SIR BHAVSINHJI POLYTECHNIC

INSTITUTE BHAVNAGAR
DEPATMENT OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY
(AFFILIATED WITH GUJARAT TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY)

ICN LAB MANUAL

INFORMATION COMMUNICATION NETWORKS
Subject Code: 3351601
Semester: 5th

Guided by
B. N. Gosai

Name:_______________________________________________________

EnrollmentNo:______________________________________________

Div: _____________________________ Batch: _________________

 INDEX

Name:_________________________________________________________

Enrollment No:________________________________________________

Div: _____________________________ Batch: ____________________

Page
No Name of Practical Date Sign Remarks
No
1 To study about Amplitude Shift Keying 1
21/06
2 To study about Frequency Shift Keying. 3

3 To study about Phase Shift Keying. 5

05/07
4 To study about Quadrature Amplitude Modulation 7

5 To study about BIPOLAR coding method. 8

6 To study about basic parameters of wireless 11 26/07
communication using GSM
7 To study about Pulse Code Modulation 15
8 To study about working of GPRS. 20
06/09
9 Test and verify ON-OFF coding method. 23

10 Test and verify MSK. 26

11 To study about working of CDMA. 34
12 To study about working of RFID. 38 27/09
13 To study about working of Bluetooth. 41
3351601_Information Communication Networks 196490316039

Practical-1
Aim: To study about Amplitude Shift Keying
Amplitude Shift Keying
• This is basic modulation techniques for transforming digital data into analog signals.
• In this digital modulation techniques the modulated signals occupies a bandwidth
centered on the carrier frequency.
• In amplitude shift keying, the amplitude of the carrier signal is varied to create signal
elements. Both frequency and phase remain constant while the amplitude changes.

Binary ASK (BASK)

• Although we can have several levels (kinds) of signal elements, each with a different
amplitude, ASK is normally implemented using only two levels. This is referred to as
binary amplitude shift keying or on-off keying (OOK).
• The peak amplitude of one signal level is 0; the other is the same as the amplitude of
the carrier frequency. Figure.gives a conceptual view of binary ASK.

• Bandwidth for ASK Figure 5.3 also shows the bandwidth for ASK. Although the
carrier signal is only one simple sine wave, the process of modulation produces a
non periodic composite signal.
• This signal has a continuous set of frequencies. As we expect, the bandwidth is
proportional to the signal rate(baud rate).
• However, there is normally another factor involved, called d, which depends on the
modulation and filtering process. The value of d is between 0 and 1. This means that
the bandwidth can be expressed as shown, where 5 is the signal rate and the B is the
bandwidth.

B =(1 +d) x S
• The formula shows that the required bandwidth has a minimum value of 5 and a
maximum value of 25.
• The most important point here is the location of the bandwidth.

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• The middle of the bandwidth is where Ie the carrier frequency, is located. This means
if
we have a bandpass channel available, we can choose our Ie so that the modulated
signal occupies that bandwidth.
• This is in fact the most important advantage of digital-to-analog conversion. We
can shift the resulting bandwidth to match what is available.

Figure 5.4 shows how we can simply implement binary ASK.

• If digital data are presented as a unipolar NRZ digital signal with ahigh voltage of I V
and a low voltage of 0 V, the implementation can achieved by multiplying the NRZ
digital signal by the carrier signal coming from an oscillator.
• When the amplitude of the NRZ signal is 1, the amplitude of the carrier frequency is
held; when the amplitude of the NRZ signal is 0, the amplitude of the carrier frequency
is zero.

Application of Amplitude Shift Keying

1. It is commonly used to transmit digital data over optical fiber.
2. It is used in modem to convert digital data into analog data.

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3351601_Information Communication Networks 196490316039

Practical- 2
Aim: To study about Frequency Shift Keying.
Frequency Shift Keying
• In frequency shift keying, the frequency of the carrier signal is varied to represent data.
The frequency of the modulated signal is constant for the duration of one signal
element, but changes for the next signal element if the data element changes.

• Both peak amplitude and phase remain constant for all signal elements.

Binary FSK (BFSK)

• One way to think about binary FSK (or BFSK) is to consider two carrier frequencies.

• In Figure (a) we have selected two carrier frequencies f1 and f2 We use the first carrier
if

the data element is 0; we use the second if the data element is 1.

• However, note that this is an unrealistic example used only for demonstration purposes.
Normally the carrier frequencies are very high, and the difference between them is very
small.

Figure (a): Binary frequency shift keying

• As Figure (a) shows, the middle of one bandwidth is f1 and the middle of the other is
f2 . Both f1 and f2 are Δf apart from the midpoint between the two bands. The
difference between the two frequencies is 2Δf.

• Bandwidth for BFSK Figure (a) also shows the bandwidth of FSK. Again the carrier
signals are only simple sine waves, but the modulation creates a non periodic composite
signal with continuous frequencies. We can think of FSK as two ASK signals, each
with its own carrier frequency Cil or f2. If the difference between the two frequencies
is 2Δf., then the required bandwidth is

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B=(1+d)xS+2Δf

• What should be the minimum value of 2Δf In Figure (a) we have chosen a value greater
than (1 + d)S. It can be shown that the minimum value should be at least S for the proper
operation of modulation and demodulation.

Implementation
• There are two implementations of BFSK:

noncoherent and coherent.

• In noncoherent BFSK, there may be discontinuity in the phase when one signal element
ends and the next begins.

• In coherent BFSK, the phase continues through the boundary of two signal elements.
Noncoherent BFSK can be implemented by treating BFSK as two ASK modulations
and using two carrier frequencies.

• Coherent BFSK can be implemented by using one voltage-controlled oscillator (VeO)

that changes its frequency according to the input voltage. Figure (b) shows the
simplified idea behind the second implementation.

Figure (b): Implementation of Binary frequency shift keying

• The input to the oscillator is the unipolar NRZ signal. When the amplitude of NRZ is
zero, the oscillator keeps its regular frequency; when the amplitude is positive, the
frequency is increased.

