (bps), and the widest output
bandwidth occurs when the input binary data are an
alternating 1/0 sequence.
▪ The fundamental frequency (fa) of an alternating 1/0 bit
sequence is equal to one-half of the bit rate (fb/2).
▪ Mathematically, the output phase a BPSK modulator is
output = (sinωat) x (sinωct) =
(1/2)cos(ωc-ωa)t – (1/2)cos(ωc+ωa)t (13-6)
▪ Consequently, the minimum double-sided Nyquist
bandwidth (fN) is fN = 2 x (fb/2) = fb .
42

Prof. J.F. Huang, Fiber-Optic Communication Lab.

National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan
 Bandwidth Considerations of BPSK

▪ Figure 13-12 shows the output phase versus time

relationship for a BPSK waveform.
▪ The output spectrum from a BPSK modulator is simply
a double-sideband suppressed carrier signal where the
upper and lower side frequencies are separated from the
carrier frequency by one-half of the bit rate.
▪ Consequently, the minimum bandwidth (fN) required to
pass the worst-case BPSK output signal is equal to input
bit rate.

43

Prof. J.F. Huang, Fiber-Optic Communication Lab.

National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan
 Bandwidth Considerations of BPSK

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Fig. 13-12. Output phase vs. time for a BPSK modulator.
Prof. J.F. Huang, Fiber-Optic Communication Lab.
National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan
 Bandwidth Considerations of BPSK

▪ Example 13-2: For a BPSK modulator with a carrier

frequency of 70 MHz and an input bit rate on 10 Mbps,
determine the maximum and minimum upper and lower
side frequencies, draw the output spectrum, determine the
minimum Nyquist bandwidth, and calculated the baud.
▪ Solution:
Substituting into Equ. (13-6) yields
Output = (sinωat)(sinωct)

45

Prof. J.F. Huang, Fiber-Optic Communication Lab.

National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan
 Bandwidth Considerations of BPSK

▪ Minimum lower side frequency (LSF):

LSF = 70 MHz-5 MHz = 65 MHz
Maximum upper side frequency (USF):
USF = 70 MHz+5 MHz = 75 MHz
▪ The minimum Nyquist bandwidth (fN) for
the worst-case binary input conditions is
fN = 75 MHz – 65 MHz = 10 MHz
and the baud rate is fb = 10 megabaud.

46

Prof. J.F. Huang, Fiber-Optic Communication Lab.

National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan
 BPSK Receiver

Fig. 13-13. BPSK receiver.

47

Prof. J.F. Huang, Fiber-Optic Communication Lab.

National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan
 BPSK Receiver

For BPSK input signal of +sinωct (logic ‘1’), the output

of the balanced modulator is (sinωct)(sinωct) = sin2ωct ,
or sin2ωct = ½(1-cos2ωct) = ½ - ½ cos2ωct.
After LPF, the term of cos2ωct will be filtered out, leaving
Output = +1/2 Vdc = logic ‘1’
For BPSK input signal of -sinωct (logic ‘0’), the output
of the balanced modulator is -(sinωct)(sinωct) = -sin2ωct ,
or -sin2ωct = -½(1-cos2ωct) = -½ + ½ cos2ωct.
After LPF, the term of cos2ωct will be filtered out, leaving
Output = -1/2 Vdc = logic ‘0’

48

Prof. J.F. Huang, Fiber-Optic Communication Lab.

National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan
 Quaternary Phase Shift Keying

▪ Essentially, a QPSK modulator is two BPSK

modulators combined in parallel.
▪ For a logic ‘1’ = +1V and a logic ‘0’ = -1V, two phases
are possible at the output of the I balanced modulator
(+sinωct and -sinωct), and two phases are possible at
the output of the Q balanced modulator (+cosωct and
-cosωct).
▪ When the linear summer combines the two quadrature
(90° out of phase) signals, there are four possible
resultant phases: +sinωct + cosωct, +sinωct - cosωct,
-sinωct + cosωct, and -sinωct - cosωct.
49

Prof. J.F. Huang, Fiber-Optic Communication Lab.

National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan
 Quaternary Phase Shift Keying

Fig. 13-14. QPSK modulator. 50

Prof. J.F. Huang, Fiber-Optic Communication Lab.

National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan
 Quaternary Phase Shift Keying

▪ Example 13-3:
For the QPSK modulator shown in Figure 13-14, construct the truth
table, phasor diagram, and constellation diagram.
Solution:
For a binary data input of Q=0 and I=0, the two inputs to the
I balanced modulator are –1 and sinωct, and the two inputs to
the Q balanced modulator are –1 and cosωct.
Consequently, the outputs are
I balanced modulator = (-1)(sinωct) = -1.sinωct
Q balanced modulator = (-1)(cosωct) = -1.cosωct
And the output of the linear summer is
-1.cosωct – 1.sinωct = 1.414sin(ωct - 135o)
For the remaining digit codes (‘01’, ‘10’, and ‘11’), the
procedure is the same.
51

Prof. J.F. Huang, Fiber-Optic Communication Lab.

