WHAT IS DISCOURSE

• Etymologically, the word ‘discourse’ dates back to

the 14th century. It is taken from the Latin word
‘discursus’ which means a ‘conversation’
(McArthur, 1996). In its current usage, this term
conveys a number of significations for a variety of
purposes, but in all cases it relates to language,
and it describes it in some way. To start with,
discourse is literally defined as ‘a serious speech
or piece of writing on a particular subject’
(Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English,
2001, p.388).
• In this general sense, it incorporates both the spoken and
written modes although, at times, it is confined to speech
being designated as ‘a serious conversation between
people’ (ibid). Carter (1993) specifies several denotations of
the word ‘discourse.’ First, it refers to the topics or types of
language used in definite contexts. Here, it is possible to
talk of political discourse, philosophical discourse and the
like. Second, the word 'discourse' is occasionally employed
to stand for what is spoken, while the word ‘text’ is
employed to denote what is written. It is important to note,
however, that the text/discourse distinction highlighted
here is not always sharply defined.
• A discourse is behavioral unit. It is a set of
utterances which constitute a recognizable speech
event e.g. a conversation, a joke, a sermon, an
interview etc. In its historical and etymological
perspective the term is used in different
perspectives e.g. Verbal communication. All this
fine talk. Direct / indirect speech. To chat. In order
to narrow down the range of possible meanings,
the modern linguists have given different views or
definitions. Example: Discourse is written as well
as spoken: every utterance assuming that has a
speaker and a hearer is known as discourse.
(Benvenisle, 1971: 208-9)
• 1. Definition of Discourse Analysis
• DA is generally viewed as language above
the sentence or the clause. It is the aspect
of linguistics that is concerned with how we
build up meaning in larger communicative,
rather than grammatical units. It studies
meaning in text, paragraph and
conversation, rather than in single sentence.
• Stubbs (1983:1) describes DA thus:
• The term discourse analysis is very ambiguous. It
refers mainly to the linguistic analysis of naturally
occurring connected speech or written discourse.
Roughly speaking, it refers to attempts to study the
organization of language above the sentence or above
the clause, and therefore to study larger linguistic units,
such as conversational exchanges or written texts. It
follows that discourse analysis is also concerned with
language use in social contexts, and in particular with
interaction or dialogue between speakers.
• Brown and Yule (1983) ) observe that DA examines “how
addressers construct linguistic messages for addressees and
how addressees work on linguistic messages in order to interpret
them.”
• From this description of DA by Stubbs, we can gather some
important information about the discipline:
• (a) DA studies naturally-occurring connected speech or
written discourse
• (b) DA studies language above the sentence or clause
• (c) DA is concerned with language use in social context
• The study of discourse is the study of any aspect of language
use (Fasold, 1990:65).
• The analysis of discourse is, necessarily, the analysis of
language in use. As such, it cannot be restricted to the
description of linguistic forms independent of the purposes or
functions which these forms are designed to serve in human
affairs (Brown & Yule, 1983:1).
• While Nunan (1993), states the definition of discourse
linguistics as the study of how stretches of language used in
communication assume meaning, purpose and unity for their
users: the quality of coherence (an interaction of text with given
participants/context)
• 2. Definition of Text Linguistics
• Crystal (1997) defines text linguistic as “the formal account of
the linguistic principles governing the structure of texts”.
• De Beaugrande and Dressler (1981) present a boarder view;
they define text as a communicative event that must satisfy the
following seven criteria: Cohesion (unity), Coherence (the quality
of being logical and consistent), Intentionality ( the fact of being
deliberate or purposive), Acceptability ( the quality of being
tolerated or allowed), Informativity, Situationality (relevant to
surrounding or circumstances), and Intertextuality (the
relationship between texts, especially literary ones).
• From those definitions above, we can get the differences
between text and discourse analysis
Text analysis Discourse Analysis
Text is made up of sentences Discourse is the use of such sentence
Deals with cohesion Investigates coherence
Text is physical product Discourse is a process
Meaning is not found in text Meaning derived through reader’s interaction
using the text
Investigates written form Investigates spoken form
• Approaches to Discourse Analysis
 Speech Act Theory focuses on communicative
acts performed through speech.
 Interactional Sociolinguistics focuses on the
social and linguistic meaning created during
interaction.
 Ethnography of communication focuses on
language and communication as cultural
behaviour.
 Pragmatics focuses on the meaning of individual
utterances in hypothetical contexts.
 Conversational Analysis focuses on how
sequential structures in conversation provide a
basis through which social order is constructed.
 Variation Analysis focuses on structural
categories in texts and how form and meaning in
clauses help to define text. (Schiffrin,1994)