Application of Frequency Shift Keying

1. In telephone line modem used audio frequency shift keying (AFSK).

2. In microcomputer to store data on audio cassettes, FSK is used.

3. In amateur radio and radio control gear, FSK were used.

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Practical- 3
Aim: To study about Phase Shift Keying.
Phase Shift Keying
• In phase shift keying, the phase of the carrier is varied to represent two or more
different signal elements.

• Phase of signal is changed to represent bit 1 and 0. During 1 bit duration phase
remain constant.

• As bit changes phase is also changes.

• Both peak amplitude and frequency remain constant as the phase changes.
Today, PSK is more common than ASK or FSK.

Binary PSK (BPSK)

• The simplest PSK is binary PSK, in which we have only two signal elements,
one with a phase of 0°, and the other with a phase of 180°.

• When signal starts with phase of 0 degree , it is represented by binary 0 and

when signal changes the phase value of 180 degree , it is represented by binary
1.

• In PSK the criterion for bit detection is the phase.

• Noise can change the amplitude easier than it can change the phase. In other
words, PSK is less susceptible to noise than ASK. PSK is superior to FSK
because we do not need two carrier signals.

• To represent 0 degree and 180 degree only two bits 0 and 1 are used but as a
single bit. Because two different phases 0 degree and 180 degree are used , this
method known as 2-PSK or Binary PSK (BPSK).

Figure (a) shows a conceptual view of PSK.

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• Bandwidth Figure (a) also shows the bandwidth for BPSK. The bandwidth is the same
as that for binary ASK, but less than that for BFSK. No bandwidth is wasted for
separating two carrier signals.

Implementation
• The implementation of BPSK is as simple as that for ASK. The reason is that the
signal element with phase 180° can be seen as the complement of the signal element
with phase 0°. This gives us a clue on how to implement BPSK.

• We usethe same idea we used for ASK but with a polar NRZ signal instead of a
unipolar NRZ signal, as shown in Figure(b) .

• The polar NRZ signal is multiplied by the carrier frequency; the 1 bit (positive
voltage) is represented by a phase starting at 0 degree; the a bit (negative voltage) is
represented by a phase starting at 180 degree.

Bandwidth
• Bandwidth of PSK is same as ASK because here only one carrier frequency is used
same as ASK.

• Bandwidth requirement of PSK is calculated using:

BW=(1 + d) × N baud

Where BW = bandwidth of signal ( Hertz)

N baud = baud rate of signal
d = factor related to line ( minimum value is 0)
Application
• wireless LAN , IEEE 802.11 b uses variety of different PSKs depending on data rates
required.

• In RFID standard which has been adopted for biometric passport, credit cards and
many other applications

• Bluetooth 2 and wireless standard IEEE 802.15.4 used by Zig Bee also relies on PSK.

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Practical- 4
Aim: To study about Quadrature Amplitude Modulation
Quadrature Amplitude Modulation
• PSK is limited by the ability of the equipment to distinguish small differences in phase.

• This factor limits its potential bit rate.

• We have been altering two characteristics but no frequency. Quadrature amplitude

modulation (QAM) is combination of ASK and PSK.

Figure
• The possible variations of QAM are numerous.

• Figure shows some of these schemes. Figure a shows the simplest 4-QAM scheme (four
different signal element types) using a unipolar NRZ signal to modulate each carrier.
This is the same mechanism we used for ASK (OOK).

• Part b shows another 4-QAM using polar NRZ,but this is exactly the same as QPSK.

• Part c shows another QAM-4 in which we used a signal with two positive levels to
modulate each of the two carriers.

• Figure d shows a 16-QAM constellation of a signal with eight levels, four positive and
four negative.

Bandwidth
• Bandwidth for QAM The minimum bandwidth required for QAM transmission is the
same as that required for ASK and PSK transmission.

• QAM has the same advantages as PSK over ASK.

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Practical- 5
Aim: To study about BIPOLAR coding method.
BIPOLAR coding method
Bipolar coding method uses three voltage levels:
1. Positive
2. Negative
3. Neutral( zero)

• Zero is used to represent binary 0 and binary 1 is represented by alternating positive

and negative voltages.

Type of bipolar encoding method

1. Alternate Mark Inversion (AMI)
2. Bipolar 8-zero Substitution (B8ZS)
3. High density Bipolar 3 (HDB3)

Alternate Mark Inversion (AMI)

• AMI is bipolar encoding system where neutral (zero) voltage represents binary 0 and
alternating positive and negative voltages represents binary 1. With this line encoding
it is the alternating voltages that determine the binary ones.

Bipolar 8-zero Substitution (B8ZS)

• B8ZS works in similar way to AMI by changing poles for each binary one.
• There is a problem with synchronisation being lost when there is a stream of binary 0s
being sent.
• B8ZS attempts to tackle this problem by making artificial signal changes. These signals
are known as violations and occur when 8 consecutive 0s occur in the bit stream.
• The violations signals that take place is based on the polarity of the last binary one
before the 8 zeros and will match this polarity.
• Therefore, the receiving end looking for an alternate polarity to the binary one will
discover the same polarity and will thus determine that there have been a string of 8
zeroes.
• B8ZS is a common method used in the US to avoid the synchronisation problem of long
strings of binary zeroes.

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High Density Bipolar 3 (HDB3)

• HDB3 is the European equivalent of B8ZS.