National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan
 Quaternary Phase Shift Keying

Fig. 13-15. QPSK modulator. (a) truth table;

52
(b) phasor diagram; (c) constellation.
Prof. J.F. Huang, Fiber-Optic Communication Lab.
National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan
 Quaternary Phase Shift Keying

▪ In Figure 13-15b it can be seen that with QPSK each of the four
possible output phasors has exactly the same amplitude.
Therefore, the binary information must be encoded entirely in the
phase of the output signal.
▪ From Figure 13-15b it can be seen that the angular separation
between any two adjacent phasors in QPSK is 90°. Therefore, a
QPSK signal can undergo almost a +45° or -45° shift in phase
during transmission and still retain the correct encoded
information when demodulated at the receiver.
▪ Figure 13-16 shows the output phase versus time relationship for
a QPSK modulator.
53

Prof. J.F. Huang, Fiber-Optic Communication Lab.

National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan
 Quaternary Phase Shift Keying

Fig. 13-16. Output phase vs. time for a QPSK modulator. 54

Prof. J.F. Huang, Fiber-Optic Communication Lab.

National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan
 Bandwidth Considerations of QPSK

▪ The output of the balanced modulators can be

expressed mathematically as θ = (sinωat)(sinωct)
where ωat = 2πfbt/4 and ωat = 2πfct .
Thus
θ = (sin2πfbt/4)(sin2πfct)
= ½ cos2π(fc - fb/4)t – ½ cos2π(fc + fb/4)t
▪ The output frequency spectrum extends from fc - fb/4 to
fc + fb/4 and the minimum bandwidth (fN) is
fN = ( fc - fb/4) – (fc + fb/4)
= 2fb/4 = fb/2.
55

Prof. J.F. Huang, Fiber-Optic Communication Lab.

National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan
 Bandwidth Considerations of QPSK

Fig. 13-17. Bandwidth considerations of a QPSK modulator. 56

Prof. J.F. Huang, Fiber-Optic Communication Lab.

National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan
 Bandwidth Considerations of QPSK

Example 13-4:
For a QPSK modulator with an input data rate (fb)
equal to 10 Mbps and a carrier frequency of 70 MHz,
determine the minimum Nyquist bandwidth (fN) and
the baud. Compare the results with those achieved with
the BPSK modulator in Example 13-2.
Solution:
▪ The bit rate in both the I and Q channels is equal to
one-half of the transmission bit rate or
fbQ = fbI = fb/2 = 10Mbps/2 = 5Mbps
▪ The highest fundamental frequency presented to either
balanced modulator is
fa = fbQ/2 = fbI/2 = 5Mbps/2 = 2.5Mbps.
57

Prof. J.F. Huang, Fiber-Optic Communication Lab.

National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan
 Bandwidth Considerations of QPSK

▪ The output wave from each balanced modulator is

(sin2πfat).(sin2πfct)
= ½ cos2π(67.5MHz)t - ½ cos2π(72.5MHz)t
▪ The minimum Nyquist bandwidth is
fN = (72.5MHz - 67.5MHz) = 5MHz.
▪ The baud equals the bandwidth; thus baud rate is
5 megabaud.

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Prof. J.F. Huang, Fiber-Optic Communication Lab.

National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan
 Bandwidth Considerations of QPSK

▪ The output spectrum is as follows:

▪ For the same input bit rate the minimum bandwidth require to
pass the output of the QPSK modulator is equal to one-half of
that required for the BPSK modulator.
▪ Also, the baud rate for the QPSK modulator is one-half that of
the BPSK modulator.
59

Prof. J.F. Huang, Fiber-Optic Communication Lab.

National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan
 QPSK Receiver

▪ Figure 13-18 shows the schematic of a QPSK receiver.

▪ The received QPSK signal (-sinωct + cosωct) is one of
the inputs to the I product detector. The other input is
the recovered carrier (i.e., sinωct).
▪ The output of the I product detector is
θI = (-sinωct + cosωct).(sinωct)
= -½ + ½ cos2ωct + ½ cos2ωct + ½ sin0 .
▪ After LPF, the terms of cos2ωct will be filtered out,
leaving Output = -1/2 Vdc = logic ‘0’.

60

Prof. J.F. Huang, Fiber-Optic Communication Lab.

National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan
 QPSK Receiver

Fig. 13-18. QPSK receiver. 61

Prof. J.F. Huang, Fiber-Optic Communication Lab.