• It works in a similar way to HDB3 but uses 4 zeroes rather than 8. After the 4 zeros a
violation will occur and the polarity is set to be the same as the previous positive bit,
e.g. 000V.
• The use of violations in the signal give it extra ‘edges’ which makes synchronisation
possible and data retrieval more accurate.
• An additional technique is used to stop DC voltage being introduced by having too
many zeros. This works by adding a balancing pulse to any pattern of more than 4 bits
the same, i.e.B00V.
• The value of B will be changed to positive or negative as required to make alternate
violations of opposite polarity. The balancing pulse and the violation can then be
removed at
the receiver to create the original data.
• The following table shows the encoding rules for HDB3:

4 Binary 3 Ternary (4B3T)

• 4B3T is an encoding technique used with Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN)
BRI equipment.
• It is a block encoding system where four binary digits can be output as 3 ternary digits.
Using 4 bits gives 16 possible combinations with 3 ternary having 27 possible
combinations. The ternary codes are:

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BINARY TERNARY (a) TERNARY (b)

0000 - +++
0001 -0 ++0
0010 0-+ -0+
0011 0– 0++
0100 –+ ++-
0101 -+- + -+
0110 +– -+ +
0111 -00 +00
1000 0 -0 0+0
1001 00- 00+
1010 0+-
1011 0 -+
1100 +0-
1101 -0 +
1110 + -0
1111 -+ 0

• 4B3T requires less bandwidth than AMI because it makes better use of the 3 levels
positive (+), negative (-) and zero (0).

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Practical- 6
Aim: To study about basic parameters of wireless communication using
GSM trainer.
➢ Mobile technology a generic term used to refer to a variety of devices that allow people
to access data and information from where ever they are.

➢ "Mobile Technology: being able to use a computing device even when being mobile
and therefore changing location. Portability is one aspect of mobile technology.”

Mobile Technologies include technologies like

GSM:
• GSM stands for Global System for Mobile Communications

• 1982 -Conference of European Posts and Telegraphs (CEPT) formed Group Special
Mobile (GSM) to develop a public land mobile system.

• Later named as Global System for Mobile Communications..

• The proposed GSM system had to meet certain criteria. They are as follows….

➢ Good speech quality

➢ Low terminal and service cost

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➢ Support for international roaming

➢ Ability to support handheld terminals

➢ Support for range of new services and facilities

➢ Spectral efficiency ISDN ( Integrated Services Digital Network)

Compatibility

Architecture of the GSM network:

• The GSM network can be divided into three broad parts.

➢ The Mobile Station is carried by the subscriber.

The Mobile Station is made up of two entities:

1. Mobile Equipment (ME)
• Portable hand held device
• Uniquely identified by an IMEI Voice and data transmission
• Monitoring power and signal quality of surrounding cells for optimum
handover.
2. Subscriber Identity Module (SIM)
• Smart card contains IMSI
• Allows user to send and receive calls.
• Encoded network identification details Key Ki, Kc and A3,A5 and A8
algorithms
• Protected by a password or PIN
• Can be moved from phone to phone

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➢ The Base Station Subsystem controls the radio link with the Mobile Station.
The Base Station is made up of two entities:
1. Base Transceiver Station (BTS):
o Encodes, encrypts, multiplexes, modulates and feeds the RF signals to the
antenna.
o Frequency hopping
o Communicates with MS and BSC
o Consists of Transceivers (TRX) units

2. Base Station Controller (BSC)

o Manages Radio resources for BTS
o Assigns Frequency and time slots for all MS’s in its area
o Handles call set up
o Transco ding and rate adaptation functionality
o Handover for each MS
o Radio Power control
o It communicates with MSC and BTS
➢ The Network Subsystem, the main part of which is the (Mobile services
Switching Center) MSC, performs the switching of calls between the mobile
users, and between mobile and fixed network users. The MSC also handles the
mobility management operations.

The Network Subsystem made up of 4 entities:

1. Home Location Registers (HLR)
o permanent database about mobile subscribers in a large service area (generally
one per GSM network operator)
o database contains IMSI,MSISDN, prepaid/postpaid, roaming restrictions,
supplementary services.
2. Visitor Location Registers (VLR)
o Temporary database which updates whenever new MS enters its area, by HLR
database
o Controls those mobiles roaming in its area
o Reduces number of queries to HLR
o Database contains IMSI, TMSI,MSISDN ,MSRN, Location Area,
authentication key
3. Authentication Center (AUC)
o Protects against intruders in air interface
o Maintains authentication keys and algorithms and provides security triplets (
RAND, SRES, Kc)
o Generally associated with HLR
4. Equipment Identity Register (EIR)
o Database that is used to track handsets using the IMEI (International Mobile
Equipment Identity)
o Made up of three sub-classes: The White List, The Black List and the Gray List
o Only one EIR per PLMN

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Techniques used in GSM:

➢ In the GSM system, TDMA in combination with FDMA is used .Thus, only a single
mobile is using a given frequency/timeslot combination at any particular time.
➢ Frequency Division Multiple Access(FDMA):
Each call is carried on a separate frequency channel. Provides multiuser access by
separating the used frequencies.

➢ Time Division Multiple Access(TDMA):

Each frequency channel is further divided into a set of timeslots; each timeslot carries
the data of a voice call. Provides multiuser access by chopping up the channel into
sequential time slices.

Basic GSM Services:

1. SMS..
2. Voice Mail..
3. Advice of Charge..
4. Roaming..
5. Call hold..
6. Call waiting..
7. Conference call..

Application of GSM:
• Various GSM applications include GSM modems, GSM terminals, GPRS
amalgamation, GSM security, GSM remote monitoring.
• Application of GSM is dependent upon its frequency. Some countries in the world use
GSM-900 or E-GSM. The frequency in E-GSM is extended to about 920 to
960MHZ.Latest mobile phones support E-GSM.GSM technology allows you to use any
mobile handset and everywhere. Once you’re connected to the GSM technology you
do not have to worry about the network coverage and frequency.

Advantages of GSM:
• Better Quality of speech
• Data transmission is supported
• New services offered due to ISDN compatibility
• International Roaming possible
• Large market
• Crisper, cleaner quieter calls

Disadvantages of GSM:
• Dropped and missed calls
• Less Efficiency
• Security Issues

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Practical-7
Aim: To study about Pulse Code Modulation
Pulse Code Modulation
• In continuous wave modulation some parameter of a sine carrier wave is varied
continuously in accordance with the message. In contrast with this In pulse
modulation some parameter of a regular pulse train is varied in accordance with the
message. One many distinguish two basic types of pulse modulation namely, pulse –
analogue modulation and pulse code modulation. In the former a periodic pulse rain is
used as the carrier wave and some characteristics feature of each pulse is varied in a
continuous manner in accordance with the pertinent sample value of the message
signal on the other hand. In pulse –code modulation a discrete-time, discrete
amplitude representation is used for the signal and as such it has no CW counterpart.
In a PCM system, the message signal is sampled and the amplitude of each sample is
rounded off to the nearest one of a finite set of allowable values and the rounded
values are coded.
• The essential operation on the transmitter of a PCM system are sampling, quantizing
and encoding.

Sampling
• Incoming message wave is sampled with a train of narrow rectangle pulse so as to
closely approximate the instantaneous sampling process. In order to ensure perfect
reconstruction of the message at the receiver, the sampling rate must be greater than
twice the highest frequency component of the message wave.
• When the amplitude of the NRZ signal is 1, the amplitude of the carrier frequency is
held; when the amplitude of the NRZ signal is 0, the amplitude of the carrier frequency
is zero.

Quantizing
• A continuous signal such as voice has within its finite amplitude range an infinite
number of amplitude levels. However in PCM one retain only a finite number of
discrete levels by using quantization This introduce some error in the signal. This call
quantization error .this means that the original continuous signal may be approximate
by a signal constructed of discrete amplitudes selected on a minimum error basic form
an available set.
• Graphically the quantization process means that a straight line representing the relation
between input and output of a liner continuous system is replaced by a staircase
characteristics as show in figure.

Encoding
• The quantized sample values are coded any plan of representing each of this discrete
set of values as a particular arrangement of discrete event in a code is called a code one
of the discrete events in a code is called a code element of symbol In a binary code each
symbol may be either of two distinct values of kinds. Such as the presence or absence

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• of a pulse. The two symbols of a binary code results in the maximum advantage over
the effects of noise in a transmission. It is also easy to regenerate.

Decoding
• At the receiver the received PCM pulse may be reshaped the reshaped clean pulse are
regrouped into code words in the receiver and decoded into a quantized PCM signal.

(A) PCM Modulator

Modulating Comparator Sampled Data Shift register

audio signal
PCM signal
Latch Adder Parallel to
A serial
converter
F

Sync
generator

Counter SPG

(B) PCM Demodulator

l
PCM signal Sync CLK
Sync Sampling Counter
Detector Pulse
Generator

Shift register Recovered Data

Raw data
Serial to Latch D/A LPF
parallel
Converter
converter

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Procedure
1) Connect I/P terminal of PCM modulator to sine O/P terminal of Audio oscillator. Connect
CRO channel 1 at sine O/P terminal(T1) of Audio oscillator. Set amplitude of sine wave to 2v
and audio frequency to 1 Khz
2) Connect CRO channel-2 at samp clock terminal of sampling pulse generator. Keep pulse
selection switch at fast position
3) Connect CRO channel-2 at PCM O/P terminal of modulator. Keep Bit select switch 4-bit
position. The PCM modulated waveform will be seen
4)CRO channel-2 at RAW DATA terminal of demodulator. Observe quantised recovered raw
data signal.
5) Change bit select switch to 3-bit position and observe steps in output.
6) Then connect CRO channel-2 at F/L O/P terminal of low pass filter and observe filtered
recovered output signal

Test Point Waveforms

Modulating sine wave signal at sine O/P terminal of Audio Oscillator) 1Khz and 2 Vpp

Sampling Clock Signal(1.28 MHZ,TTL)

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Ramp Signal(25KHz)

PCM O/P Signal

RAW data Demodulated signal

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Filtered Signal

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Practical- 8
Aim: To study about working of GPRS.
GPRS architecture works on the same procedure like GSM network, but, has additional entities
that allow packet data transmission. This data network overlaps a second-generation GSM
network providing packet data transport at the rates from 9.6 to 171 kbps. Along with the packet
data transport the GSM network accommodates multiple users to share the same air interface
resources concurrently.

GPRS attempts to reuse the existing GSM network elements to effectively build a packet-based
mobile cellular network, some new network elements, interfaces, and protocols for handling
packet traffic are required.

GPRS requires modifications to numerous GSM network elements as summarized

Modification or Upgrade Required for

GSM Network Element GPRS.

Mobile Station (MS) New Mobile Station is required to access

GPRS services.
These new terminals will be backward
compatible with GSM
for voice calls
BTS A software upgrade is required in the existing
Base Transceiver Station (BTS).
BSC The Base Station Controller (BSC) requires
a software upgrade and the installation of
new hardware called the packet control unit
(PCU). The PCU directs the data traffic to the
GPRS network and can be a separate
hardware element associated with the BSC.

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GPRS Support Nodes (GSNs) The deployment of GPRS requires the

installation of new core
network elements called the serving GPRS
support node
(SGSN) and gateway GPRS support node
(GGSN).
Databases (HLR, VLR, etc.) All the databases involved in the network
will require software upgrades to handle the
new call models and functions introduced by
GPRS

GPRS Mobile Stations

New Mobile Stations (MS) are required to use GPRS services because existing GSM phones
do not handle the enhanced air interface or packet data. A variety of MS can exist, including a
high-speed version of current phones to support high-speed data access, a new PDA device
with an embedded GSM phone, and PC cards for laptop computers. These mobile stations are
backward compatiblefor making voice calls using GSM.

GPRS Base Station Subsystem

Each BSC requires the installation of one or more Packet Control Units (PCUs) and a software
upgrade. The PCU provides a physical and logical data interface to the Base Station Subsystem
(BSS) for packet data traffic. The BTS can also require a software upgrade but typically does
not
require hardware enhancements.
When either voice or data traffic is originated at the subscriber mobile, it is transported over
the
air interface to the BTS, and from the BTS to the BSC in the same way as a standard GSM call.
However, at the output of the BSC, the traffic is separated; voice is sent to the Mobile Switching
Center (MSC) per standard GSM, and data is sent to a new device called the SGSN via the
PCU over a Frame Relay interface.