National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan
 QPSK Receiver

▪ Again, the received QPSK signal (-sinωct + cosωct) is one

of inputs to the Q product detector. The other input is the
recovered carrier shifted 90° in phase (i.e., cosωct).
▪ The output of the Q product detector is
θQ = (-sinωct + cosωct).(cosωct)
= ½ + ½ cos2ωct - ½ cos2ωct - ½ sin0 .
▪ After LPF, the terms of cos2ωct will be filtered out,
leaving Output = 1/2 Vdc = logic ‘1’.
▪ The demodulated I and Q bits (‘1’ and ‘0’, respectively)
correspond to the constellation diagram and truth table
for the QPSK modulator shown in Figure 13-15.
62

Prof. J.F. Huang, Fiber-Optic Communication Lab.

National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan
 Offset QPSK (OQPSK)

▪ OQPSK is a modified form of QPSK where the bit

waveforms or the I and Q channels are offset or shifted
in phase from each other by one-half of a bit time.
▪ Figure 13-19 shows a simplified block diagram, the bit
sequence alignment and the constellation diagram for
an OQPSK modulator.
▪ Because changes in the I channel occur at the
midpoints of the Q-channel bits, and vice versa, there
is never more than a single bit change in the dibit code,
and therefore there is never more than a 90° shift in
the output phase.
63

Prof. J.F. Huang, Fiber-Optic Communication Lab.

National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan
 Offset QPSK (OQPSK)

Fig. 13-19. Offset QPSK block diagram. 64

Prof. J.F. Huang, Fiber-Optic Communication Lab.

National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan
 Offset QPSK (OQPSK)

▪ In conventional QPSK, change in the input dibit from

’00’ to ’11’ or ’01’ to ’10’ causes a corresponding 180°
shift in the output phase.
▪ An advantage of OQPSK is the limited phase shift that
must be imparted during modulation. A disadvantage
of OQPSK is that changes in the output phase occur at
twice the data rate in either the I or Q channels.
▪ Consequently, with OQPSK the baud and minimum
bandwidth are twice that of conventional QPSK for a
given transmission bit rate.

65

Prof. J.F. Huang, Fiber-Optic Communication Lab.

National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan
 8-PSK Transmitter

Fig. 13-20. 8-PSK modulator. 66

Prof. J.F. Huang, Fiber-Optic Communication Lab.

National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan
 8-PSK Transmitter

Fig. 13-21. I- and Q-channel 2-to-4-level converters:

(a) I-channel truth table; (b) Q-channel truth table; (c) PAM
levels. 67

Prof. J.F. Huang, Fiber-Optic Communication Lab.

National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan
 8-PSK Transmitter

Fig. 13-22. 8-PSK modulator: (a) truth table;

(b) phasor diagram; (c) constellation diagram.
68

Prof. J.F. Huang, Fiber-Optic Communication Lab.

National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan
 8-PSK Transmitter

Example 13-5:
For a tribit input of Q = 0, I = 0, and C = 0 (000), determine
the output phase for the 8-PSK modulator shown in Figure
13-20.
Solution:
The inputs to the I-channel 2-to-4-level converter are I = 0
and C = 0. From Figure 13-21 the output is –0.541V. The
inputs to the Q-channel 2-to-4-level converter are Q = 0 and
C = 1. Again from Figure 13-21, the output is –1.307V.
Thus the two inputs to the I-channel product modulators
are –0.541V and sinωct. The output is
θI = (-0.541) (sinωct) = -0.541 sinωct. 69

Prof. J.F. Huang, Fiber-Optic Communication Lab.

National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan
 8-PSK Transmitter

▪ The two inputs to the Q-channel product modulator are

–1.307V and cosωct. The output is
θQ = (-1.307)(cosωct) = -1.307 cosωct.
▪ The outputs of the I- and Q-channel product modulators
are combined in the linear summer and produce a
modulated output of
θI + θQ = -0.541 sinωct - 1.307 cosωct
= 1.41 sin(ωct – 112.5o)
▪ For the remaining tribit codes (‘001’, ‘010’, ‘011’, ‘100’,
‘101’, ‘110’, and ‘111’), the procedure is the same.
70

Prof. J.F. Huang, Fiber-Optic Communication Lab.

National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan
 8-PSK Transmitter

Fig. 13-23. Output phase versus time for an 8-PSK modulator. 71

Prof. J.F. Huang, Fiber-Optic Communication Lab.

National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan
 Bandwidth Considerations of 8-PSK

Fig. 13-24. Bandwidth considerations of an 8-PSK modulator. 72

Prof. J.F. Huang, Fiber-Optic Communication Lab.