GPRS Support Nodes

Following two new components, called Gateway GPRS Support Nodes (GSNs) and, Serving
GPRSSupport Node (SGSN) are added:

Gateway GPRS Support Node (GGSN)

The Gateway GPRS Support Node acts as an interface and a router to external networks. It
contains routing information for GPRS mobiles, which is used to tunnel packets through the IP
based internal backbone to the correct Serving GPRS Support Node. The GGSN also collects
charging information connected to the use of the external data networks and can act as a packet
filter for incoming traffic.

Serving GPRS Support Node (SGSN)

The Serving GPRS Support Node is responsible for authentication of GPRS mobiles,
registration of mobiles in the network, mobility management, and collecting information on
charging for the use of the air interface.

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Internal Backbone
The internal backbone is an IP based network used to carry packets between different GSNs.
Tunnelling is used between SGSNs and GGSNs, so the internal backbone does not need any
information about domains outside the GPRS network. Signalling from a GSN to a MSC, HLR
or EIRis done using SS7.

Routing Area
GPRS introduces the concept of a Routing Area. This concept is similar to Location Area in
GSM, except that it generally contains fewer cells. Because routing areas are smaller than
location areas, less radio resources are used While broadcasting a page message.

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Practical-9
Aim: Test and verify ON-OFF coding method.
On-OFF(Line) Coding
Binary 1’s and 0’s, such as in PCM signalling, may be represented in various serial–bit
signalling formats called ON-OFF(line) codes.

The simplest form of DM represents a series of logical ‘1’s and ‘0’s by simply switching on
and off the carrier. For this reason it is often called On-Off Keying (OOK) or Coding

This form of modulation takes the amplitude modulation as described above to the extreme.
In this instance, we have only two states: Carrier and No Carrier. This approach lends itself
nicely to the transmission of digital data because the carrier can be simply switched “on” or
“off” depending on the state of the data being sent. The demodulated output is either high or
low depending on the presence of the carrier.

On-off keying is an encoding method that generates square waves by rapidly pulsing
electrical or optical power. It’s used only for digital data and is essentially the digital
equivalent of AM.

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• Some of the most popular line codes are shown below

• There are 2 major categories: return–to–zero (RZ) and non-return–to–zero (NRZ). With RZ
coding, the waveform returns to a zero–volt level for a portion (usually one–half) of the bit
interval.
– Unipolar Signalling: In positive–logic unipolar signalling, the binary 1 is represented by a
high level (+A volts) and a binary 0 by a zero level. Its drawbacks are that it is not self-
clocking and it has a significant DC component, which can be halved by using return-to-zero,
where the signal returns to zero in the middle of the bit period
– Polar Signalling: Binary 1’s and 0’s are represented by equal positive and negative levels
– Bipolar Signalling: Binary 1’s are represented by alternating positive or negative values.
The binary 0 is represented by a zero level. This is also called alternate mark inversion (AMI)
signalling – Manchester Signalling: Each binary 1 is represented by a positive half–bit period
pulse followed by a negative half–bit period pulse. Similarly, a binary 0 is represented by a
negative half–bit period pulse followed by a positive half–bit period pulse.

Properties of On-Off Codes

• Each line code has advantages and disadvantages. For example, the unipolar NRZ line code
has the advantage of using circuits that require only one power supply, but it has the

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disadvantage of requiring channels that are DC coupled (i.e. with frequency response down to
f = 0), because the waveform has a non–zero DC value.
The polar NRZ line code does not require a DC coupled channel, provided that the data
toggles between binary 1’s and 0’s often and that equal numbers of 1’s and 0’s are sent.
However, the circuitry that produces the polar NRZ signal requires a negative voltage power
supply as well as the positive voltage power supply.
The Manchester NRZ line code has the advantage of always having a 0 DC value, regardless
of the data sequence, but it has twice the bandwidth of the unipolar NRZ or polar NRZ code
because the pulses are half the width.

• The following are some of the desirable properties of a line code: –

Self–Synchronisation: There is enough timing information built into the code so that bit
synchronisers can extract the timing or clock signal. A long series of binary 1’s or 0’s should
not cause a problem in time recovery
Low Probability of Bit Error: Receivers can be designed that will recover the binary data
with a low probability of bit error when the input data is corrupted by noise or ISI – A
Spectrum that is Suitable for the Channel: For example, if the channel is AC coupled, the
PSD of the line code signal should be negligible at frequencies near 0.
Transmission Bandwidth: This should be as small as possible – Error Detection Capability:
It should be possible to implement this feature easily by the addition of channel encoders and
decoders, or the feature should be incorporated into the line code.

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3351601_Information Communication Networks 196490316039

Practical-10
Aim:Test and verify MSK.
Introduction
Minimum shift keying, MSK, is a form of is a type of continuous-phase frequency-shift
keying, that is used in a number of applications. A variant of MSK modulation, known as
Gaussian filtered Minimum Shift Keying, GMSK, is used for a number of radio
communications applications including being used in the GSM cellular telecommunications
system. In addition to this MSK has advantages over other forms of PSK and as a result it is
used in a number of radio communications systems.
The name minimum frequency shift keying mean is the minimum frequency separation such
a way it results in a phase shift of +90 or -90 per signal.FSK with this variation is called
MSK.
Minimum shift keying (MSK) is a type of continuous phase frequency shift keying (CP-
FSK). Frequency shift keying (FSK) is a discrete modulation scheme where 0's and 1's (in
case of binary-FSK - BFSK) are encoded on two different orthogonal frequencies. FSK can
typically be implemented using two separate oscillators - switching based on the bit-value.
The problem is that they may have different phases, and this causes sudden discontinuities in
transmitted signal. Discontinuity in time-domain in transmitted signal is translated to power
leakage from main-band to side-band. This causes lot of problems like interference etc. To
make the phase continuous, many implementations may contain a single oscillator. This is
called as CP-FSK. Even now, since bits change in an instant, frequency discontinuity still
exists. To overcome this, Gaussian filter/ pulse is used to smoothen the transitions. This is
called Gaussian FSK. Now, comes the difference between the frequencies. For a single
oscillator - minimum the differences in frequencies are without loosing the orthogonality,
better it is to shift. This is achieved when differences between frequencies are equal to half
the bit rate - or modulation index is 0.5 and is termed as MSK. Combination of MSK and
Gaussian FSK is called as GFSK. Looking at all the above improvements, it was adopted as a
standard in GSM.

MSK modulation and demodulation

MSK changes the phase 90 degrees (π/2) in relation to the center frequency Fc of the carrier
wave with each symbol, so that it can be shown as in the figure below without being
expressed as a constellation.
MSK modulation using I and Q signals uses changes when the signal point is moved to the
circumference of the constellation.

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The changes and phase shift for the MSK information signal are as follows.

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Minimum Shift Keying Modulation Process

APPARATUS REQUIRED: ST2116, MSK modulation /Demodulation Trainer Board,
Cathode Ray Oscilloscope, 2MM Patch Cords.

BLOCK DIAGRAM :

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PROCEDURE :
1. Before making connections, make sure that power supply is switched off.
2. Refer to the figure 14 shown above while making connections.
3. Connect 16 KHz clock output of clock source to the data generator’s ‘CLK IN’ input
4. Connect the ‘Data Out’ of data source to the ‘Data In’ of serial to parallel converter.
5. Connect 8 KHz clock out of clock source to the ‘CLK In’ of serial to parallel converter.
6. Now connect ‘Cos πt/2T’ and ‘Sin πt/2T’ output of ‘sinusoidal carrier for pulse shaping
generator’ to the inputs of ‘Sin pulse shaper’ and ‘Cosine pulse shaper’.
7. Connect the Sine and Cosine carrier outputs of ‘sinusoidal carrier generator for
modulation’ block (32 KHz) to the carrier inputs of the modulators as shown above in the
figure 15.
8. Now turn ‘On’ the Power supply and reset the data source.
9. Repeat the steps 4 to 14 of the Exp.1 and obtain the different waveforms.
10. Now observe the outputs of the multipliers. Compare these results with the theoretical
diagram shown in figure 5.
11. Observe the output of the adder block. This is the complete MSK signal waveforms (See
figure 16 given below).
12. View both the serial data and modulated signal simultaneously on the CRO screen. Make
the waveforms stable by adjusting the time base of the CRO. Observe the frequency shift in
the modulated waveform. Also this shift is much lesser then generally seen in an FSK
waveform.
13. Verify the phase continuity of the MSK waveform. Also verify that the modulated
waveform has almost constant envelop.

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OBSERVATION :

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3351601_Information Communication Networks 196490316039

Minimum Shift Keying (MSK) Demodulation Process

APPARATUS REQUIRED: ST2116, MSK modulation /Demodulation Trainer Board,
Cathode Ray Oscilloscope, 2MM Patch Cords.

BLOCK DIAGRAM :

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3351601_Information Communication Networks 196490316039

PROCEDURE :
1. Make the connections for modulation as described in the Experiment 1 and 2. refer to the
figure 15 and figure 16 for making connections.
2. For Demodulation connect the modulated signal to the input of demodulator.
3. Connect the orthogonal sinusoidal carriers to the input of the first stage of multipliers.
4. Connect the Wave shaping carriers to the second stage of multipliers.
5. Now turn ‘On’ the power supply.
6. Reset the data source and observe the MSK modulated waveform at the modulator Output.
7. Observe the outputs of first stage of multipliers in the demodulator section.
8. Observe the output of Second stage of multipliers in the demodulator section.
9. Observe the output of integrators and try to make some inferences from these waveforms.
10. Finally observe the output of parallel to serial converter and compare this recovered data
with original modulating data. Verify that recovered data is received without any error.

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OBSERVATION:

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3351601_Information Communication Networks 196490316039

Practical-11
Aim: To study about working of CDMA.
CDMA stands for “Code Division Multiple Access”.
Introduction:
• CDMA is a military technology first used during World War II by English allies to foil
German attempts at jamming transmissions. The allies decided to transmit over several
frequencies, instead of one, making it difficult for the Germans to pick up the complete
signal.

• Because Qualcomm created communications chips for CDMA technology, it was privy
to the classified information. Once the information became public, Qualcomm claimed
patents on the technology and became the first to commercialize it.

CDMA:
• In data communication, the idea of allowing several transmitters to send information
simultaneously over a single communication channel. This allows several users to share
a band of frequencies (see bandwidth). This concept is called multiple access.

• CDMA is a “spread spectrum” technology, which means that it spreads the information
contained in a particular signal of interest over a much greater bandwidth than the
original signal.

• The core principle of spread spectrum is the use of noise-like carrier waves, and, as the
name implies, bandwidths much wider than that required for simple point-to-point
communication at the same data rate.

Three Types of Spread Spectrum Communications

• There are three ways to spread the bandwidth of the signal:

• Frequency hopping

• Time hopping

• Direct sequence.

• CDMA uses Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum system and Frequency Hopping Spread
Spectrum .

• CDMA system works directly on 64 kbit/sec digital signals.

How it works?
• In CDMA, both data and voice are separated from signals using codes and then
transmitted using a wide frequency range. Because of this, there are more space left for
data transfer.

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• As a result, CDMA uses much wider signals than those used in other technologies.
Wideband signals reduce interference and allow one cell frequency reuse. There is no
time division, and all users use the entire carrier, all of the time.

• CDMA does not assign a specific frequency to each user. Instead, every channel uses
the full available spectrum. Individual conversations are encoded with a pseudo-
random digital sequence.