National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan
 Bandwidth Considerations of 8-PSK

▪ With 8-PSK, since the data are divided into three channels,
the bit rate in the I, Q, or C channel is equal to 1/3 of the
binary input data rate (fb/3). (The bit splitter stretches the I,
Q, and C bits to three times their input bit length.)
▪ Figure 13-24 shows the bit timing relationship between the
binary input data; the I-, Q-, and C-channel data; and the I
and Q PAM signals.
▪ The highest fundamental frequency in the I, Q or C channel
is equal to 1/6 of the bit rate of the binary input (one cycle in
the I, Q, or C channel takes the same amount of time as six
input bits).
▪ Also, the highest fundamental frequency in either PAM signal
is equal to one-sixth of the binary input bit rate. 73

Prof. J.F. Huang, Fiber-Optic Communication Lab.

National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan
 Bandwidth Considerations of 8-PSK

Fig. 13-24. Bandwidth considerations of an 8-PSK modulator. 74

Prof. J.F. Huang, Fiber-Optic Communication Lab.
National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan
 Bandwidth Considerations of 8-PSK

▪ With an 8-PSK modulator, there is one change in phase

at the output for every 3 data input bits. Consequently,
the baud for 8-PSK equals fb/3, the same as the
minimum bandwidth.
▪ The output of the balanced modulators is
θ = (X sinωat)(sinωct) (13-11)
where ωat = 2π fbt/6 and ωct = 2π fct
and X = +1.307 or +0.541
▪ Thus θ = (X sin2πfbt/6)(sin2πfct)

75

Prof. J.F. Huang, Fiber-Optic Communication Lab.

National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan
 Bandwidth Considerations of 8-PSK

▪ The output frequency spectrum extends from fc-fb/6 to

fc+fb/6 and the minimum bandwidth (fN) is
fN = (fc+(fb/6)) – (fc-(fb/6)) = 2fb/6 = fb/3.

Example 13-6:
For an 8-PSK modulator with an input data rate (fb)
equal to 10 Mbps and a carrier frequency of 70 MHz,
determine the minimum double-sided Nyquist BW (fN)
and the baud. Also, compare the results with those
achieved with the BPSK and QPSK modulators in
Examples 13-2 and 13-4.
76

Prof. J.F. Huang, Fiber-Optic Communication Lab.

National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan
 Bandwidth Considerations of 8-PSK

Solution:
The bit rate in the I, Q, and C channels is equal to
one-third of the input bit rate, or
fbC=fbQ=fbI = 10Mbps/3 =3.33Mbps.
The faster rate of change and highest fundamental
frequency presented to either balanced modulator is
fa = fbC/2 = fbQ/2 = fbI/2
= 3.33Mbps/2 = 1.667Mbps
The output wave from the balance modulator is
(sin2πfat)(sin2πfct)
= ½[cos2π(68.333MHz)t – cos2π(71.667MHz)t]
77

Prof. J.F. Huang, Fiber-Optic Communication Lab.

National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan
 Bandwidth Considerations of 8-PSK

▪ The minimum Nyquist bandwidth is

fN = (71.667 – 68.333)MHz = 3.333MHz.
Again, the baud equals the bandwidth; thus
Baud = 3.333 megabaud
The output spectrum is as follows:

78

Prof. J.F. Huang, Fiber-Optic Communication Lab.

National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan
 Bandwidth Considerations of 8-PSK

▪ For the same input bit rate the minimum bandwidth

required to pass the output of an 8-PSK modulator
is equal to one-third that of the BPSK modulator in
Example 13-2 and 50% less than that required for
the QPSK modulator in Example 13-4.
▪ Also, in each case the baud has been reduced by the
same proportions.

79

Prof. J.F. Huang, Fiber-Optic Communication Lab.

National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan
 8-PSK Receiver

Fig. 13-25. 8-PSK receiver. 80

Prof. J.F. Huang, Fiber-Optic Communication Lab.

National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan
 8-PSK Receiver

▪ Figure 13-25 shows a block diagram of an 8-PSK

receiver. The power splitter directs the input 8-PSK
signal to the I and Q product detectors and the carrier
recovery circuit.
▪ The carrier recovery circuit reproduces the original
reference oscillator signal.
▪ The incoming 8-PSK signal is mixed with the
recovered carrier in the I product detector and with a
quadrature carrier in the Q product detector.
▪ The outputs of the product detectors are 4-level PAM
signals that are fed to the 4-to-2- level analog-to-digital
converters (ADCs).
81

Prof. J.F. Huang, Fiber-Optic Communication Lab.

National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan
 8-PSK Receiver

▪ The outputs from the I-channel 4-to-2- level converter

are the I and C bits, while the outputs from the
Q-channel 4-to-2-level converter are the Q and C bits.
▪ The parallel-to-serial logic circuit converts the I/C and
Q/C bit pairs to serial I, Q, and C output data streams.

82

Prof. J.F. Huang, Fiber-Optic Communication Lab.

National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan
 8-QAM Transmitter

▪ The difference between the 8-QAM (Figure 13-27) and

the 8-PSK (Figure 13-19) is the omission of the inverter
between the C channel and the Q product modulator.
▪ As with 8-PSK, the incoming data are divided into
groups of three (tribits): the I, Q, and C channels, each
with a bit rate equal to one-third of the incoming data
rate.
▪ Again, the I and Q bits determine the polarity of the
PAM signal at the output of the 2-to-4-level converters,
and the C channel determines the magnitude.
83

Prof. J.F. Huang, Fiber-Optic Communication Lab.

National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan
 8-QAM Transmitter

Figure 13-27. 8-QAM transmitter block diagram. 84

Prof. J.F. Huang, Fiber-Optic Communication Lab.

National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan
 8-QAM Transmitter

▪ Because the C bit is fed uninverted to both the I- and

Q-channel 2-to-4-level converters, the magnitudes of I
and Q PAM signals are always equal.
▪ Their polarities depend on the logic condition of the I
and Q bits and therefore may be different.
▪ Figure 13-28 shows the truth table for the I and
Q-channel 2-to-4-level converters; they are the same.

85

Prof. J.F. Huang, Fiber-Optic Communication Lab.

National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan
 8-QAM Transmitter

Fig. 13-28. Truth table for the I- and Q-channel 2-to-4-level converters.
86

Prof. J.F. Huang, Fiber-Optic Communication Lab.

National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan
 8-QAM Transmitter

Fig. 13-28. 8-QAM modulator: (a) truth table;

(b) phasor diagram; (c) constellation diagram. 87

Prof. J.F. Huang, Fiber-Optic Communication Lab.

National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan
 8-QAM Transmitter

Example 13-7:
For a tribit input of Q = 0, I = 0, and C = 0 (input
sequence ‘000’), determine output amplitude and phase
for the 8-QAM modulator of Figure 13-27.
Solution:
▪ The inputs to the I-channel 2-to-4-level converter are I=0
and C=0. From Figure 13-28 the output is -0.541V.
▪ The inputs to the Q-channel 2-to-4-level converter are
Q=0 and C=0. From Figure 13-28 the output is -0.541V.
▪ Thus the two inputs to the I-channel product modulator
are -0.541 and sinωct. The I-channel output is
θI = (-0.541)(sinωct) = -0.541 sinωct
88

Prof. J.F. Huang, Fiber-Optic Communication Lab.

National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan
 8-QAM Transmitter

▪ The two inputs to the Q-channel product modulator

are -0.541 and cosωct. The Q-channel output is
θQ = (-0.541)(cosωct) = -0.541 cosωct
▪ The outputs from the I- and Q-channel product
modulators are combined in the linear summer and
produce a modulated output of
θI + θQ = -0.541 sinωct - 0.541 cosωct
= 0.765 sin(ωct – 135o)
▪ For the remaining tribit codes (‘001’, ‘010’, ‘011’, ‘100’,
‘101’, ‘110’, and ‘111’), the procedure is the same.
89

Prof. J.F. Huang, Fiber-Optic Communication Lab.

National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan
 8-QAM Transmitter

Figure 13-29. Output phase and amplitude versus time

90
relationship for 8-QAM.
Prof. J.F. Huang, Fiber-Optic Communication Lab.
National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan
 Bandwidth Considerations of 8-QAM

▪ In 8-QAM, the bit rate in the I and Q channels is 1/3

of the input binary rate, the same as in 8-PSK.
▪ As a result, the highest fundamental modulating
frequency and fastest output rate of change in 8-QAM
are the same as with 8-PSK.
▪ Therefore, the minimum bandwidth required for
8-QAM is fb/3, the same as in 8-PSK.

91

Prof. J.F. Huang, Fiber-Optic Communication Lab.

National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan
 8-QAM Receiver

Fig. 13-30. 8-QAM receiver. 92

Prof. J.F. Huang, Fiber-Optic Communication Lab.

National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan
 8-QAM Receiver

▪ An 8-QAM receiver (Figure 13-30) is almost identical to the

8-PSK receiver (Figure 13-25). The differences are the PAM
levels at the output of the product detectors and the binary
signals at the output of the A/D converters.
▪ Because there are two transmit amplitudes possible with
8-QAM that are different from those achievable with 8-PSK,
the four demodulated PAM levels in 8-QAM are different
from those in 8-PSK.
▪ The conversions factor for the A/D converters must also be
different. Also, with, 8-QAM the binary output signals from
the I-channel A/D converter are the I and C bits, and the
binary output signals from the Q-channel A/D converter are
the Q and C bits. 93

Prof. J.F. Huang, Fiber-Optic Communication Lab.