• CDMA consistently provides better capacity for voice and data communications than
other commercial mobile technologies, allowing more subscribers to connect at any
given time.

• CDMA changes the nature of the subscriber station from a analog device to a digital
device.

• CDMA receivers do not eliminate analog processing entirely, but they separate
communication channels by means of a modulation that is applied and removed in the
digital domain, not on the basis of frequency.

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Benefits of CDMA:
• CDMA CAPACITY INCREASES

• IMPROVED CALL QUALITY

• SIMPLIFIED SYSTEM PLANNING

• ENHANCED PRIVACY

• IMPROVED COVERAGE

• INCREASED PORTABLE TALKTIME

• BANDWIDTH ON DEMAND

Uses:
• Excellent call quality and low current draw.

• Less costly to implement

• Provides three to five times the calling capacity than GSM and TDMA

• It provides more than 10 times the capacity of the analog cell phone system (AMPS).

• Used by the military for secure phone calls.

• Difficult to jam and detect .

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3351601_Information Communication Networks 196490316039

Practical-12
Aim: To study about working of RFID.

Introduction:
• RFID technology emerged in the 1940’s as a way of remotely identifying aircraft for
military purposes, and has been used widely in civil aviation.

• RFID tagging is a form of Automatic Identification and Data Capture

(AIDC)technology where data stored on a tag is transferred via a radio frequency link.

• A RFID reader communicates with the tag to gather the identity of the object to which
the tag is attached.

3 main types of AIDC technologies:

• Optical- barcode etc

• Magnetic – Magnetic stripe, travel cards etc.

• Electronic- RFID tags, smart cards, SIM cards etc.

• RFID Technology is similar to barcode labels but uses radio frequency waves instead
of laser light to read the product code .

• The RFID stores product information in electronics tags that contain an antenna and a
chip.

• RFIDs can respond to a radio signal and transmit their tag. They can store additional
data, employ collision avoidance schemes, and comprise smart card capabilities with
simple processing power.

• The size of memory in a tag varies between 16 bits and 100 of kilobits.

• RFID tags are programmed with a unique identification code obtained from EPC global
standards. Electronic Product Code (EPC) is a standardised numbering scheme so that
it can be identified electronically. EPC is either 64 or 96 bits long and is usually
represented in hexadecimal notation.

• RFID tags are also known as transponders- A combination of transmitter and responder
and includes an integrated circuit that contains some non- volatile memory and a simple
microprocessor which can store data that is transmitted in response to an interrogation
from a reader.

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There are 2 classes of tags:

1. Class 0 tags are read only

2. Class 1 tags are read/write.

• Tags and readers use different transmission mechanism in each frequency band of HF
13.56 MHz and UHF 400 to 900 MHz.

There are 4 types of RFID tags:

a) Passive tags:

➢ Which are small

➢ Use the electromagnetic energy in the RF waves & do not require battery power.

➢ These can be produce in large quantities at low cost.

➢ The amount of data stored in a passive RFID tag is small.

➢ Data transmission rates for the tags are also low.

b) Active tags:

➢ Active tags are equipped with battery that reason have a limited life due to the
battery.

➢ They can transmit the signal on a periodic basis.

c) Semi active tags:

➢ Use a built in battery to power the circuit only when a reader first energises the
tag.

d) Sensory tags:

➢ Equipped with various kind of sensors to monitor and record information.

• RFID are not communication device, RF controllers without any MAC layer
and act as modems.

• Collisions have to be detected on higher layers.

• Embedded low power RF system offer transmission rates of up to 115kbps and

operate on many different ISM bands such as 27MHz, 315MHz, 418 MHz, 426
MHz, 433 MHz, 868 MHz & 915 MHz.

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• A reader is device that captures and process the data received from the tags. A
reader has separate transmitter and receiver circuits. HF tag readers can read
200 tags / second. UHF define the tag to reader data rate as twice that of the
reader to tag. Tag to reader data rate can be up to 140.35 kbps.

• The three frequency ranges that RFID tags typically use are LF, HF, and UHF.

• In general a RFID system has a structure as depicted in figure RFID readers scan tags, and
then forward the information to the backend. The backend in general consists of a database
and a well defined application interface. When the backend receives new information, it adds
it to the database and if needed performs some computation on related fields. The application
retrieves data from the backend. In many cases, the application is collocated with the reader
itself.

An example is the checkout point in a supermarket (Note that the given example uses barcodes
instead of RFID tags since they are more common; however, the system would behave in
exactly the same way if tags were used). When the reader scans the barcode, the application
uses the derived identifier to lookup the current price. In addition, the backend also provides
discount information for qualifying products. The backend also decreases the number of
available products of that kind and notifies the manager if the amount falls below a certain
threshold.

• Main application of RFID devices include:

➢ Garage door openers

➢ Wireless mice/ keyboards

➢ Automobile security and car locks

➢ Health care and pharmaceuticals,

➢ Transportation

➢ Military

➢ Sports and entertainment.

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3351601_Information Communication Networks 196490316039

Practical-13
Aim: To study about working of Bluetooth.
Introduction:
The companies of computer science and telecommunications needed to develop an opened,
low cost interface to make easier the communication between devices without using cables.
This is the origin of the technology which key name is "Bluetooth".
Now another problem arises and is that there are a lot of standards and technologies,
incompatible between them. What we need now is a universal, valid device for the connection
of all kinds of peripheral, and that works in a transparent way for the user. This is Bluetooth.

Opposite to other current technologies, like infrared promoted by the IrDA(Infrared Data
Association) or DECT, Bluetooth has the support of the industry of computer science and
telecommunications, which in some way guarantees the success. Although there is a high
number of manufacturers who incorporate the interface IrDA in their telephones, included
Ericsson, Motorola and Nokia, the use turns out to be frustrating for many users who treat
without success to download information from their PC or PDAs to their mobile telephones, or
vice versa. The devices that Bluetooth incorporates are recognized and speak each other in the
same way as a computer does it with the printer. The low price of these products means that
the incorporation in any device supposes a low cost for the manufacturer and the user.