National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan
 16-QAM Transmitter

▪ The block diagram for 16-QAM transmitter is shown

in Figure 13-31. The input binary data are divided into
four channels: The I, I’, Q, and Q’.
▪ The bit rate in each channel is equal to 1/4 of the input
bit rate (fb/4). Four bits are serially clocked into the bit
splitter; then they are outputted simultaneously and in
parallel with the I, I’, Q, and Q’ bits determine the
magnitude (a logic ‘1’ = 0.821V and a logic ‘0’ = 0.22V).
▪ The 2-to-4-level converters generate a 4-level PAM
signal. Two polarities and two magnitudes are possible
at the output of each 2-to-4-level converter. They are
+0.22V and +0.821V.
94

Prof. J.F. Huang, Fiber-Optic Communication Lab.

National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan
 16-QAM Transmitter

Fig. 13-31. 16-QAM transmitter block diagram. 95

Prof. J.F. Huang, Fiber-Optic Communication Lab.

National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan
 16-QAM Transmitter

▪ The PAM signals modulate the in-phase and

quadrature carriers in the product modulators.
Four outputs are possible for each product modulator.
▪ For the I product modulator they are +0.821sinωct,
-0.821sinωct, +0.22sinωct, and -0.22sinωct.
For the Q product modulator they are -0.821cosωct,
+0.22cosωct, -0.821cosωct, and -0.22cosωct.
▪ The linear summer combines the outputs from the I-
and Q-channel product modulators and produces the
16 output conditions necessary for 16-QAM.
▪ Figure 13-32 shows the truth table for the I- and
Q-channel 2-to-4-level converters.
96

Prof. J.F. Huang, Fiber-Optic Communication Lab.

National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan
 16-QAM Transmitter

Fig. 13-32. Truth tables for the I- and Q-channel 2-to-4 level
converters: (a) I channel; (b) Q channel. 97

Prof. J.F. Huang, Fiber-Optic Communication Lab.

National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan
 16-QAM Transmitter

Example 13-8:
For a quadbit input of I = 0, I' = 0, Q = 0, and Q' = 0 (input
sequence of ‘0000’), determine the output amplitude and
phase for the 16-QAM modulator shown in Figure 13-31.
Solution:
▪ The inputs to the I-channel 2-to-4-level converter are
I=0 and I'=0. From Figure 13-32, the output is -0.22 V.
▪ The inputs to the Q-channel 2-to-4-level converter are
Q=0 and Q'=0. From Figure 13-32, the output is -0.22V.
▪ Thus the two inputs to the I-channel product modulator
are -0.22V and sinωct. The I-channel output is
θI = (-0.22)(sinωct) = -0.22sinωct
98

Prof. J.F. Huang, Fiber-Optic Communication Lab.

National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan
 16-QAM Transmitter

▪ The two inputs to the Q-channel product modulator

are -0.22V and cosωct. The Q-channel output is
θQ = (-0.22)(cosωct) = -0.22cosωct
▪ The outputs from the I- and Q-channel product
modulators are combined in the linear summer and
produce a modulated output of
θI + θQ = - 0.22sinωct - 0.22 cosωct
= 0.311 sin(ωct - 135o).
▪ For the remaining quadbit codes the procedure is the
same. The results are shown in Figure 13-33.
99

Prof. J.F. Huang, Fiber-Optic Communication Lab.

National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan
 16-QAM Transmitter

Fig. 13-33. 16-QAM modulator: (a) truth table 100

Prof. J.F. Huang, Fiber-Optic Communication Lab.

National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan
 16-QAM Transmitter

Fig. 13-33. 16-QAM modulator: (b) phasor diagram;

(c) constellation diagram. 101

Prof. J.F. Huang, Fiber-Optic Communication Lab.

National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan
 Bandwidth Considerations of 16-QAM

▪ With 16-QAM, since input data are divided four channel,

the bit rate in the I, I’, Q, and Q’ channel is equal to 1/4 of the
binary input data rate (fb/4).
▪ Because the I, I’, Q, and Q’ bits are outputted simultaneously
and in parallel, the 2-to4-level converters see a change in their
inputs and outputs at a rate equal to 1/4 of the input data rate.
▪ Figure 13-34 shows the bit timing relationship between the
binary input data; the I, I’, Q, and Q’ channel data; and the
I-channel PAM signal.
▪ The highest fundamental frequency in the I, I’, Q, and Q’
channel is equal to 1/8 of the bit rate of the binary input data
(one cycle in the I, I’, Q, and Q’ channel takes the same amount
of time as 8 input bits). The highest fundamental frequency of
either PAM signal is equal to 1/8 of the binary input bit rate.
102

Prof. J.F. Huang, Fiber-Optic Communication Lab.