History:
In the year 1994, the company of telecommunications ERICSSON, began a study to investigate
the viability of a radio low cost interface between mobile telephones and the accessories. The
objective was to eliminate the cables between the mobile telephones and cards of PCs, headsets,
desktop devices, etc. At the beginning of 1997,Ericsson comes closer other manufacturers of
portable devices to increase the interest in this technology. The motive was simple: in order
that the system was successful and really usable, a critical quantity of portable devices should
use the same technology.

In February, 1998, five companies, Ericsson, Nokia, IBM, Toshiba and Intel, founded a Group
of Special Interest (SIG). This group contains the perfect mixture in the business area: two
leaders of the market in mobile telephony, two leaders of the market in computers laptop and
a leader of the market in technology of processing of digital signs.

The goal was to establish the creation of a global specification for connectivity without wires
of short scope. 20 and 21 of May, 1998, Bluetooth's consortium was announced to the general
public of London (England), San Jose (California) and Tokyo(Japan). That global
announcement provokes the adoption of the technology for several companies. The intention
of the consortium was to establish a standard device and software that controls it.

The name “ Bluetooth” :

All the people have a mobile phone with the Bluetooth system but few of them know the
reason of the name, but it is a peculiar name: Blue-tooth. Someone has a tooth with blue
color? Yes, the name comes from a king, Harald I Bluetooth:

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Harald I Bluetooth (Danish Harald Blåtand) was the King of Denmark between 940 and 985
AD. The name "Blåtand" was probably taken from two old Danish words,'blå' meaning dark
skinned and 'tan' meaning great man.
The reason of the name is that in the 10th century the king Harald II ofDenmark, nicknamed "
blue tooth " because of a disease that was giving him this coloration to his denture, reunified
under his reign numerous small kingdoms that existed in Denmark and Norway and that were
working with different rules, … the samething that does the technology Bluetooth, promoted
by Ericsson (Sweden) and Nokia(Finland), two Scandinavian countries.

Symbol of Bluetooth:
Bluetooth'slogo combines the representation of the Nordic runes Hagalaz (transcribed by 'H')
and Berkana (transcribed by 'B') in the same symbol. This is, HB like Harald Blåtand the King.

What is Bluetooth:
Bluetooth is a standard used in links of radio of short scope, destined to replace wired
connections between electronic devices like cellular telephones, Personal DigitalAssistants
(PDA), computers, and many other devices. Bluetooth technology can be used at home, in the
office, in the car, etc. This technology allows to the users instantaneous connections of voice
and information between several devices in real time. The way of transmission used assures
protection against interferences and safety in the sending of information.
The Bluetooth is a small microchip that operates in a band of available frequency throughout
the world. Communications can realize point to point and point multipoint.

How it works?
Every device will have to be equipped with a microchip (transceiver) that transmits and
receives in the frequency of 2.4 GHz that is available in the whole world(with some
variations of bandwidth in different countries). Besides the information, there are three
channels of voice available.

Frequency Bands:
The standard Bluetooth operates in the band of 2,4 GHz. Though worldwide, this band is
available, the width of the band can differ in different countries. This is the frequency of band
of the scientific and medical industries 2.45 GHz (ISM*). The ranges of the bandwidth in The
United States and Europe are between 2.400 to 2.483,5 MHz and it covers part of France and
Spain. The ranges of the bandwidth in Japan are between 2.471 to 2.497 MHz.
So the system can be used worldwide due to that the transmitters of radio covers2.400 and
2.500 MHz and it is possible to select the appropriate frequency. This ISM* is opened for any

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system of radio and must take care of the interferences of monitors for baby, the controls for
doors of garages, the wireless telephones and the microwave ovens (the source with higher
interference).

Power:
The equipments of transmission are qualified in 3 groups according to the level of power of
emission, as we can see below. The recipient equipment must possess a sensibility of at least
70 dBm, and the rate of admissible mistake must be a minor or equal to 0,1 %.

Scope
The connections have a maximum range of 10 meters, though using amplifiers it is possible
to come up to 100 meters, but creating some distortion interferes. Maybe it doesn’t look too
much, but it is necessary to remember that these devices were created by the intention of
using them in closed environments and little distances.

Protocols
Different applications can operate under different sets of protocols; nevertheless, all of them
have a link of information and a physical cap common Bluetooth. The figure below shows the
set of protocols.

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Bluetooth has been designed to operate in a multi-user environment. Presents two types of
possible configurations, which can expand to a considerable number of elements to expand this
way the networks and subnetworks. The structure that handles this technology is composed, in
the more basic form, by what it is named a Piconet and in an a bit more complex structure
which it is named a Scatternet. Up to eight users or devices can form a "piconet" and even
ten"piconets" can coexist in the same area of coverage.
The Piconet are several devices that are in the same radio of coverage where they share the
same channel and that is constituted between two and eight of these units. Every device has the
unique direction of 48 bits, based on the standard IEEE 802.11 forWLAN, whereas the
Scatternet formed by the connection of a Piconet to other one, with a maximum of
interconnections of ten Piconets. In the following figure it is possible to observe and understand
with major facility these two configurations.

Application:

➢ Wireless control of and communication between a mobile phone and a hands-free

headset. This was one of the earliest applications to become popular. Wireless
networking between PCs in a confined space and where little bandwidth is required.
➢ Wireless communications with PC input and output devices, the most common being
the mouse, keyboard and printer.
➢ Transfer of files between devices with OBEX (a kind of communications protocol).
➢ Replacement of traditional wired serial communications in test equipment, GPS
receivers, medical equipment, bar code scanners, and traffic control devices.
➢ Sending small advertisements from Bluetooth enabled advertising hoardings to
other,discoverable, Bluetooth devices.

Sign:

Date:

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