National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan
 Bandwidth Considerations of 16-QAM

▪ With a 16-QAM modulator, there is one change in the

output signal (either its phase, amplitude, or both) for
every 4 input data bits. Consequently, the baud equals
fb/4, the same as the minimum bandwidth.
▪ The balanced modulators are product modulators and
their outputs can be represented mathematically as
θ = (X sinωat)(sinωct) (13-11)
where ωat = 2πfbt/8 and ωct = 2πfct
and X = +0.22 or +0.821
▪ Thus θ = (X sin2πfbt/8)(sin 2πfct)
= (X/2)cos2π(fc-(fb/8))t - (X/2)cos2π(fc+(fb/8))t
103

Prof. J.F. Huang, Fiber-Optic Communication Lab.

National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan
 Bandwidth Considerations of 16-QAM

▪ The output frequency spectrum extends from fc – (fb/8) to

fc +(fb/8) and the minimum bandwidth (fN) is
fN = (fc + (fb/8)) – (fc – (fb/8)) = 2fb/8 = fb/4.

Fig. 13-34. Bandwidth considerations of a 16-QAM modulator. 104

Prof. J.F. Huang, Fiber-Optic Communication Lab.
National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan
 Bandwidth Considerations of 16-QAM

Fig. 13-34. Bandwidth considerations of a 16-QAM

105
modulator.
Prof. J.F. Huang, Fiber-Optic Communication Lab.
National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan
 Bandwidth Considerations of 16-QAM

▪ Example 13-9:
For a 16-QAM modulator with an input data rate (fb)
equal to 10 Mbps and a carrier frequency of 70 MHz,
determine the minimum double-sided Nyquist
frequency (fN) and the baud.
▪ Also, compare the results with those achieved with the
BPSK, QPSK, and 8-PSK modulators in Examples
13-2, 13-4, and 13-6. Use the 16-QAM block diagram
shown in Figure 13-27 as the modulator model.

106

Prof. J.F. Huang, Fiber-Optic Communication Lab.

National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan
 Bandwidth Considerations of 16-QAM

▪ Solution:
The bit rate in the I, I’, Q, and Q’ channels is equal to
1/4 of the input bit rate or
fbI = fbI’ = fbQ = fbQ’ = fb/4 = 10Mbps/4 = 2.5 Mbps
▪ Therefore, the faster rate of change and highest
fundamental frequency presented to either balanced
modulator is
fa = fbI/2 = fbI’/2 = fbQ/2 = fbQ’/2
= 2.5 Mbps/2 = 1.25 Mbps
▪ The output wave from the balanced modulator is
(sin2πfat)(sin2πfct)
= ½ cos[2π(68.75MHz)t] - ½ cos[2π(71.25MHz)t]
107

Prof. J.F. Huang, Fiber-Optic Communication Lab.

National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan
 Bandwidth Considerations of 16-QAM

▪ The minimum Nyquist bandwidth is

fN = (71.25 – 68.75)MHz = 2.5MHz.
Again, the baud equals the bandwidth; thus
Baud = 2.5 megabaud
The output spectrum is as follows:

108

Prof. J.F. Huang, Fiber-Optic Communication Lab.

National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan
 Bandwidth Considerations of 16-QAM

▪ For the same input bit rate, the minimum bandwidth

required to pass the output of a 16-QAM modulator is
equal to one-fourth that of the BPSK modulator,
one-half that of QPSK, and 25% less than with 8-PSK.
▪ For each modulation technique, the baud is also
reduced by the same proportions.

109

Prof. J.F. Huang, Fiber-Optic Communication Lab.

National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan
 Bandwidth Efficiency

▪ Bandwidth efficiency is the ratio of the transmission

bit rate to the minimum bandwidth required for a
particular modulation scheme.
▪ Bandwidth efficiency generally indicates the number
of bits that can be propagated through a medium for
each hertz of bandwidth:

(13-12)

110

Prof. J.F. Huang, Fiber-Optic Communication Lab.

National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan
 Bandwidth Efficiency

▪ Example 13-10: Determine the bandwidth efficiencies

for the following modulation schemes: BPSK, QPSK,
8-PSK, and 16-QAM.
Solution: Recall from Examples 13-2, 13-4, 13-6, and
13-9 the minimum bandwidths required to propagate
a 10-Mbps transmission rate with the modulation
schemes:

111

Prof. J.F. Huang, Fiber-Optic Communication Lab.

National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan
 Bandwidth Efficiency

▪ Substituting into Equ. 13-12, the bandwidth

efficiencies are determined:
BPSK: BW efficiency =
QPSK: BW efficiency =
8-PSK: BW efficiency =
16-QAM: BW efficiency =

▪ The results indicate that BPSK is the least

efficient and 16-QAM is the most
efficient.16-QAM requires one-fourth as much
bandwidth as BPSK for the same bit rate. 112

Prof. J.F. Huang, Fiber-Optic Communication Lab.

National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan
 Probability of Error and Bit Error Rate

▪ Probability of error P(e) and bit error rate (BER) are often
used interchangeably, although in practice they do have
slightly different meanings.
▪ P(e) is a theoretical (mathematical) expectation of the bit
error rate for a given system. BER is an empirical
(historical) record of a system’s actual bit error
performance.
▪ Probability of error is a function of the carrier-to-noise
power ratio (or more specifically, the average energy-per-bit
to noise-power-density ratio) and the number of possible
encoding conditions used (M-ary).
▪ Carrier-to-noise power ratio is the ratio of the average
carrier power (the combined power of the career and its
associated sidebands) to the thermal noise power. 113

Prof. J.F. Huang, Fiber-Optic Communication Lab.

National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan
 Probability of Error and Bit Error Rate

▪ Carrier power can be stated in watts or dBm, where

C(dBm) = 10log[C(watts)/0.001] (13-13)
▪ Thermal noise power is expressed mathematically as
N = kTB (watts) (13-14a)
or N(dBm) = 10log(kTB/0.001) (13-14b)
▪ Mathematically, the carrier-to-noise power ratio is
C/N = C/kTB (13-15a)
where
C = Carrier power (W)
N = thermal noise power (W)
k = Boltzmann's constant (1.38×10-23 J/oK)
T = temperature (0oK = -273 oC, Room temp. = 290oK)
B = bandwidth (Hz).
114

Prof. J.F. Huang, Fiber-Optic Communication Lab.

National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan
 Probability of Error and Bit Error Rate

▪ Energy-per-bit to noise-power-density ratio is simply the

ratio of the energy of a single bit to the noise power
present in 1 Hz of bandwidth.
Eb/No = (C/fb) / (N/B) (13-18a)
= (C/N) x (B/fb) (13-18b)
or Eb/No (dB) = 10log(C/N) + 10log(B/fb) (13-18c)
▪ Where
Eb/No = energy per bit-to-noise power density ratio
C/N = carrier-to-noise power ratio
B/fb = noise bandwidth-to-bit rate ratio

115

Prof. J.F. Huang, Fiber-Optic Communication Lab.

National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan
 Probability of Error and Bit Error Rate

▪ From Equ. (13-18b) it can be seen that the Eb/No ratio

is simply the product of the carrier-to-noise power
ratio and the noise-bandwidth-to-bit-rate ratio.
▪ From Equ. (13-18b), it can be seen that when the
bandwidth equals the bit rate, Eb/No = C/N.
▪ In general, the minimum carrier-to-noise power ratio
required for QAM system is less than that required for
comparable PSK system.
▪ Also, the higher the level of encoding used (the higher
the value of M), the higher the minimum
carrier-to-noise power-ratio.
116

Prof. J.F. Huang, Fiber-Optic Communication Lab.

National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan
 PSK Error Performance

▪ The general expression for the bit-error probability

of an M-phase PSK system is

(13-22)

where erf = error function

z=

117

Prof. J.F. Huang, Fiber-Optic Communication Lab.

National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan
 PSK Error Performance

Fig. 13-41. PSK error region: (a) BPSK; (b) QPSK. 118

Prof. J.F. Huang, Fiber-Optic Communication Lab.

National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan
 PSK Error Performance

▪ It can be shown that QPSK provides the same error

performance as BPSK. This is because the 3-dB
reduction in error distance for QPSK is offset by the
3-dB decrease in its bandwidth (in addition to the error
distance, the relative widths of the noise bandwidths
must also be considered).
▪ Thus both systems provide optimum performance.
Figure 13-42 shows the error performance for 2-, 4-,
8-, 16-, and 32-PSK systems as a function of Eb/No.

119

Prof. J.F. Huang, Fiber-Optic Communication Lab.

National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan
 PSK Error Performance

120
Fig. 13-42. Error rates of PSK modulation systems.
Prof. J.F. Huang, Fiber-Optic Communication Lab.
National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan
 QAM Error Performance

▪ The general expression for the bit error probability of

an L-level QAM system is

(13-24)

where erfc(z) = complementary error function

Figure 13-43 shows the error performance for 4-, 16-,

32-, and 64-QAM systems as a function of Eb/No.

121

Prof. J.F. Huang, Fiber-Optic Communication Lab.

National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan
 QAM Error Performance

Fig. 13-43. Error rates of QAM modulation systems. 122

Prof. J.F. Huang, Fiber-Optic Communication Lab.

National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan