ELECTROSTATICS

Current and Capacitors

- for IIT - JEE

by

Neetin Agrawal
This book is dedicated to
my beloved family

i
 About The Author

Mr. Neetin Agrawal is a renowned faculty for IIT-JEE Physics for last 10 years. He has been
teaching in some of the most popular coaching institutes of the country. He had mentored many
students in top 100 AIR for IIT-JEE and other competitive exams.
He had done his B.Tech from IIT Madras. He has been a scientist and has several inventions on
his name. Some of them are:
http://www.google.com/patents/US8203383
http://www.ee.iitm.ac.in/~nagendra/papers/isc09-tappedlcfil-pap.pdf

ii
 About The Book
This book includes theory, solved examples and exercise for chapters of Electrostatics,
Current and Capacitors. This book will help students preparing for Board exams after class 12th
or equivalent. This book will be a complete knowledge house for Electrostatics for students
preparing for IIT-JEE and other similar competitive exams. Best of luck to the students using
this book!

iii
 Table of Contents
Chapter Topic Name Page No.

1. Electrostatics-1 1
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Charging of a Body 1
1.3 Conductors and Insulators 2
1.4 Concept of Point Charge 4
1.5 Electrostatics Forces 4
1.6 Coulomb’s Law 4
1.7 Principle of Superposition 6
1.8 Coulomb’s Law in Vector Form 10
1.9 Electric Field 12
1.10 Electric Field Lines 14
1.11 Charge Distribution 18
1.12 Charge Density 18
1.13 Calculating Charge on Large Objects 20
1.14 Electric Field Due to Large Object 21
1.15 Electric Field Due to Uniformly Charged Rod 23
1.16 Electric Field at Centre of Semi-circular Ring 27
1.17 Electric Field Due to Uniformly Charged Ring 29
1.18 Electric Field Due to Uniformly Charged Disc 31
Flux and Gauss’s Law 35
1.19 Solid Angle 35
1.20 Area Vector 37
1.21 Electric Flux 38
1.22 Electric Flus through Closed Surface 41
1.23 Gauss’s Law 45
1.24 Using Gauss’s Law and Flux to Find Electric Field 47
1.25 Electric Field due to infinitely large Charge Sheet 48
1.26 Electric Field due to Uniformly Charged Solid Cylinder 50
1.27 Electric Field due to Uniformly Charged Hollow Cylinder 53
1.28 Electric Field due to Uniformly Charged Sphere 55
1.29 Electric Field due to Hollow Sphere 57
1.30 Electric Field due to an Infinite Long Thick Slab 62
Multiple Choice Types 66
Only One Option Correct 66

iv
 More Than one Correct 72
Comprehension 75
Assertion & Reasoning 77
Subjective Type 78
Answer Key 80
2. ELECTROSTATICS-2 82
Electric Potential Energy and Electric Potential 82
2.1 Work Done by Electrostatic Force 82
2.2 Work Done by Man in Electric Field 84
2.3 Electrostatic Potential Energy 87
2.4 Electric Potential 91
2.5 Potential Due to Charged Spheres 93
2.6 Equipotential Surfaces 101
2.7 Motion in Electric Field 103
2.8 Electric Dipole 105
2.9 Conductors 121
2.10 Potential Due to Induced Charge 133
2.11 Conductor with cavity 136
2.12 Grounding or Earthing of Conductors 151
2.13 Electric Field Just Outside Conductor 153
2.14 Electrostatics Pressure 154
2.15 Self Potential Energy 156
Multiple Choice Types 158
Only One Option Correct 158
More Than one Correct 165
Comprehension 169
Assertion & Reasoning 172
Subjective Type 172
Answer Key 173
3. CURRENT ELECTRICITY 174
3.1 Current 174
3.2 Motion of Electrons in Conductors 175
3.3 Current Through Conductors 175
3.4 Drift Velocity 176
3.5 Ohm’s Laws 178
3.6 Temperature Dependence of Resistors for Metals 181
3.7 Temperature Dependence of Resistor for Semiconductors 182
3.8 Current Theory 182
3.9 Kirchoff’s Laws 184
3.10 Solving Complicated Circuits 186

v
3.11 Some Special Circuits 195
3.12 Equivalent Resistance 212
3.13 Heating Effect of Current 226
3.14 Rating / Specification of Bulb 231
3.15 Maximum Power Theorem 236
3.16 Ohmic and Non-Ohmic Resistance 237
3.17 Resistors 238
3.18 Super Conductors 238
Instruments 239
3.19 Galvanometer 239
3.20 Ammeter 240
3.21 Voltmeter 241
3.22 Making Ammeter and Voltmeter 246
3.23 Potentiometer 251
3.24 Application of Potentiometer 253
3.25 Meter Bridge 258
3.26 Post Office Box 260
3.27 Colour Code of Resistors 261
Multiple Choice Types 263
Only One Option Correct 263
More Than one Correct 271
Comprehension 274
Assertion & Reasoning 279
Subjective Type 281
Answer Key 285
4. CAPACITOR 287
287
Capacitor and Capacitive Circuits 287
287
4.1 Capacitor 287
4.2 Some Special Types of Capacitors 288
4.3 Energy Stored in Capacitor 293
4.4 Energy Density 294
4.5 Capacitive Circuits 296
4.6 Solving Complicated Circuits 301
4.7 Heat Production 310
4.8 Equivalent Capacitance 314
4.9 Change on Both Sides of Plates of a Capacitor 317
4.10 Dielectric 330
4.11 Polar and Non Polar Substances 332
4.12 Polarization of Dielectric 333
4.13 Dielectric Inside Capacitor 335

vi
4.14 Electric Field Inside Capacitor 339
4.15 Equivalent Capacitance with Dielectric 340
4.16 Variable Dielectric Constant 347
4.17 Circuits Containing Capacitor with Dielectric 349
4.18 Inserting / Removing dielectric from Capacitor 352
Some Important R-C Circuits
4.19 Charging Circuits 359
4.20 Discharging of Circuit 362
4.21 Initial and Steady State 366
4.22 Internal Resistance of Capacitors 370
Multiple Choice Types 373
Only One Option Correct 373
More Than one Correct 378
Comprehension 379
Assertion & Reasoning 380
Matrix Type 381
Subjective Type 382
Answer Key 386
Additional Important Examples For IIT JEE 388

vii
 CHAPTER
ELECTROSTATICS 1
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Like mechanics or thermodynamics which we have seen so far, electromagnetism is a huge and a very
important branch of Physics. You can understand the importance of this branch if I tell you that all electrical
and electronic items are based on this branch of Physics. Electrostatics is a sub-topic of this branch. The
term ‘electro’ is associated to electron which carries charge, the term ‘statics’ refers to rest. So, in
electrostatics we study about charges which are at rest. There is another part of electromagnetism called
electrodynamics in which we study about charges in motion. We shall deal with this part in further units.
You must be knowing about charges but let’s review some important points about them.
 Charges are of two types: positive and negative.
 A positive charge repels another positive charge. A negative charge repels another negative charge. But a
positive charge attracts another negative charge. We can say-
“Like charges repel each other and unlike charges attract each other”.
 There are three fundamental particles: electron, proton and neutron.
Electron has negative.
Proton has positive charge.
Neutron is electrically neutral.
 Value of charge on electron = Value of charge on proton = 1·6 × 10–19 C.
 Total charge in an isolated system is always constant. This is called “conservation of charge”.
 Charge is quantized.
1p+ has charge of magnitude = 1·6 × 10–19 C
2p+ has charge of magnitude = 3·2 ×10 –19 C
3p+ has charge of magnitude = 4· 8 × 10– 19C
As we cannot divide electrons and protons, value of charge cannot be less than 1·6 × 10– 19 C. It also
means that we cannot have charges between 1·6 × 10–19 C and 3·2 × 10–19 C. In general, we can say that
only those values of charges are possible which are integral multiple of 1·6 × 10–19 C.
or, Q = ne
Where, Q is charge
n is an integer
e is magnitude of charge on an electron

1.2 Charging of a Body

Most of the objects around us like pen, paper, chair etc. are electrically neutral. These bodies are made up of
millions of atoms and these atoms are made up of e– and p+. In electrically neutral bodies, number of
electrons is equal to number of protons.
 To charge a body negatively, we give it some electrons. So, net charge on body becomes negative.
ne– > np+
 To charge a body positively, do we give it some additional protons?
It’s very difficult to give or take away protons as they are tightly bound inside nucleus. To charge a body
positively, we take out some electrons from the body. Thus net charge on body becomes positive.
ne– < np+

1
 Electrostatics-1

Note: - To charge a body either positively or negatively, generally electrons are exchanged not protons.

1.3 Conductors and Insulators

We know that atoms are building blocks of all matter. Let’s consider an atom and analyze it to understand
the difference between conductors and insulators.

There is some attractive force between e– and p+. Due to this force, e– orbits around nucleus. Later in this
chapter, we will study this force in detail. In conductors, this attractive force is very weak, so e– can jump
out of its orbit easily. But in insulator, this attractive force is very strong so e– is not very mobile.
Due to this difference, method of charging a conductor is different from method of charging an insulator.
1.3.1 Charging of Conductors -
We can charge conductors in two ways–
1. By Contact- Suppose we have to charge an iron ball. If we wish to charge this ball negatively, we bring
another conductor that is negatively charged (say negatively charged rod). Now we make these objects
touch each other. Charges have tendency to move from higher density to lower density. Negatively charged
rod has higher density of electrons so some electrons flow from rod to ball. As some charge has moved from
rod to ball, net charge on rod reduces. Ball gets negatively charged.
_
e _
_ _
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
_ _ _
_ _
_ _ _
_ _ _ _ _
_ _

Similarly, if we wish to charge this iron ball positively, we bring a positively charged conductor. Positively
charged object has less concentration of e– so when it touches iron ball, some electrons move from ball to
rod. Thus ball gets negatively charged.

2
Mr. Neetin Agrawal

Quiz-1
When we charge a body, does mass of the body change?
Sol. When a body gets charged negatively, it actually gains some electrons, so mass of body increases. But mass
of e– is negligible so change in mass of body is also negligible. Similarly when a body gets charged
positively, it actually loses some e –. So mass of body reduces.
2. By Induction- Suppose we have to charge an iron ball. Say we bring a negatively charged rod close to
the ball. This time we do not bring the rod in contact with the ball. We just bring it close to the ball.
+ _
_ _ _ _ _ _ _
_ _ _ _ _ _ +
_
+
We have already discussed that electrons in conductors are free to move. When negatively charged rod
comes close to the ball, electrons in the ball experience repulsive force and flow to the right end of the
ball. So some positive charge develops on one side of the ball and equal negative charge develops on the
other side (as shown in figure above).
But as soon as we remove this rod, electrons in the ball again come back to their original position. So
charging of ball by this method is not permanent. We have to be smarter here. Consider two metal balls
touching each other.

Now when we bring negatively charged rod close to one iron ball, again charges appear on the balls as
shown below due to flow of electrons away from the rod.
+ _
+ _
_ _ _
_ _ _ _ _ _ + _
_
_ _ _ + _
+
At this point, we separate these two balls and rod simultaneously.
+ + _
_ _ +
_ _ _ _ +
_ _ _ _ +
_ _ + +
+ + + _

This way we have two metal balls, one is negatively charged and another one is positively charged.

Quiz -2
Quiz-2
Can we charge insulators using above methods?
Sol. No, we can’t. In conductors, electrons are free to move but in insulators electrons are bound. In both the
above methods, electrons are flowing. In method one, electrons flow between rod and ball; in method two,
between the balls.
1.3.2 Charging of Insulators
Let’s see method to charge insulators.
By Rubbing- Let us take two insulating objects: A and B. Now rub them. Some electrons on surface of A
may move to B. This way, body A gets positively charged and body B gets negatively charged.
3
 Electrostatics-1

Now the question is why A gets positively charged and B gets charged negatively? Well, answer lies in
electron affinity. Body which has higher electron affinity accepts negative charge easily and body with
lower electron affinity gives up negative charge easily. In our case, electron affinity of B > electron affinity
of A. That’s why B gets negative charge and A gets positive charge.

Quiz-3
Quiz-3
If we rub two bodies A and B which are made up of same material, will they get charged?
Sol. No, they will not get charged as they have same electron affinity.
1.4 Concept of Point Charge
A point charge is a tiny charged body where all the charge is concentrated. This allows us to simplify our
calculations and reduce complexities. In this chapter, further, we will deal with point charges until
mentioned otherwise.

1.5 Electrostatic Forces

We just studied that like charges repel each other and unlike charges attract each other. These attractive and
repulsive forces are called electrostatic forces.
Consider a system of two charges q1 and q2
Where q1 = + 5 C and q2 = + 50 C
As both the charges are positive, they will repel each other with forces F1 and F2 as shown in the figure
below.

F1 q1 q2 F2
Can you tell which force is greater, F1 or F2?
Magnitude of charge q2 is greater than magnitude of charge q1. But this does not matter here. F1 and F2 are
action-reaction pair, so force applied by charge q1 on q2 is equal and opposite to the force applied by q2 on
q1.
 
 F1  F2
Similarly, if we have two opposite charges say q1 = 5 C and q2 = – 50 C. They will experience equal and
opposite attractive forces.

q1 F2 F2 q2
Note: - When two charges are attracted or repelled, then direction of force is always along the line joining
these two charges.
1.6 Coulomb’s Law
Consider two charges q1 and q2 separated by distance r. According to Coulomb’s law, net force acting on
one charge due to another charge can be given as–

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Mr. Neetin Agrawal

k q1q 2
F
r2
F q1 r q2 F
Where, k is some constant.
 Formulae says that net force experienced by any charge is directly proportional to product of charges.
F  q1 q2
If we increase magnitude of charges then force will also increase.
 It also says, net force experienced by any charge is inversely proportional to square of distance between
them.
1
F
r2
As r increases, F will decrease. This looks reasonable.
1.6.1 Features of Coulomb's Law
1. Coulomb’s Law is applicable only for point charges. We cannot use this law to calculate electrostatic force
between any two big objects.
If an arbitrary shaped body A has charge q1 and another arbitrary shaped body B has charge q2 then forces
between these two bodies cannot be given by Coulomb’s law.

kq1q 2
F
r2
2. The proportionality constant k has value:
k = 9 × 109 N m2/C2.
k can be written as
1
k
4 0
Where, 0 is another constant called permittivity of free space.
3. If we place charges in any medium such as glass or water then value of k can be written as
1
k
4 0 r
Where r is called relative permittivity of the medium. Value of r is different for different materials. For air
or vacuum r = 1.

Quiz -4
-4
Quiz-4
Compare electrostatic force with gravitational forces between two electrons placed 1m apart.
Sol. Force of gravitation between them will be–
5
 Electrostatics-1

Gm1m 2
FG 
r2
Here, m1 = 9.1 x 10-31kg
m2 = 9.1 x 10-31kg
r=1m
So, FG= 5.52 x 10-83 N
Now using Coulomb’s law to calculate electrostatic force–
kq1q 2
FE 
r2
Here, q1 = 1.6 x 10-19C
q2 = 1.6 x 10-19C
r=1m
So, FE = 2.30 x 10-30 N

FG 5.52 1083

FE 2.30 1030
FG
 2.4  10 53
FE
We can see that force of gravitation is very less compared to electrostatic force.

1.7 Principle of superposition.

We will understand principle of superposition with the help of this example. Suppose four charges of
magnitude 2C, 4C, 5C and –3C are placed at four corners of a square whose sides are equal to 1m. We wish
to calculate net force on 4C charge due to all other charges.

Forces applied by all the charges on charge of 4C are as shown in figure. Net force (say Fnet) is vector sum
of all the three forces.
   
Fnet  FBC  FBA  FBC
This technique to find out net force on any charge by taking vector sum of all the forces acting on it is
called principle of superposition.
We can generalize this principle –
“If we have ‘n’ number of charges of magnitude q1, q2 . . . . . qn each applying force F1, F2 . . . . .
Fn on any charge Q, then net force on charge Q is given as –
   
F net =F1 + F2 ......Fn ”
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Mr. Neetin Agrawal

Illustration 1
Three charges of magnitude 2C, – 3C and –4C are placed at three corners of an equilateral triangle of
side 2 m . Using principle of superposition, find net force acting on charge 2C.
Sol. Let three charges be placed at vertices ABC of an equilateral triangle.

Attractive force F1 experienced by charge at A due to –3C charge is given as–

k  2  3
F1 
 2
2

6k
 F1  =–3k
2
Similarly, attractive force F2 experienced by charge at A due to – 4C charge is given as–
k  2  4 
F2 
 2
2

8k
 =–4k
2
  
Net force F  F1  F2
 
As, angle  between F1 and F 2  60o

 F  F12  F2 2  2F1F2 cos 60o

  9 k 2  16 k 2  12 k 2
  37 k 2
 F  k 37 N
Net force on charge 2C is k 37 N

Illustration 2
In previous example, what will be the value of F if we submerge the system into water?
Given that r=80 for water.
Sol. We know that value of k is dependent on medium in which charges are placed. As we are submerging the
system in water, value of k will change which means value of F will also change.
We have seen that, for air
1
k air 
4 0
7
 Electrostatics-1

For medium other than air,

1
k medium 
4 0  r
k air
 k medium 
r
k air
 k water 
80
Thus, value of force in water will be–
Fair
Fwater 
r
k 37
 Fwater 
80
Illustration 3
Two charges of magnitude 5C each are fixed at some finite distance from each other. Now consider
two situations. In the first situation a charge +Q is placed between both the charges and in the second
situation a charge –Q is placed. Such that +Q and –Q are in equilibrium. Find out in which situation
charge is in stable equilibrium.
Sol. First we will check stability of charge +Q and –Q along X axis.
Both the situations are as shown in the figure below–
Y
A FB FA B
X' X
+5C Q +5C

Y'

+Q is in equilibrium as FA = FB –Q is in equilibrium as FA = FB
Let’s displace +Q a little towards X’-axis from its mean position.

FB FA
+5C Q +5C
x' A B x

Distance of charge +Q from point A has reduced. Charge at point A will repel charge +Q with more force.
Distance between charge +Q and point B has increased. So, repulsive force of charge at point B will get
reduced.
As a result, net force will tend to bring charge back to its mean position. We can say that charge +Q is in
stable equilibrium along X-axis.
Let’s displace – Q a little towards X’ axis from its mean position.

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Mr. Neetin Agrawal

Distance of charge –Q from point A has increased. Charge at point A will attract charge –Q more towards
X’- axis.
Distance between charge Q and point B has increased. So, attractive force of charge at point B will get
reduced.
As a result, net force will tend to bring charge closer to point A. We can say that charge –Q is in unstable
equilibrium along X- axis.
Now we will check stability of charge Q and –Q along Y axis
Let’s displace +Q a little along Y-axis from its mean position.

Charges at A and B will repel charge Q. Net force will repel Q away from its mean position. Here we can
see that +Q is in unstable equilibrium.
Let’s displace –Q a little along Y-axis from its mean position.

.
Charges at A and B will attract charge –Q. Net force will attract –Q towards its mean position. Here we can
see that –Q is in stable equilibrium.
We can conclude that in situation 1, system is in stable equilibrium horizontally whereas in situation 2,
system is in stable equilibrium vertically. Overall neither of the system is in stable equilibrium.
Note: - If a system is in unstable equilibrium across any axis then the system is said to be in unstable
equilibrium.
Illustration 4
Consider three situations. In each situation, two pendulums are hanging from wall. Mass of bob of
one pendulum is m1 and that of another is m2. Both the bobs are given some charge Q1 and Q2. As
results both bobs will repel each other and will make some angle  and  with vertical as shown in
figure.

In which of the above situations  = .

Sol. Let’s draw FBD of both the bobs.

9
 Electrostatics-1

FE + + FE

m1g m2g
Although the charge on
both bob are different but
their electrostatic repulsion
will be same. As mass of
both the bobs are same
therefore, the forces on both
the bob will be equal

This problem emphasizes the fact that even if we have two different charges, mutual electrostatic force
between them will be same.

1.8 Coulomb’s Law in Vector Form

As force is a vector quantity, it has some magnitude as well as direction. We will write coulomb’s law in
vector form so that it will represent magnitude as well as direction of electrostatic force. Consider two
charges q1 and q2 separated by distance r.

First of all we will define r . It is the vector joining charge q1 and q2.
F
q2
r

q1

Unit vector along r is rˆ

r
Where r̂ 
r
From Coulomb’s law
k q1q 2
F
r2
As direction of force is along
 k q q k q1q2 
 F = 1 2
rˆ = r
r 2
r3

Quiz -5
-5
Quiz-5
If two charges of magnitude + q1 and – q2 are separated by a distance r, then find out force acting on
the charge –q2.

Sol. First define r . It is the vector joining charge -q2 to q1.

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Mr. Neetin Agrawal

As charge q1 is positive and charge q2 is negative, so charge q2 will experience an attractive force due to
q1.
 k q1   q 2 
F rˆ
r2
 k q q
F 1 2
rˆ
r2

We can see that direction of the force is opposite to that of r . This is because the force is attractive in
nature.
Illustration 5
A charge of 5 C is placed at the origin. Another charge of – 10C is placed at (3, 4). Find the net force
acting on – 10C charge.
Sol.


Here r  3 ˆi  4 ˆj

r  32  42 = 5 units

r 3iˆ  4 ˆj
r̂   
r 5
 kq q
As, F  12 2 rˆ
r
 k  5  10  3iˆ  4ˆj
F
5 2
×
5
 
50 k 3 ˆi  4 ˆj
25
×
5

  6i  8j 
k
5
Illustration 6
A charge of 10C is placed at (1, 5), another charge of 6C is placed at (4, 2). Find the net force acting
on 6C charge.
Sol.

11
 Electrostatics-1


r   4  1 ˆi   2  5  ˆj  3 iˆ  3ˆj

r  32  32  3 2

r 3 ˆi  3 ˆj
r̂   
r 3 2

1 ˆ ˆ
2
i j  
 k 10  6 
F ×
1 ˆ ˆ
ij   
60
k×
1 ˆ ˆ
ij 
10 k ˆ ˆ
i j N    
 
2
3 2 2 18 2 3 2

1.9 Electric Field

Suppose two charges q1 and q2 are placed at points A and B separated by distance r.

q1 r q2 F
A B
Force experienced by a charge at B is given as
k q1q 2
F ... (1)
r2
Now suppose there is no charge at point B. If we place a unit positive charge (+1C) at B, it would
experience some force.

So here at point B we can define electric field as force experienced by +1C charge due to charge q1.
Electric field is denoted by E. In above case, we can calculate the value of E at point B due to point charge
q1 with this formula–
k q1
EB 
r2
Here r is distance between charge q1 and point B.
We can generalize the definition of electric field as “electric field at a point due to any charge is the force
experienced by +1C of charge if it is placed at that point”. The electric field is a vector quantity and its
direction is same as direction of force experienced by +1C charge. We can write electric field in vector form
as–
 kQ kQ 
E = 2 r = 3 r
r r
To understand the concept of electric field in more detail, consider a charge Q. We have to find its electric
field at point A, B and C as shown in figure.

Assume that a charge of 1C is placed at point A. This 1C of charge will experience a repulsion force
towards right. It means direction of electric field due to Q at point A is towards right.
Similarly, at point B, direction of electric field is in upward direction and at point C it is towards left.

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Mr. Neetin Agrawal

Let’s see some examples of electric field.

Illustration 7
Two charges are placed at points A and B of magnitude + 2C and + 3C. Find electric field at point P
due to both these charges. Distance AB = 10 m and BP = 10 m, as shown in the figure.

Sol. Assume that a charge of +1C is placed at the point P. Direction of force applied by 2C charge on it will be
towards right. Therefore the direction of the electric field at P due to 2C charge (EA) will be towards right.
In the same way, direction of the electric field at P due to +3C charge (EB) will be towards right.
A 10m B 10m P
+2C +3C
EA EB
As direction of both EA and EB are same.
 Enet = EA + EB
k  2 
Where , EA 
 20 
2

k  3
EB 
10
2

2k 3k k
 E net    N /C
200 100 25

Quiz-6
Quiz-6
A +Q point charge is placed at the origin. Plot a graph between E and x.
+q
x’ x
O
Sol. Electric field due to a point charge is given as–
 kQ
E  2 xˆ
x
Direction of electric field to right and left of origin is as shown.

Variation of E at different points on x axis will be as shown in the figure below

13
 Electrostatics-1

From the above observations, we can plot the graph between E and x.
E

1.10 Electric Field Lines

The concept of electric field lines was first given by Michael Faraday. With the help of this concept of
electric field lines, we can visualize electric field more clearly. Suppose we have a charge + Q at point O.
We can draw electric field at any point around it, say at point A.

+Q E
A
O
If we move further away from the charge +Q along line OA, magnitude of E decreases, so the size of arrow
also reduces.

+Q
A
O
We can do the same for all directions.

+Q

From above diagram, we can observe two things:

1. Direction of electric field - which is along the arrows.
2. Magnitude of electric field - though we are not getting the exact magnitude of E but we can compare the
value of E at any two points by comparing the length of the arrows.

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Mr. Neetin Agrawal

Faraday joined all these arrows as shown in the figure below and called them electric field lines.

+Q

From this diagram, can we still observe the direction and magnitude of electric field? We can surely say that
direction is still represented by direction of arrows, but what about magnitude? This diagram is also
representing the magnitude of electric field. Near the charge, we can see that electric field lines are closer to
each other. Therefore electric field is stronger in that region. But as we move away from the charge, field
lines are away from each other. This means electric field is weaker as we move away from charge.
Above diagram represents electric field lines due to a positive charge. But can we draw field lines due to
negative charge? Yes, we can draw but direction will be opposite.

–Q

If we assume a charge of 1C placed near charge –Q, it will experience a force towards –Q. Therefore lines
of electric field are inwards.
Key Point
1. If we place a positive charge, say +q, in electric field then force experienced by this charge +q will be along
electric field line. But if we place a negative charge, say –q, in electric field then forces experienced by this
charge -q will be in the direction opposite to that of electric field line.

2. In previous diagram, we have drawn 8 field lines coming out of charge +Q. We could have drawn any
number of lines up to infinity.

15
 Electrostatics-1

3. Although we can draw any number of field lines from any charge Q, if we have drawn ‘n’ number of field
lines out of this charge Q then for charge nQ, number of field lines to be drawn will be ‘2n’.
For example, if we have drawn 4 field lines for charge of + 5C then we have to draw 8 field lines for a
charge of +10 C.

+5 +10

1.10.1 Electric Field Lines due to Multiple Charges

Let’s consider some cases:
1. Suppose we have a positive and a negative charge of equal magnitude. Their field lines are given as shown
in figure.

Electric field lines due to a single charge are straight lines, but here field lines are curved. In this case, at
each point, direction of electric field is tangential to electric field line. We can verify this statement.
Consider a point P on curve as shown in figure below.

 
At point P, electric field due to charge +Q will be E A . Similarly, electric field due to charge -Q will be E B .
   
E  E A  E B . From simple observation, we can see that the direction of E may very well be along the
tangent to the curve. In the same way, we can verify this result for any point we want.
2. Suppose we have two positive charges of equal magnitude.

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Mr. Neetin Agrawal

The electric field lines will be as shown in the figure above. Again, we get curved electric field lines and
direction of electric field at any point will be tangential to the electric field lines. In this diagram, we can
see a region between two charges where no electric field exists. Electric field here is zero and it is called
null point.
Note: Electric field lines represent net electric field due to all the charges. As you can see in the above 2
cases, the field lines give direction of the net electric field not of the electric field due to any individual
charge.
1.10.2 Properties of Electric Field Lines
1. Electric field lines start at positive charge or .
2. Electric field lines end at negative charge or .
3. Electric field lines do not intersect each other.
We can prove above statement.
Suppose at any point A two electric field lines x and x’ cross each other.
Ex x

Ex'
A x'

If we draw tangent over curve x at point A, it represents the direction of the net electric field at A along Ex.
If we draw tangent over curve x’, it represents the direction of the net electric field at A along Ex’ But at
any point net electric field can only be in one direction. It means that electric field lines can never intersect
each other.

Quiz-7
Quiz-7
Find the possible value of charges A and B from following diagram.

(a) (Q, Q) (b) (-3Q, Q) (c) (Q, –3Q) (d) (Q, 3Q)
Sol. As we can see, field lines are starting from A as well as B. It means both are positive. Therefore option B
and C cannot be the answer.
Number of field line from B = 3 x (number of field lines from A)
 Value of charge B = 3 x (Value of charge A)
So, option D is correct.

17
 Electrostatics-1

1.11 Charge Distribution

Till now we have been studying about point objects where whole charge is concentrated at a single point.
Charge can also be given to large objects like rod, plate, cube etc. but distribution of charge over a body
may vary. Let’s see the different ways in which charge can be distributed.
 Linear charge distribution - when charge is spread over the length of an object like rod, ring etc.

 Surface charge distribution - when charge is spread over an area of object like disc, plate etc.

 Volume charge distribution - when charge is spread over volume of object like sphere, cone etc.



 Uniform charge distribution – when charge is distributed over a body uniformly, i.e. if a body is divided
into equal parts, charge on each part is same.

 Non uniform charge distribution – when charge is distributed over a body non-uniformly, i.e. if body is
divided into equal parts, charge on one part may not be equal to another.

1.12 Charge Density

Charge density can be studied under three groups.
1. Linear charge density (.
Let’s try to understand the meaning of this term.
Case I - Suppose we have a positively charged rod whose  = 5 C/m

If we take a small elemental length of rod dx at distance x from one end, charge on this small length dx will
also be small say dq. This dq can be written as
dq = dx

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Mr. Neetin Agrawal

 dq = 5 dx
Case II-Suppose we have a positively charged rod whose  = 2x + 1

Again, we take small elemental length dx which is at distance x from one end and has charge dq.
Again dq = dx
  dq = (2x + 1) dx
Let’s analyze these two cases. In case I, value of  was constant, i.e.  = 5C/m, so for any value of x, dq
will be 5dx. But in case II, value of  varies with value of x. If we put x=1, dq = 3dx. If we put x=3, dq =
7dx. Therefore, we can say that charge distribution in case I is uniform but in case II, it is non-uniform.
2. Surface charge density () - In linear charge density, we calculated charge over very small length,
here we will calculate charge on small elemental area. Let’s consider a case to understand this better.
Suppose a circular disc has = 5 C/m2. We have to find charge on a small elemental area of disc.

+ + dA
+ + +
+ + +
+ ++
We take a small elemental area of disc dA. Say charge on this dA is dq.
Then, dq =  dA
 dq = 5 dA
As value of  is constant, charge distribution is uniform.
3. Volume charge density () - Just as we did previously, we take a small elemental volume here.
3
Suppose a sphere has  = 5 C/m . We take a small elemental volume dV and charge on dV is dq.

As dq = dV
dq = 5 dV
As  is constant, charge on the sphere is uniformly distributed.
Note:
Unit of  is given a C/m
 is given as C/m2
 is given as C/m3

19
 Electrostatics-1

1.13 Calculating Charge on Large Objects

Illustration 8
A rod has length 10m and  = 5C/m. Find total charge on the rod.
Sol. We will take a small element dx at distance x from one end. Let charge on dx be dq then.

dq =  dx
dq = 5 dx
To calculate the total charge on the rod, we need to add all such small charges on different parts of the rod.
For this, we have to do integration.

q  5 dx

The limit on this integration will be range of x. At one end, the value of x is zero and at other end value of x
becomes equal to length of rod, i.e. 10m.
 Range of x is from 0 to 10
10
 q  5  dx
0

 5  x 0
10

= 5 × 10 - 5 × 0 = 50 C
Illustration 9
A rod of length 10 m has linear charge density  value of  varies with length as
 = 2x + 1 where x is in meter. Find total charge on the rod.
Sol. Let’s take a small elemental length dx at distance x from one end.

This element dx has charge say dq

Then, dq =  dx
dq = (2x + 1) dx
q    2x  1dx
Range of x varies from 0 to 10 m
10
10
 2x 2 
 q    2x  1 dx    x
0  2 0
= [100 + 10 – 0] = 110 C
If a linear object (like a rod) is uniformly charged, total charge q is given as– q =  l where l is length of the
object. You can check this from last to last example. But for non-uniformly charged rod, such a formula is
not applicable. There we must do integration as in the last question. Similarly, if we are given a uniformly
charged surface such as disc or plate, then we can say that
q =  A where A is area of surface of the object.
Similarly for uniformly charged volume such as cylinder, cone,
q = V where V is volume of object.
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Mr. Neetin Agrawal

1.14 Electric Field Due to Large Objects

We have studied that to calculate charges on large objects we have to first find out value of charge on small
element. Charge on this small element is also small say dq. And then we add them with the help of
integration. We use a similar approach to calculate electric field due to large objects. Let’s find electric field
of some large objects

Electric field on axis of charged rod

Axis
A

In the above diagram, point A lies on the axis of the rod. Suppose length of a rod is l and has charge density
 We have to calculate electric field at point A as in the figure.

Let’s take a small element of length dx at distance x from one end as shown in figure.

As element dx is small, we can think that charge on dx will also be small, say dq. This element dx is so
small that we can think of it as point charge. This rod is made up of infinite such small point objects. The
electric field at A will be sum of electric field due to all these small point objects.
As, the charge density of rod is 
dq = dx ... (1)
Now, electric field at A due to this small element will also be small, say dE.
k dq
Where dE 
r2
k dq

l  x  a 
2

Substituting value of dq from (1)

k  dx
dE 
l  a  x 
2

Similarly, we will have the electric field at A due to all such small elements. So total E will be given as–
 k dx
E
1  a  x 
2

dx
 E   k [is constant]
1  a  x 
2

Now limit of integration will be range of x i.e. from x = 0 to x = l


dx
E  k 
1  a  x 
2
0

Key Point
On integrating above result, we get this formula

21
 Electrostatics-1

k Q 1 1 
E 
  a   a 
Note: This formula has been derived for constant For non-uniform charge distribution, this formulae is
not applicable.

Illustration 10
Consider a uniformly charged rod of length 8m and  = 5C/m. Calculate E due to this charged rod at
a distance of 4 m from one end of the rod on axis.

Sol.
As  for rod is given 5C/m, so
q

l
 q =l = (5) (8) = 40C
As charge distribution is uniform so we can use the previously derived formula to calculate E at A.
k Q 1 1 
E 
  a   a 

k (40)  1 1 
  E 
8  4 8  4 

On solving, we get
5
E k
6
Illustration 11
In previous example, what will be value of E if value of  varies with length as =5–x.
Sol. As the charge on the rod is non-uniform in this case, we cannot use formula here. We have to solve this
problem with the help of integration. Let’s take a small element of length dx at distance x from one end as
shown in the figure.

As element dx is small, charge on dx will also be small, say dq. The electric field at A will be sum of
electric field due to all these small point objects.
As charge density of rod is 
dq = dx ... (1)
Now, electric field at A due to this small element will also be small, say dE.
k dq k dq
dE  
l  x  a 
2 2
r
Substituting value of dq from (1)
k  dx
dE 
l  a  x 
2

Similarly, we will have electric field at A due to all such small elements. So total E will be given as–

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Mr. Neetin Agrawal

 k dx (5  x) k dx
E 
1  4  x  5  x 
2 2

Range of x is from x = 0 to x = 8
8
dx
E  k
0 
5  x
On solving we get our answer.

Quiz-8
Quiz-8
What will be the direction of electric field due to a uniformly charged rod at point A. Point A is
located symmetrically from both ends of the rod.

Sol. We can see that rod is symmetrical about horizontal axis. Let’s take a pair of two small elements of length
dx such that angle extended by them with horizontal is . E due to them at point A will be dE1 and dE2 as
shown in figure.

Resolve dE1 and dE2 along the horizontal and vertical directions. We can see from the figure that vertical
components are opposite to each other. So, they cancel out each other.
dE1 sin  = dE2 sin 
Directions of the horizontal components of both dE1 and dE2 are same. So, horizontal components add. Net
electric field due to both these small elements is in the horizontal direction. Similarly, we can make infinite
pairs of such small elements in this rod. For all these pairs, we will have electric field in horizontal direction
only. Therefore net electric field will also be in horizontal direction.

1.15 Electric Field Due to Uniformly Charged Rod

A uniformly charged rod is given, as shown in figure. Linear charge density of the rod is 

23
 Electrostatics-1

++ + + + +
Q r A

R
As we can see that point A is not located symmetrically in front of the rod, therefore net electric field will
not be in horizontal direction. Its direction will be somewhere as shown in the figure below.

We will find out X and Y-components of electric field separately. First, let’s solve for the x-axis. Draw a
perpendicular from point A on the rod, at point O. We will take a small element dx at length x from point O.

dE due to small element dx having charge dq will be given as

k dq k  dx
dE  
2 2
In horizontal direction, electric field is dEcos Net electric field in the horizontal direction isl
k dx
E x   dE cos    cos  ... (1)
2
It cannot be integrated as we have three variables here x,  and . We have to find relation between them to
eliminate any two.
r
as, cos  

r
  ... (2)
cos 
x
Now, tan  
r
Differentiating both the sides
dx
sec 2  d 
r

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Mr. Neetin Agrawal

 dx = r sec2  d ... (3)

Substituting value of l and dx in equation (1)

Ex  
 
k  sec 2  d r cos3 
2
r
k  cos  d
Ex  
r
Limit of integration is from – 2 to 1
1
k  cos  d k  k
sin 1 2   sin 1  sin 2 

Ex  
2
r

2 2
Now let’s find Y-component of electric field.

Total electric field Ey is E y  dE sin  

If we follow the same steps as with Ex, we find out that
k
Ey   cos 2  cos 1 
r
Note:-Remember that we have already considered signs of 1 and 2 while putting limits, so we need to
substitute values of 1 and 2 in the above equations without considering there sign.
To reduce confusion, we can rewrite above formulas as
k
Ex 
r
 sin 2  sin 1 
k
Ey 
r
 cos 2  cos 1 
Illustration 12
A point A lies at a distance 4m from the centre of the rod of length 6m. This rod is uniformly charged.
Calculate electric field at this point A due to uniformly charged rod (= 4 C/m).
P
++ + + + +

3m

Q A
r = 4m
3m
Sol. R
Here, we can calculate value of  and 
3
 tan 1 =
4
25
 Electrostatics-1

3
tan 2 =
4
 1 = 2 = 37o
Now, we can calculate values of Ex.
k
Ex 
r
 sin 2  sin 1 
 Ex 
4k
4

sin 37 o  sin 37o 
6
 Ex  k 
5
 Similarly, we can calculate Ey.
As  and  are equal, therefore
Ey = 0
Key Point
1. Suppose the rod is  in length. + + + + + +

r E

Then 1   2  90 o
k 2k 
 Ex  sin 90  sin 90 
r r
k
Ey  cos 90  cos 90 = 0
r
So, electric field due to  rod is in the horizontal direction and is given by
k
E
r
2. Suppose the rod is semi .

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Mr. Neetin Agrawal

In this case 1 = 0º and 2 = 90º

k k
 Ex  sin 0o  sin 90o  
r r
k k 
And Ey   cos 0o  cos 90o  
r r
1.16 Electric Field at Centre of Semicircular Ring
Suppose a semicircular ring of radius R and charge density  is given. We have to calculate electric field at
center of the arc and identify its direction.
Let’s analyze direction of the electric field first. We can see that the arc is symmetric about horizontal axis.
Let’s take a pair of two small elements of length dx as shown in figure. E due to them is dE1 and dE2.

If we resolve dE1 and dE2 along horizontal and vertical directions, vertical components are opposite to
reach other.
dE1sin = dE2sin
So, they cancel out each other. However, horizontal components add up. So, net electric field is in
horizontal direction. Similarly, for all the pairs we have electric field in horizontal direction only.
Let’s calculate value of this electric field.

Take a small element dx on the ring.

dE due to this dx is given as
k dq k  dx
dE   (as dq =  dx)
R2 R2
As the net electric field is due to the sum of all the horizontal components of dE.
k
 E   dE cos    co s  dx
R2
But we can’t solve this integration as we have two variables x and  in the equation.
We know that
dx = Rd
27
 Electrostatics-1

 k (R cos )
 E d
R2
 
As range of  is from  to
2 2
k R  /2
R 2 /2
E cos  d

k 2k
sin /2 
 /2

R R
Key Point
To calculate electric field at the center of any uniformly charged circular arc we can use the formula
2kλ θ
E= sin
R 2
Where, R is radius and  is the angle subtended by the arc at the center. In the last derivation, was .
Illustration 13
Calculate electric field due to a uniformly charged arc which subtends angle 60º at the center. Given
that  = 2 C/m and radius = 2m.

Sol.

  60o or
3
2k 
as, E sin
R 2
Substituting values of R,  and 
4k 
 E sin
2 6
1
= 2k ×
2
= k N/C
Illustration 14
In the previous example, what will be the value of E if =2cos .
Sol.

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Mr. Neetin Agrawal

As charge distribution on arc is non-uniform, we cannot apply direct formula. We have to solve it using
integration. Take a small length element dx on the ring.
dE due to this dx is given as
k dq k  dx
dE   (as dq =  dx)
R2 R2
Net electric field is due to sum of all the horizontal components of dE.
k
 E   dE cos    co s  dx
R2
Here we have two variables x and  in the equation. We know that
dx = Rd
k
 E cos (Rd)
R2
 
As range of  varies from  to
6 6
k R  /6 k R  /6
2  2 
So, E   cos  d  2 cos 2  d
R  /6 R  /6
On integrating we get our answer.

1.17 Electric Field due to Uniformly Charged Ring

Suppose A ring having radius R and center O is uniformly charged with charge distribution . Find the
electric field at point A which lies on the axis of ring at distance ‘a’ from center of the ring.

First let’s find out the direction of electric field. Take any two diagrammatically opposite small elements.
Charge on each dx will be dq. dE at point A due to both dq will be as shown in figure.

If we resolve these dE, we can see that their vertical components are equal but opposite in direction so they
cancel out each other but the horizontal components add. So, net electric field is in horizontal direction.
Now let’s find the value of Enet.
Consider a small element on any part of the ring.

k dq
dE 
 
2
a2  R2

29
 Electrostatics-1

Now, E net   dE cos 

As the net electric field is due to horizontal component only.
k dq
 E cos 
a  R2
2

a
As, cos  
R  a2
2

k dq a k a dq ka
 E 2 ×   3 
dq
a R
R2  a2  2 R2  a2  2
2 3
R a
2 2

If total charge on ring is Q, then

k aQ
E=
R 
3/ 2
2
+ a2
as, Q =  (2R)
2 ka λ π R
 E=
R 
3/ 2
2
+ a2
Key Point
For any point lying on the axis of the uniformly charged ring, the electric field can be given as.
ka Q
E
R 
3/2
2
 a2
Where, Q is the net charge on the ring
a is distance of point from the center of the ring.
R is radius of the ring
Special Points -
1. At a = 0 or at center of the ring, E=0.
2. At a =  E=0.
ka Q kaQ kQ
We can verify this E   
R 
3/ 2 3/ 2 3/ 2
2
a 2
R2
  R2 
a 3  2  1 a 2  2  1
a  a 
If a
E 0
We can draw graph between a and E due to ring.

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Mr. Neetin Agrawal

1.18 Electric Field Due to Uniformly Charged Disc

Let’s calculate electric field at point A which lies at a distance ‘a’ from center of an uniformly charged disc.
Radius and surface charge distribution of the disc are R and  respectively.

Consider an elemental ring of radius r and thickness dr. This disc is made up of such thin rings.
dr

Let dq be charge on this small ring and dA be its area.

dA = 2r dr
dq =  dA
dq = 2 r dr ... (1)
dE due to this ring at point A is given as
k adq
dE 
r 
3/2
2
 a2
2  r ka dr
 (Using equation (1))
 
3/2
r2  a2
2 a k  r dr r dr
E  2 a k 
r  r 
3/2 3/2
2
 a2 2
 a2
On integrating we get
  a 
E 1  2 
20  a  R2 
Key Point
Electric field on axis of uniformly charged disc of radius R can be given as
  a 
E 1  2 
2 0  a R 
2

Q  a 
or E 2 
1 
2 0 R  a2  R2 
Where Q is net charge on disc
 is surface charge density
a is distance of point form center of ring

31
 Electrostatics-1

Illustration 15
Find electric field at point A due to a uniformly charged hemisphere of radius R = 3m,  = 2 C/m3

Sol. We can see that this hemisphere is made up of thin discs as shown in figure.
dE

A
R x
r
dx

Charge on this thin disc can be given as

dq = dV
Where dV is volume of this thin disc
dV = r2dx
 dq =  r2dx
To calculate dE at A we can use formula to calculate electric field due to disc.
 r 2dx  x 
dE   2 r 2 0 1  r 2  x 2 
  x 
E  
2 0 
1  2
r  x2 
 dx

1  x 
  1 
0  2 r 2  x 2
 dx

... (1)

We have 2 variables x and r so we need to remove one of them to do integration.

From the figure we can see that
R2 = x2 + r2
Substituting this in equation (1)
1  x
0   R 
E 1 dx

As range of x is from x = 0 to x = R = 3
3
1 3 x 1  x2 
  1   dx   x 
0 0  R  0  2R  0
1  3 3
 3    N/C
 0  2  2 0

32
Mr. Neetin Agrawal

Illustration 16
In figure given below, a rod is bent in U shape. Find electric field at point A, if the rod is uniformly
charged with charge density 

P T

r A r
Q S

R
Sol. We can see that rod PQ and rod TS are two semi-infinite rods and QRS is a semicircle. If we find electric
field at A due to all three of them and add them, we can find net electric field at A. Direction of electric
field due to PQ, TS and arc QRS is as shown in the figure. We can resolve all these three electric fields into
x and y direction.

Horizontal components of ETS and EPQ will balance out each other, whereas vertical component will be
added.
k k 2k
E'y (due to PQ and TS)   
r r r
Electric field due to arc QRS will be in the vertical direction only.
2k 180 2k
EQRS  sin 
r 2 r
33
 Electrostatics-1

So, we can see that E 'y (due to PQ and TS)  E QRS but opposite in direction
 Net electric field at A = 0

Illustration 17
An uniformly charged rod whose charge density is  is bent in ‘L’ shape as shown in the figure.
Calculate the value of electric field at point A.

r A
Q
r
R
S T
Sol. We can see that rod PQ and rod TS are two semi-infinite rods and arc QRS is a quarter circle. Let’s see the
direction of electric field due to all of them.

ETS EQRS
r A
Q
r EPQ
R
S T
Electric fields due to both semi-infinite rods cancel out each other. So, net field is only due to the arc.
k 90 k
EQRS  sin 
r 2 r 2
Illustration 18
An uniformly charged disc of radius ‘a’ has a circular hole in center of radius b. Calculate
electric field at point A which lies on the axis of the disc at distance r from the center. Take surface
charge density as .

a
r A
b

Sol. We can imagine that this disc is made by subtraction of two discs of radius ‘a’ and ‘b’ as shown in figure.

34
Mr. Neetin Agrawal

If we find electric field at A due to both the discs and subtract them, we can find net electric field due to the
given figure.

a
r A

  r 
Ea  1  2 2 
20  a r 

b r A

  r 
Eb  1  2 2 
2 0  b r 
Enet = Ea – Eb

  r    r  r 1 1 
 1  2 2  1  2 2    2 2  2 2
20  a r  20  b  r  20  b  r a r 

Flux and Gauss’s Law:

1.19 Solid Angle
We are familiar with planar angle which is formed by joining two lines.

Now, imagine a cone. Angle subtended by cone at apex is called solid angle. It is a 3-D angle ()

35
 Electrostatics-1

In the above figure, the 2-D angle (2 which can be seen on paper is called planar angle,so  can be
called half planar angle. There is a relation between this half planar angle and solid angle.
 = 2 (1– cos )
Unit of solid angle is steradian.
Illustration 19

A cone is carved into a sphere whose planar angle is . Calculate solid angle  for cone.
3
Sol


As, 2 
3

 
6
   3
Solid angle     2   1  cos   2 1   steradian
 6  2 
Illustration 20
Find solid angle of hemisphere.

Sol. Planar angle of hemisphere (2) = 


 
2
 = 2 (1– cos )
= 2 steradian
36
Mr. Neetin Agrawal

Illustration 21
Find solid angle of sphere.

Sol. Planar angle of hemisphere (2) = 2

 
= 2 (1– cos )
= 4 steradian
Key point
 In above two cases we can see that value of solid angle is just double of planar angle. But it is not necessary
that solid angle is double of planar angle in all the cases. We can verify this from first example itself. Solid
angle of cone was very different from planar angle.
 Maximum value of solid angle is 4 steradian as we saw in the case of sphere above.
1.20 Area Vector
Consider a rectangular plate of sides 3m and 2m.

Area of this rectangle is given as A=6m2. Till now, we have never associated any direction with area but
sometimes we are required to treat area as a vector quantity. We take direction of area vector  to surface.

In case of the above rectangular plate, we have two possible directions of area vector. If A represents area

vector then from figure we can see possible directions of A .

Now, we can classify surfaces into two types –

 Open Surface – Those surfaces which do not enclose any volume are open surfaces. Above example of
rectangular plate that we saw was an open surface.
 Closed Surface – Those surfaces which enclose some volume such as cylinder, cube, sphere etc. are called
closed surfaces. We always define area vector of closed surfaces in outward direction. Area vector of cube
and sphere are shown in figure below.

37
 Electrostatics-1

1.21 Electric Flux

Flux means flow. To understand electric flux, let’s compare it with an analogy. Suppose a river is flowing
and flow of water is represented by arrows, as shown in figure. Now suppose we immerse a rectangular
frame in water such that area vector of this frame is parallel to flow of water. In this case, maximum water
flows through frame. If we tilt this frame as shown in figure (ii), amount of water flowing through frame
reduces. If we tilt this frame such that area vector is perpendicular to flow of water, no water flows through
it. In (i), water flux is said to be maximum and in (iii), water flux is minimum (in fact zero).

Now, imagine that arrows are representing electric field lines instead of water flow.
Let’s analyze each situation–
Situation (i) – maximum field lines are crossing frame, so we say that electric flux through frame is
maximum.
Situation (ii) – we have lesser field lines passing through frame, so electric flux through frame is also less.
Situation (iii) – we have zero or no field lines through frame, so electric flux is also zero.
Mathematically, electric flux through a surface is defined as:
 
  E.A  EA cos  where  is electric flux.
E is electric field on the surface through which flux is being calculated.
A is area of surface through which flux is being calculated.
 
 is angle between E and A .
We can find value of flux in all these three situations.
In situation (i),  = 0º
  = EA cos 
= EA

In situation (ii) 0 <  <
2
  = EA cos 

In situation (iii)  
2

   EA cos =0
2

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Mr. Neetin Agrawal

Note: Remember, when E is parallel to area vector A, flux is simply EA.

When E is perpendicular to A, flux is zero.
We shall be using these two points in many problems directly.
We can analyze this formula of flux more deeply:
 It is telling us that if value of E increases, value of flux increases. Physically we can observe that if E is
more then there will be more field lines. Hence, there will be more flux.
 It can also be analyzed that if we increase area of surface, then also flux increases.

In above figure we can see that if we increase area of surface then more electric field line will pass through
it.
 Angle  takes care of orientation of this frame. We have already seen that on changing orientation of
frame, flux is also changing.
 Notice one more thing in above case. Gap between all the field lines is same. It means value of electric field
is same everywhere. So we call these types of field lines as uniform electric field lines. Now suppose
electric field lines are somewhat like these–

Can we still call them uniform electric field lines?

Separation between field lines is different at different locations, so magnitude of electric field varies and is
thus non-uniform. If we place same rectangular frame in this type of field lines, can we find the value of
flux using the above formula?

Above formula for flux is valid only for uniform electric fields. But still we can find flux. Consider a small
elemental area dA. Flux through this small area is also small, say d.
 
So, d  E.dA
We can calculate net flux on surface by integrating it.
 
    E.dA
39
 Electrostatics-1

Quiz-9
Quiz-9
A uniformly charged infinite rod is passing through a disc along its axis. Calculate flux through this
disc.
Sol.

From figure we can see that area vector of disc will be parallel to rod. Let’s take it in upward direction, as
shown in figure (we can also take it in downward direction).
Direction of electric field (E) will be to rod.
 
 E  A
 
  E. A
= EA cos 90º
=0
So, flux through this disc is zero.
Illustration 22
A semi  rod is uniformly charged. A disc of radius ‘a’ is placed at one end such that rod lies on axis
of disc. Calculate flux through disc due to this rod.
Sol.

Let’s take direction of area vector in upward direction (we can also take it in downward direction).
Previously we saw that electric field due to semi-infinite rod is in horizontal as well as vertical direction.
Say, Ex and Ey, as shown in figure.
 
Ex  A
 flux due toEx 
 
But E y / / A , so all the flux will be due to Ey only.
Let’s redraw the figure with only Ey .

40
Mr. Neetin Agrawal

Ey due to semi-infiniterod is given as–

k
Ey 
r
We can see that value of Ey is dependent on value of radius (r). This means that at different points of disc,
electric field is different. Hence, Ey in non-uniform electric field. To calculate flux through disc we have to
find flux through small parts of disc and then sum them all by integration. Let’s take elemental ring on disc
of thickness dr and radius r.

Flux on this small ring can be given as.

d = E dA cos 
k
  2 r dr  cos  [We derived the value of dA previously]
r
d = 2 k  dr.
Flux through whole disc can be given as,
   2 k dr
Limit of integration will be range of r.
At centre r = 0 and at end r = a.
So, range of r is from 0 to a.
a
  2 k   dr
0
= 2 k  a
1.22 Electric Flux through Closed Surface
Consider a point charge +Q. Its electric field lines will be outwards as shown in figure. Imagine a hollow
sphere (S) of radius r such that the charge +Q is placed at center. Now, we want to calculate flux through
this hollow sphere.
41
 Electrostatics-1

Electric field due to this charge +Q at sphere S will be

kQ
E
r2
 
Area vector (A) of this imaginary sphere will be in outward direction. So, E / /A .
Flux through this surface can be given as–
 
  E. A
= EA cos 0º
= EA
 kQ 

  2  4  r2
 r 

Q
   4 r 2
4  0 r 2
Q

0
Key Point
1. As Q increases,  also increases. This makes sense. With more Q, we have more field lines.
2.  is independent of r. We can verify it physically:
Consider another sphere (S1) surrounding charge Q such that its radius is less than r.

In this diagram, we can see that, total number of field lines crossing sphere S = total number of field lines
crossing sphere S1. Therefore, flux through both the sphere is equal, even though their radius is not same.

42
Mr. Neetin Agrawal

Q
3.  through any closed surface (enclosing charge Q) is = even if the surface is non-spherical.
ε0
We can also prove this statement with reasoning. Suppose a charge Q is placed inside a closed surface S as
shown in figure. Let’s draw another non-spherical arbitrary surface S1 such that it also encloses charge Q.

From this figure we can see that total number of field lines crossing surface S = total number of field lines
crossing sphere S1. Thus flux through both the surfaces is same.

Quiz-10
Quiz-10
Suppose a hollow spherical surface S is enclosing a charge –q. Find value of flux through S.
Sol.

Total charge inside closed surface = –q

q
 
0
Note that the flux here is negative as charge enclosed is negative. We can also understand it this way –
 
In figure, we can see direction of E and A are opposite. Therefore, dot product of two vectors is negative.
For any closed surface, negative  indicates that field lines are coming inside closed surface. While
positive flux indicates that field lines are going outside from the closed surface.

43
 Electrostatics-1

Now we know how to calculate flux through a closed surface. Let’s have a look at another scenario. A
charge +Q is placed outside a closed surface (S) as shown in figure. We are required to calculate flux
through S due to charge Q.

From figure we can see that some field lines are entering surface. Here directions of field lines and that of
area vector are opposite to each other. So, flux while entering this surface is negative (say –1).
From the figure we can see that field lines are moving out of the surface from other end. Here, direction of
field lines is same as direction of area vector. So, flux here will be positive (say 2).
Net flux through the surface can be given as–
 net = (–1) + 2
Now, number field lines that were entering surface is equal to number of field lines leaving surface.
Therefore, 
  net
So, we can state that flux through closed surfaces due to external charge is zero.

Quiz-11
Quiz-11
Suppose a surface S is enclosing two charges +q and +Q. Find net flux through S.

Sol.
The surface encloses two charges. Flux due to them individually is q and Q.
So, net flux through S will be given as–
net = q + Q.
q Q
  
0 0
qQ
  net 
0
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Mr. Neetin Agrawal

Quiz-12
Quiz-12
Suppose two charges +q and +Q are place, one inside a closed surface S and another outside S. Find
net flux through S.

Sol. Charge enclosed by closed surface S is Q only. Charge q lies outside S. Flux through S is only due to charge
Q.
Q
  net 
0
1.23 Gauss’s Law
Total charge enclosed
According to Gauss’s law, “total flux through a closed surface = ”.
ε0

Quiz-13
Quiz-13
A charge + Q is placed at center of cube as shown in figure.

Find flux thought the shaded face of cube.

Sol. As cube is closed surface and total charge enclosed by it is +Q, so from Gauss’s law
Q
Total flux through cube 
0
Total number of faces of cube = 6
Field lines coming out of charge +Q will cross through all the faces of cube. Lines through all the faces will
be equal as the charge is placed at the centre.
Q
Therefore, flux through one face or shaded region 
60

45
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 Electrostatics-1

Illustration 23
A charge +Q is placed on axis of disc at distance of 4m from centre. Radius of disc is 3m. Find flux
through disc due to charge Q.
Sol.

In this problem, we don’t have any closed surface. So, to calculate flux through disc we have to apply some
technique. Let’s solve this problem stepwise.
Step-1
Let’s imagine the cone as shown in figure.

Let planer angle of this cone be 2 With the help of simple geometry, we can calculate value of 
3
tan  
4
   = 37º
Solid angle of cone
 cone = 2 (1– cos)
= 2 (1 – cos 37º)
 4 2
 2   1     steradian
 5 5
Step - 2
Now, consider a sphere with its center at apex and radius as the slant length of cone.

Step - 3
We have already calculated solid angle of sphere i.e
 sphere= 4steradian
Q
Flux associated with solid angle 4 is
0

46
Mr. Neetin Agrawal

Q
Then flux associated with solid angle 1 steradian will be
4 0
2 2 Q
So, flux associated with  steradian of disc will be  
5 5 4  0
Q
  disc 
10  0
Q
Therefore, flux through disc =
10  0

1.24 Using Gauss’s Law and Flux to Find Electric Field

Earlier we used concept of integration to find E due to large objects. With the concept of Gauss’s law and
electric flux, we can find E more easily in some of the cases. Let’s understand use of this method with help
of examples. Suppose we have to find E at point A which is at ‘r’ distance from infinite long uniformly
changed rod.

We’ll solve it step by step.

Step1 - Find direction of electric field using symmetry of the problem –
We have already seen that for uniformly charged infinite rod, E is perpendicular to length of rod. So
direction of E is in horizontal direction.

Step 2- Assume an appropriate Gaussian surface –

A Gaussian surface is a closed surface through which we calculate . We can take gaussian surface of any
shape and size. But we usually take symmetric figures as gaussian surface, like sphere, cylinder, cube etc.
In this case, gaussian surface can be a cylindrical surface such that rod lies on its axis.

47
 Electrostatics-1

Step3- We have studied two formulas to calculate 

q enclosed  
(i)   (ii)   E.A
0
Use both to find flux and then equate them -

Let’s find of rod by first formula –

Q enclosed  
  ... (1)
0 0
Now, let’s find  by second formula –
 
  E.A
Here, we have three area vectors: A1, A2 and A3.

  
E is perpendicular to A1 and A 2 . So flux through area A1 and A2 (and) = 0

A3 is parallel to E , so flux through it is–
 3 = E A3
Net flux () = 
= 0 + 0 + E A3
= E 2 r l ... (2)
Equation (1) and (2), both are representing value of same We can equate them to determine value of E.

 2 rE
0
 2k
 E 
2 0 r r
Key point
With the help of gauss’s law and flux, we can easily calculate E due to large symmetric objects. All we have
to do is follow three steps.
Step 1 – Find direction of E.
Step 2 – Assume an appropriate Gaussian surface.
Step 3 – Calculate flux through gaussian surface with these two formulae
q enclosed  
(i)   (ii)   E.A
0
And equate them.
1.25 Electric Field due to Infinitely Large Charged Sheet
Consider an infinite long charged sheet with charge density . We have to calculate E at point A which is at
distance r from sheet, as shown in figure.
48
Mr. Neetin Agrawal

Let’s redraw the side view of the sheet. This way we can visualize it better.

Step1 - Direction of E –
Consider two points P and Q on sheet as shown in figure. Let electric field at A due to small charge present
at point P and Q be EP and EQ.
EQ = EP

Their vertical components will balance each other and net electric field will be in horizontal direction. (We
have already seen such a concept previously).
Step2- Gaussian surface –
This time let’s take cubical gaussian surface.

49
 Electrostatics-1

Step3 -  through this gaussian surface.

Q enclosed  A
  ... (1)
0 0
Now we will find flux with another formula –

If we check direction of area vector at all the faces, we see that only faces 1 and 2 have area vector parallel
to E. At all the other faces, area vector is perpendicular to E.
   
   E.A  E.A  2 EA ... (2)
As equations (1) and (2) are representing values of same flux, so we can equate them
A
2EA 
0
σ
E=
2ε0
Key Point
1. We can see that E due to infinitely large uniformly charged sheet is independent of r.
2. Value of E is constant as both  and 0 are constant.
3. Electric field due to charged sheet is uniform and we can draw electric field lines of charged sheet as shown
in figure.

1.26 Electric Field due to Uniformly Charged Solid Cylinder

Consider an infinitely long, uniformly charged solid cylinder of radius R, whose charge density is 
Suppose, a point A is placed at distance r from axis of cylinder. We have to calculate electric field at this
point A due to this charged cylinder,
(i) When r > R
(ii) When r < R
Let’s take first case
(i) When r > R i.e., point A is outside cylinder.
Step 1- Direction of E.
We can observe that direction of E is in horizontal direction.

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Mr. Neetin Agrawal

Step 2 - Gaussian surface.

We can take a cylinder of radius ‘r’ as gaussian surface.

Step 3- through gaussian surface

Q enclosed  V
 
0 0


 R 
2

... (1)
0

Now we find  with second formula.

 
  E. A
  = E (2r l) ... (2)

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 Electrostatics-1

On equating equation (1) and (2)

E  2 r   
 R  
2

0
R 2
E
2r
(ii) When r < R i.e., point A is inside cylinder.
Step-1 Direction of electric field.

Direction of E may be outside or inside. Let’s take it outside. If actual direction is inside then value of E
will come negative.
Step-2 Gaussian surface -
We take cylinder of radius r as gaussian surface.

Step-3 through gaussian surface.

Q enclosed  V
 
0 0
Where V is volume of cylinder enclosed by gaussian surface



  r 2  ... (1)
0
Finding flux with second formula
 
  E. A
Where A is area of gaussian surface
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Mr. Neetin Agrawal

 = E (2 r l) ... (2)

Equating (1) and (2)

E.  2 r   

  r 2 
0
r
E
0
Key Point
E due to uniformly charged solid cylinder of radius R is given as –
When, r > R
ρ R2
E=
2r
When, r < R
ρr
E=
2ε0
Where r is distance measured from axis of cylinder.
We can plot graph between E and r as–

1.27 Electric Field due to Uniformly Charged Hollow Cylinder

Consider a hollow cylinder of radius R whose charge density is  Suppose, a point A is placed at distance r
from axis of cylinder. We have to calculate electric field at this point A due to this charged hollow cylinder,
(i) When r > R (ii) When r < R
Let’s take first case
(i) When r > R i.e., point A is outside cylinder.
Step 1- Direction of electric field–
Direction of E at point A due to cylinder will be parallel to area vector.

Step 2- Gaussian surface-

We can take a cylinder of radius r as gaussian surface.

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 Electrostatics-1

Step 3-  through gaussian surface.

Q enclosed  A
 
0 0
Where A is area of cylinder of radius R.
  2 R 

0
Finding flux through second method.
 
 E. A
Where A is area of gaussian surface.
 = E (2 r l)
Equating both flux
  2 R 
E  2 r  
0
R
E
0 r
(ii) When r < R
Step-1 Direction of electric field.

Direction of E may be outside or inside. Let’s take it outside.

Step - 2 Gaussian surface –
We take cylinder of radius r as gaussian surface.
Step - 3 Flux through gaussian surface.
Q enclosed

0
Qenclosed = 0 as it is hollow cylinder

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Mr. Neetin Agrawal

   = 0 ... (1)
Calculating flux with second method.
=E A ... (2)
Equating equation (1) and (2) we get
EA=0
E=0
Key Point
E due to uniformly charged hollow cylinder of radius R is given as –
When, r > R
σR
E=
ε0 r
When, r < R
E=0
We can plot graph between E and r as–

1.28 Electric Field due to Uniformly Charged Sphere

We have to calculate E due to uniformly charged sphere of radius R, at distance r when
(i) r > R (ii) r < R
Let’s solve each case separately.
(i) When r > R
Step-1 Direction of E.
Direction of E is as shown in figure, from symmetry.

Step-2 Gaussian surface- Consider another sphere of radius r as gaussian surface.

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 Electrostatics-1

Step-3 Flux through gaussian surface

Q enclosed Q
 
0 0
Finding flux using second method.
 
  E. A
As E//A at every point,
 = E. 4 r2
Equating both fluxes we get


E 4  r2   Q
0
Q kQ
E  2
4 r 0
2
r
(ii) When r < R
Step 1- Direction of E

Step 2- Gaussian surface- consider another sphere of radius r as gaussian surface.

Step 3-  due to gaussian surface

Q enclosed  V
 
0 0
Where V is volume of gaussian surface.

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Mr. Neetin Agrawal

4 3
 r
 3
0
Finding  from second method.
 
  E. A
 
Again E / / A
 = E. 4 r2
Equating both values of flux
4   r3
 4 E r 2
3 0
r
E
3 0
Q
As, 
4
 R3
3
1 Q r kQ r
 E . 
4  0 R 3 R3
Key Point
 For any uniformly charged sphere
kQ
Eoutside =
r2
kQr ρr
Einside = 2 =
R 3 ε0
 We can plot graph between E and r as–

 We can see that E due to solid sphere at any point (r > R) is same as that of point charge.
E solid sphere = Epoint charge
But this is not the case when r < R.
1.29 Electric Field due to Hollow Sphere
We have to calculate E due to uniformly charged hollow sphere of radius R, at distance r when
(i) r > R (ii) r < R
Let’s solve each case separately.
(i) When r > R
Step-1 Direction of E.
Direction of E is as shown, from symmetry.

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 Electrostatics-1

Step-2 Gaussian surface- Consider another sphere of radius r as gaussian surface.

Step-3 Flux through gaussian surface

Q enclosed Q
 
0 0
Finding flux using second method.
 
  E. A
As, E//A at every point, where A is area of gaussian surface, so  = 0o.
 = E. 4 r2
Equating both flux we get


E 4  r2   Q
0
Q kQ
E  2
4 r 0
2
r
(ii) When r < R
Step 1- Direction of E – Let’s take direction of E outside.

Step 2- Gaussian surface – we can take another sphere of radius r as gaussian surface.

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Mr. Neetin Agrawal

Step 3-  from gaussian surface

Q enclosed
 0
0
Calculating flux through second formula.
 
  E. A = E (4  r2)
Equating both values of .
E. A = 0
E=0
Key Point
 We can see that E due to hollow sphere at any point (r > R) is same as that of point charge or solid sphere.
Ehollow sphere = E solid sphere = Epoint charge
 Inside a hollow sphere, E = 0 at each and every point.
 We can plot graph between E and r as–

Quiz-14
Quiz-14
Two concentric hollow spheres S1 and S2 having radii R and 2R have charges Q1 and Q2
respectively. Find expression of E due to both these spheres at point A, B and C as shown in figure.

Sol. For point A,

E A  E S1  E S2

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 Electrostatics-1

kQ1 kQ2
 
 OA   OA 
2 2

For point B
E B  E S1  E S2
As point B lies inside sphere S2, E due to sphere S2 is zero.
kQ kQ
 0 
 OB  OB
2 2

For point C
E C  E S1  E S2
As point C lies inside sphere S1 as well as inside sphere S2, so electric field at point C due to both spheres
is zero.
=0+0=0

Quiz-15
Quiz-15
A uniformly charged spherical shell with inner radius r1 and outer radius r2 is given. Find electric
field at point A inside shell as shown in figure.

Sol. We can imagine that this spherical shell is made up of small thin hollow spheres. Now, electric field due to
hollow sphere inside the sphere is zero. So, electric field at any point inside hollow sphere due to  number
of hollow spheres will also be zero.

 EA = 0
Illustration 24
A solid sphere with center O is uniformly charged having charge density . A spherical cavity is
carved out of sphere with center O’. Find electric field at point P inside cavity such that
OP = x
O’P = y
OO’ = a.
Sol. Let’s draw a figure for given situation.

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Mr. Neetin Agrawal

We can see above figure as subtraction of two different figures.

If we subtract above figures, then we get our problem figure. We have also assumed direction of electric
fields at P due to both spheres, as shown in figure.
Here,

  x
E1 
3 0

  y
And E2 
3 0
    
E net  E1  E 2 
3 0

xy 

 a
E net  (Vector subtraction)
3 0
Key Point

 We can see that Enet is independent of x and y. So we can say that magnitude of electric field at every point
is same.

 Direction of electric field is along a .
 From above two points we can conclude that electric field inside cavity in uniform.

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 Electrostatics-1

1.30 Electric Field due to an Infinite Long Thick Slab

Consider an infinite long uniformly charged slab. We will calculate electric field at point A
when,
(i) Point A is outside slab at distance r from centre.

Let’s redraw this figure as if slab is seen from one side. This way we can visualize it better.
Step 1- Direction of electric field–
Direction of E at point A due to charged slab is outside as shown in figure.

Step 2- Gaussian surface –

Let’s take a cubical gaussian surface of side length 2r as shown in figure.

Step 3-  through gaussian surface –

Qenclosed   A a 
  .... (1)
0 0
Where (Aa) is volume of slab enclosed by gaussian surface.
Let’s find flux with second formula.
Here we have to calculate flux through two surfaces of cube. Each face has area A
So,
   
  E.A  E. A
= 2 E. A ... (2)
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Mr. Neetin Agrawal

Equating (1) and (2)

Aa
2 EA 
0
a
E
2 0
Note that EOutside slab is independent of r.
(ii) Point A is inside slab at distance r from centre.

Step 1- Direction of electric field–

Let’s take direction of E outside as shown in figure.

Step 2- Gaussian surface – Let’s take a cubical gaussian surface as shown in figure.

Step 3-  through gaussian surface

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 Electrostatics-1

Qenclosed   A.2 r 
  ... (1)
0 0
(A. 2r) is volume of gaussian surface.

Let’s find flux with second formula.

   
  E .A  E .A  2 EA ... (2)
Equating (1) and (2)
  A.2r 
2EA 
0
r
E
0
Key Point
E due to charged slab of thickness a is given as
When, r > a
ρa
E=
2 ε0
When, r < a
ρr
E=
ε0
We can plot graph between E and r as–

Illustration 25
A cubical surface of side 1m is given. Electric field in region is given as

E = 2x ˆi
Find charge enclosed in cube.

Sol.
Let charge enclosed by this cube is Q. Then from gauss law we can write that –
Q
 ... (1)
0
We also know that, through any surface, flux can be given as –
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Mr. Neetin Agrawal

 
  E. A
In cube we will have 6 faces so there are 6 area vectors.
Let’s analyze each face.


Direction of E is along positive x-axis.

 A  at face (i) and face at opposite side of face (i) is  to direction of E . So flux

Direction of area vector
through them is zero.
 
Similarly, direction of A at face (iii) and face at opposite side of face (iii) is also  to direction of E . Thus
flux through them is zero.
For face opposite to face (ii), x = 0

 E0
 =0
 
On face (ii) E / / A
 
   E. A
  
 2x ˆi . iˆ
    2x
at x=1
=2 ... (2)
In both equations (1) and (2), we have found values of flux. We can equate them,
Q
 2
0
Q = 20
So, net charge in the cube is 20

65
 Exercise of Electrostatics
Multiple Choice Types
Only One Option Correct
Q.1 Five story foam balls are suspended from insulating threads. Several experiments are performed on the balls
and the following observations are made
(i) Ball A repels C and attracts B.
(ii) Ball D attracts B and has no effect on E
(iii) A negatively charged rod attracts both A and E
An electrically neutral Styrofoam ball gets attracted if placed nearby a charged body due to induced charge.
What are the charges, if any, on each ball?

A B C D E
(A) + – + 0 +
(B) + – + + 0
(C) – + – 0 0
(D) + – + 0 0
Q.2 A body is having a charge of +0.32 C. How many electrons have been added to or removed from it?

(a) 2 × 1018 (b) 3 × 1018

(c) 2 × 1017 (d) 3 ×1017

Q.3 If a charge q is placed at the centre of the line joining two equal charges Q each such that the system is in
equilibrium, then the value of q is:
(A) Q / 2 (B) –Q / 2 (C) Q / 4 (D) –Q / 4
Q.4 Force F is acting between two charges. If a sheet of glass (r = 6) is placed between the two charges, what
will be the force.
F F F
(A) F (B) (C) (D)
2 3 6
Q.5 Two charges –2q and +q are fixed at a distance l apart. Where should a positive test charge Q be placed on the
line connecting the charge for it to be in equilibrium?
(A)  
2l  1 (B) l (C) 2l (D)  l  1

Q.6 A certain charge Q is divided into two parts q and (Q-q). For the maximum coulomb force between them,
the ratio (q/Q) is:
(A) 1/16 (B) 1/8 (C) 1/4 (D) 1/2
Q.7 A charged ball B hangs from a silk thread S, which makes an angle  with a large charged conducting sheet
P, as shown in the figure. The surface charge density  of the sheet is proportional to

66
Mr. Neetin Agrawal

(A) Sin (B) tan (C) Cos (D) cot

Q.8 Two point charges +8q and -2q are located at x = 0 and x = L respectively. The location
of a point on the x axis at which the net electric field due to these two point charges is
zero is
(A) 8L (B) 4 L (C) 2L (D) L/4
Q.9 In the following graph, find the electric field between 6 m and 8 m is –

(A) 10 V/m (B) – 10 V/m (C) 20 V/m (D) – 20 V/m

Q.10 A thin semi-circular ring of radius r has a positive charge q distributed uniformly over it. The net field at the
centre O is:

q ˆ q q q ˆ
(A) j (B)  ĵ (C)  ĵ (D) j
4 0 r 2
2
4 0 r 2
2
2 0 r 2
2
2 0 r 2
2

Q
Q.11 Let (r) = r be the charge density distribution for a solid sphere of radius R and total charge Q. For a
R 4
point ‘P’ inside the sphere at distance r1 from the centre of sphere, the magnitude of electric field is:
Q Qr12 Qr12
(A) (B) (C) (D) 0
4  0 r12 40 R 4 3 0 R 4
Q.12 Consider a uniformly charged hemispherical shell shown below. Indicate the directions (not magnitude) of
the electric field at the central point P1 and an off-centre point P2 on the drumhead of the shell.

;
(A) (B) (C) (D)
Q.13 A charge Q is uniformly distributed over a large plastic plate. The electric field at a point P close to the
V
centre but outside the plate is 10 . If the plastic plate is replaced by a copper plate of the same
m
geometrical dimensions and carrying the same charge Q, the electric field at the point P will become.
V V V
(A) Zero (B) 5 (C) 10 (D) 20
m m m
Q.14 Two semi-circular rings lying in same plane, of uniform linear charge density l have radius r and 2r. They
are joined using two straight uniformly charged wires of linear charge density l and length r as shown in fig.
The magnitude of electric field at common centre of semi-circular rings is:

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 Electrostatics-1

1 3 1  1 2 1 
(A) (B) (C) (D)
4  0 2r 4 0 2r 4  0 r 4  0 r

Q.15 Find the variation of electric field on the line joining the two charge –

(A) (B)

(C) (D)
Q.16 The electric field intensity at the centre of a uniformly charged hemispherical shell is E0. Now two portions

of the hemisphere are cut from either side and remaining portion is shown in figure. If  =  = , then
3
electric field intensity at centre due to remaining portion is

E0 E0 E0
(A) (B) (C) (D) Insufficient information
3 6 2
Q.17 A uniformly charged rod is kept on y-axis with centre at origin, as shown. Which of the following actions
will increase the electric field strength at the position of the dot?

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Mr. Neetin Agrawal

(A) Make the rod longer without changing the charge

(B) Make the rod shorter without changing the charge
(C) Make the rod shorter without changing the linear charge density
(D) Rotate the rod about yy'
Q.18 A charge + 10-9 C is located at the origin in free space and another charge Q at (2, 0, 0). If the
X-component of the electric field at (3, 1, 1) is zero, calculate the value of Q.
(A) 3 ×10–9C
3/2
3
(B)    3 109 C
 11 
3/2
3
(C)     3 109 C
 11 
(D) – 3 × 10–9C
Q.19 Inside an infinitely long circular cylinder charged uniformly with volume density  there is a circular
cylindrical cavity. The distance between the axes of the cylinder and the cavity is equal to a. Find the
electric field strength E inside the cavity. The permittivity is assumed to be equal to unity.
    2  3 
(A) a (B) a (C) a (D) a
2 0 0 0 0
Q20. The figure shows the electric field lines in the vicinity of two point charges. Which one of the following
statements concerning this situation is true?

q1
q2

(A) q1 is negative and q2 is positive

(B) The magnitude of the ratio (q2/q1) is less than one
(C) Both q1 and q2 have the same sign of charge
(D) The electric field is strongest midway between the charges.
Q.21 What is the flux of the electric field through a Gaussian sphere of radius 4a that is concentric with both the
insulator and conducting shell?
(A) 0 (B) Q1 /  0 (C) (Q1  Q2 ) /  0 (D) None of these
Q.22 Determine the field at a point, distant r from a uniformly charged infinite plane with surface charge density
.
  2 3
(A) E  (B) E  (C) E  (D) E 
0 2 0 0 0
Q.23 In which of the following cases, the flux crossing through the surface is zero?

69
 Electrostatics-1

(A) (B)

(C) (D)
Q.24 Figure shows a circular surface and a paraboloidal surface. It is placed in a uniform electric field of
magnitude E such that the circular surface is oriented at right- angles to the direction of field. Electric flux
through the paraboloidal surface is:

1 2
(A) Zero (B) r2E (C) r E (D) r2E
2
Q.25 A charge Q is placed at a distance of 4R above the centre of a disc of radius R. The magnitude of flux
through the disc is. Now a hemispherical shell of radius R is placed over the disc such that it forms a closed
surface. The flux through the curved surface taking direction of area vector along outward normal as
positive, is
(A) Zero (B)  (C) –  (D) 2 
Q.26 The length of each side of a cubical closed surface is l. If charge q is situated on one of the vertices of the
cube, then find the flux passing through shaded face of the cube.

q q q q
(A)  (B)  (C) (D)
24  0 12  0 24  0 12  0
Q.27 An insulating solid sphere of radius R is charged in a non-uniform manner such that volume charge density
A
 , where A is a positive constant and r is the distance from centre. Potential difference between centre
r
and surface of sphere is -
AR AR AR AR
(A) (B) (C) (D)
0 4 0  0 2 0
Q.28 Charge is uniformly distributed in space. The net flux passing through the surface of an imaginary cube of
side a in the space is . The net flux passing through the surface of an imaginary sphere of radius a in the
space will be
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Mr. Neetin Agrawal

3 2 4
(A)   (B)  (C)  (D) 
4 3 3
Q.29 Diagram shows an imaginary cube of side a. A uniformly charged rod of length a moves towards right at a
constant speed v. At t = 0, the right end of the rod just touches the left face of the cube. The graph that best
represents the change in electric flux through the cube versus time –

(A) (B)

(C) (D)
Q.30 The electric field strength depends only on the x and y coordinates according to the law E = a (xi + y j) /(x2
+ y2), where a is a constant, i and j are the unit vectors of the x and y axis. Find the flux of the vector E
through a sphere of radius R with its centre at the origin.
(A)  a R (B) 2 aR (C) 3 aR (D) 4 a
Q.31 Two point charges q and –q are separated by the distance 2l. Find the flux of the electric field strength
vector across a circle of radius R, in centre of charges.
   
   
q  R 
2
 1    
q q  1  q  1 
(A)
0
(B)
0   
(C)
0  2  (D)  1  2 
   1  R   0
 R
1   
    
  

Q.32 An infinite, uniformly charged sheet with surface charge density  cuts through a spherical Gaussian
surface of radius R at a distance x from its center, as shown in the figure. The electric flux  through the
Gaussian surface is

 R 2 2  R 2  x 2     R  x 
2
  R2  x2  
(A) (B) (C) (D)
0 0 0 0
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 Electrostatics-1

Q.33 A spherical conducting shell of inner radius R1 and outer radius R2 has charge Q. Now a charge q is placed
inside the shell but not at centre, then surface charge densities with their nature on inner and outer surfaces
of the shell are respectively,
q Q
(A) (Non - uniform), (uniform)
4 R 1 2
4R 22
q Qq
(B) (Non- uniform), (uniform)
4 R 12
4R 22
q Qq
(C) (Uniform), (non- uniform)
4R 12 4R 22
q Qq
(D) (Uniform), (non- uniform)
4 R 1
2
4R 22
Q.34 Two spherical, non-conducting, and very thin shells of uniformly distributed positive charge Q and radius d
are located a distance 10d from each other. A positive point charge q is placed inside one of the shells at a
distance d/2 from the center, on the line connecting the centers of the two shells, as shown in the figure.
What is the net force on the charge q?

qQ qQ
(A) to the left (B) to the right
361 0 d 2 361 0 d 2
362qQ 360qQ
(C) to the left (D) to the right
361 0 d 2 361 0 d 2
Q.35 A positive charge q is placed in front of a conducting solid cube at a distance d from its centre. Find the
electric field at the centre of the cube due to the charges appearing on its surface.
kq 2kq 3kq 4kq
(A) (B) (C) (D)
d2 d2 d2 d2
Q.36 A long charged cylinder of radius a and linear charge density is surrounded by an earthed hollow co-axial
conducting cylinder of radius b. What is the electric field in the space between the two cylinders?

   (b  a)  (b  a)
(A) E  (B) E  (C) E  (D) E 
2  0 r 4  0 r 2 0 abr 2  0 r
More than One Correct
Q. 37 Two identical conducting balls have positive charges q1 and q2 respectively. The balls are brought together
so that they touch and then put back in their original positions. The force between the balls may be -
(A) Remain same as it was before the balls touched.
(B) Greater than before the balls touched
(C) less than before the balls touched

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Mr. Neetin Agrawal

(D) Zero
Q.38 Two point charges Q1 and Q2 lie along a line at a distance from each other. Figure shows the potential
variation along the line of charges -

(A) Q1 is positive and Q2 is negative

(B) Q1 is negative and Q2 is positive
(C) Magnitude of Q1 is more than magnitude of Q2
(D) Magnitude of Q1 is less than magnitude of Q2
Q.39 Four sphere each of different radius named
‘a’, ‘b’, ‘c’, ‘d’ are given, each are solid insulating uniformly charged. Variation of electric field with
distance r from the centre is given. Straight portion of curve c and d is overlapping and straight portion of
curve a and b is overlapping.

(A) Radius of sphere a > Radius of sphere b

(B) Radius of sphere a < Radius of sphere b
(C) Volume charged density of c > volume charged density of b
(D) Volume charged density of c < volume charged density of b
Q.40 We have an infinite non-conducting sheet of negligible thickness carrying a uniform surface charge density
–  and next to it, an infinite parallel slab of thickness D with uniform volume charge density +. All
charges are fixed.

D  
(A) Magnitude of electric field at a distance h above the negatively charged sheet is
20
(B) Magnitude of electric field inside the slab at a distance h below the negatively charged sheet (h < D) is
    D  2h 
2 0
D  
(C) Magnitude of electric field at a distance h below the bottom of the slab is –
40
D  
(D) Magnitude of electric field at a distance h below the bottom of the slab is
20

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 Electrostatics-1

Q.41 Two large thin conducting plates with small gap in between are placed in a uniform electric field ‘E’
(perpendicular to the plates). Area of each plate is A and charges +Q and –Q are given to these plates as
shown in the figure. If points R,S and T as shown in the figure are three points in space, then the

(A) field at point R is E (B) field at point S is E

 Q   Q 
(C) field at point T is  E   (D) field at point S is  E  
 0 A   A 0 
Q.42 Which of the following is true for the figure showing electric lines of force? (E is electrical field, V is
potential)

(A) EA > EB (B) EB > EA (C) VA > VB (D) VB > VA

Q.43 Which of the following statements are correct?
(A) Electric field calculated by Gauss law is the field due to only those charges which are enclosed inside
the Gaussian surface.
(B) Gauss law is applicable only when there is a symmetrical distribution of charge.
(C) Electric flux through a closed surface will depends only on charges enclosed within that surface only
(D) None of these
Q.44 Mark the correct options:
(A) Gauss’s law is valid only for uniform charge distributions.
(B) Gauss’s law is valid only for charges placed in vacuum.
(C) The electric field calculated by Gauss’s law is the field due to all the charges.
(D) The flux of the electric field through a closed surface due to all the charges is equal to the flux due to
the charges enclosed by the surface.
Q.45 Figure shows a neutral metallic sphere with a point charge +Q placed near its surface. Electrostatic
equilibrium conditions exist on metallic sphere. Mark the correct statements:

(A) Net flux through Gaussian surface due to charge Q is zero

(B) Net flux through Gaussian surface due to charges appearing on the outer surface of metallic sphere must
be zero
(C) If point charge Q is displaced towards metallic sphere, magnitude of net flux through right
hemispherical closed Gaussian surface increases.
(D) If point charge Q is displaced towards metallic sphere, charge distribution on outer surface of sphere
will change
74
Mr. Neetin Agrawal

Comprehension
Comprehension # Q.46 to Q.48
Two positive point charges A and B have charge +q and 2q ; mass m and 2m respectively as shown. Both
the charges are released from rest when they are at a distance 0 apart. Neglect gravity and also assume the
only force acting on either charge is the electrostatic force due to each other.

Q.46 The speed of charge A at the instant separation between both charges is 20 -

q2 q2 q2 q2
(A) (B) (C) (D)
120 m 60 m 40 m 30 m
Q.47 The work done by electrostatic force on charge A while the separation between both charges changes from
0 to 20 is -
q2 q2 q2 q2
(A) (B) (C) (D)
12 0  60  4 0  24 0 
Q.48 Total work done by electrostatic force on charge A + charge B while the separation between both charges
changes from 0 to 20 is -
q2 q2 q2 q2
(A) (B) (C) (D)
12 0  60  4 0  24 0 
Comprehension # Q.49 to Q.52
A point charge q1 is placed inside the cavity 1 and another point charge q2 is inside cavity 2. A point charge
q is placed outside the conductor.

Q.49 The charge on outer surface of the conductor would be :

(A) Q + q1 + q2 and non - uniformly distributed
(B) Q + q1 + q2 and its uniform or non- uniform distribution depend upon location of q1 and q2.
(C) Q + q1 + q2 would be distributed uniformly
(D) Q + q1 + q2 and the distribution depends upon the location of q1, q2 and q

Q.50 If q1 is at the centre of cavity 1 then at a point S, at the distance r from centre of cavity 1(r > r1) due to
induced charge on the surface of cavity 1, is:
q1
(A) Away from center of cavity 1
4  0 r 2

75
 Electrostatics-1

q1
(B) Away from center of cavity 1
4  0 r12
(C) Zero
q1
(D) Towards center of cavity 1
4  0 r 2

Q.51 E inside the conductor at point S distant r from point charge q due to charge on outer surface of conductor
would be:
Q  q1  q 2
(A) Away from charge q
4  0 r 2
q
(B) Towards charge q
4  0 r 2
(C) Zero
(D) Cannot be determined
Q.52 If charge q2 is at point Q (inside cavity2), then at the centre of cavity 2 due to induced charge on the surface
of cavity 2 would be:
q2
(A) Towards q2
4  0 r2 2
q2
(B) Away from q2
4  0 r2 2
(C) Zero
(D) Cannot be determined
Comprehension # Q.53 to Q.56
A long coaxial cable consists of a inner cylindrical conductor with radius a and outer coaxial cylinder with
radius b and outer radius c. The outer cylinder is mounted on insulating support and has no net charge. The
inner cylinder has a uniform positive charge per unit length is 
Q.53 The electric field at any point between inner and outer cylinders is -

(A) Radially outward
2  0 r

(B) Radially inward
2  0 r

(C) Coaxially
2  0 r
(D) None of these

E
2  0 r
Q.54 The electric field at any point P(x > b) outside the outer cylinder is -

(A) Radially inward
2  0 r

(B) Radially outward 
2  0 r

(C) Coaxially
2  0 r
(D) None of these
76
Mr. Neetin Agrawal

Q.55 Find the charge per unit length of inner surface and outer surface of the outer cylinder -
(A) –  on the inner, + on the outer surface
(B) –  on the outer, + on the inner surface
(C) – /2 on both inner and outer surfaces
(D) + /2 on both inner and outer surfaces
Q.56 If EP, EQand ER denote the electric field at P, Q and R respectively, then -
(A) EP > EQ > ER (B) EP < EQ < ER
(C) EP = EQ = ER (D) EQ > EP > ER

Comprehension # Q.57 to Q.58

A thin ring of radius R metres is placed in x-y plane such that its centre lies on origin. The half ring in
region x < 0 carries uniform linear charge density +  C/m and the remaining half ring in region x > 0
carries uniform linear charge density –  C/m.

 R 
Q.57 Then the electric potential (in volts) at point P whose coordinates are  0m,  m  is
 2 
1 
(A) (B) 0
4  0 2
1 
(C) (D) cannot be determined
4  0 4

 R 
Q.58 Then the direction of electric field at point P whose coordinates are  0m,  m  is
 2 
(A) Along positive x-direction (B) Along negative x-direction
(C) Along negative y-direction (D) none of these
Assertion & Reasoning
STATEMENT
In the following questions
(A) Statement-1 is true, statement-2 is true and statement-2is correct explanation for statement1.
(B) Statement-1 is true, statement-2 is true and statement-2 is NOT the correct explanation for statement-1.
(C) Statement-1 is true, statement-2 is false.
(D) Statement-1 is false, statement-2 is true.
Q.59 Statement-1: The work done in bringing a unit +ve charge from infinity to the centre of the semicircular
ring as shown in diagram is non-zero.
Statement-2: Electric field at point P is only along negative y axis.

77
 Electrostatics-1

(A) Both Statement 1 and 2 are correct

(B) Both Statement 1 and 2 are incorrect
(C) Statement 1 is correct and 2 is incorrect
(D) Statement 1 is incorrect and 2 is correct
Q.60 Statement -1: If a proton and an electron are placed in same uniform electric field. They experience
different acceleration.
Statement -2: Electric force on test charge is independent of mass.
Q.61 Statement -1: When charged balloon is put against on insulating wall, it get stick to the wall.
Statement -2: Wall acquires a net negative charge and thus attract balloon.
Q.62 Statement -1: For a non-uniformly charged thin circular ring with net charge zero, the electric field at any
point on axis of the ring is zero.
Statement -2: For a non-uniformly charged thin circular ring with net charge zero, the electric potential at
each point on axis of the ring is zero.
Q.63 Statement-1: A uniformly charged disc has a pin hole at its centre. The electric field at the centre of the
disc is zero.
Statement -2: Disc can be supposed to be made up of many concentric uniformly charged rings each of
which produce zero electric field at the center.
Q.64 Statement-1: Two rigid, identical and uniformly charged non conducting spheres with same charge are
placed on a sufficiently rough surface, and then spheres must be in equilibrium.

Statement-2: If net force on a point charge is zero it is in equilibrium.

Subjective Type
Q.65 Draw E and x graph for the given situation

Q.66 For the following figure draw graph of E on moving along y- axis.

Q.67 Two positive charges, q each, are distance d apart. A third charge Q is placed on the line joining these two
charges in such a manner that all the charges are in equilibrium. Find the value, location and sign of this
charge?

78
Mr. Neetin Agrawal

Q.68 Figure shows five point charges along a straight line. The separation between the charges is 1 cm. Find for
what values of q1 and q2 would the net force on each of the other three charges be zero?
Q.69 A point charge q is situated at a distance d from one end of a thin non-conducting rod of length L having a
charge Q (uniformly distributed along its length) as shown in figure. Find the magnitude of electric force
between the two.

Q.70 A point charge q is located at the centre of a thin ring of radius R with uniformly distributed charge –q.
Find the magnitude of the electric field strength vector at the point lying on the axis of the ring at a distance
x from its centre, if x >> R.

Q.71 Find the electric field at centre of semi-circular ring shown in figure.

 
Q.72 A sphere of radius r carries a surface charge of density   a . r , where a is a constant vector, and r is the
radius vector of a point of the sphere relative to its centre. Find the electric field strength vector at the centre
of the sphere.
Q.73 A positive charge +q1 is located to the left of a negative charge -q2. On a line passing through the two
charges, there are two places where the total potential is zero. The reference is assumed to be at infinity.
The first place is between the charges and is 4cm to the left of the negative charge. The second place is 7cm
to the right of the negative charge. If q2 = –12 C, what is the value of charge q1 in C

79
 ANSWER KEY
Multiple Choice Types
Only One Option Correct
1. [D] 2. [A] 3. [D] 4. [D]
5. [A] 6. [D] 7. [B] 8. [C]
9. [A] 10. [C] 11. [B] 12. [C]
13. [C] 14. [D] 15. [C] 16. [C]
17. [B] 18. [C] 19. [A] 20. [B]
21. [A] 22. [B] 23. [D] 24. [D]
25. [C] 26. [C] 27. [D] 28. [D]
29. [B] 30. [D] 31. [D] 32. [D]
33. [B] 34. [A] 35. [A] 36. [A]
More than One Correct
37. [A], [B] 38. [A], [C] 39. [B], [C] 40. [A], [B],[D]
41. [A], [D] 42. [A], [D] 43. [C] 44. [C],[D]
45. [A], [B], [C], [D]
Comprehension
46. [D] 47. [B] 48. [C] 49. [A]
50. [D] 51. [B] 52. [D] 53. [A]
54. [B] 55. [A] 56. [A] 57. [B]
58. [A]
Assertion & Reasoning
59. [D] 60. [B] 61. [C] 62. [D]
63. [A] 64. [D]
Subjective Type
65.

66.

80
Mr. Neetin Agrawal

67. The charge Q should be located equidistant from the two given charges at A and B. charge Q has to
q
be negative.  Q
4
27
68. q1  q 2  C
80
qQ
69. F
40 d  d  L 
  3qKR 2 
70. E net  E1  E 2  i
2x 4

71. E0 
4Kq ˆ
R 2
 
i

 /2  /2
Kr cos  dq
72. E = 2 E1  2 
 0
dE  2 
 0  r sin   2   r cos   2 
3/ 2

 
11
73. q1 = 12 × = 44 c
3

81
 CHAPTER
ELECTROSTATICS-2 2
Electric Potential Energy and Electric Potential
2.1 Work Done by Electrostatic Force
Before we start with this new topic, we’ll review basic concepts of work. In mechanics, you must have
studied that
 
Work = F .s


Here, F is force

And s is displacement.
We can also write it as
W = F s (Cos
where  is angle between F and s.
This formula to calculate work is applicable only for constant force. To calculate work when force is not
constant we have to use integration.
 
W=  =  F(ds) Cosθ
F.ds
Illustration 1
Consider a block of mass m. Some forces are acting on it as shown in FBD. Due to these forces, block
has moved 2m forward. We have to calculate work done by all these forces.

Sol. Work done by force F1 (WF1)  10  2 co s 0 o  20J

Similarly work done by all other forces will be–
WF2  8  2 cos180o  16J
WF3  20  2 cos 90 o = 0
WF4  20  2 cos 90o  0
Work done is positive when force and displacement are in same direction, negative when in opposite
direction and zero when perpendicular.
Illustration 2
A block is kept at distance x from origin. Force acting on it varies with distance as per the relation (2x
+1). Calculate the work done by this force when block has moved 10m from origin.

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Mr. Neetin Agrawal

Sol.
We can see that in this case, force is variable as it depends on x. So,


W = F(ds) cosθ

   2 x  1 dx [= 0o]
Limit of x will be from 0 to 10
10
     2 x  1dx
0
10
    x  x  
2
0

  W = 110J
Suppose an infinite long charged sheet and a charge +q is placed as shown in the figure. This charge
experiences electrostatic force due to this sheet. We have to find out the total work done by electrostatic
force in moving charge on path 1  2  3  4 .

First we will calculate work done in moving charge on path (1) –

Force experienced by this charge due to sheet will be given as–
F=qE
Here E is electric field due to charged sheet.
As direction of electrostatic force and displacement are same, work done (W1) is positive.
W1 = (q E) x
Work done in moving charge on path (2) –
As direction of electrostatic force and displacement are perpendicular to each other, work done is 0.
W2 = 0
Work done in moving charge on path (3) –
Note, here electrostatic force is still acting towards right. But displacement is towards left. Direction of
force and displacement are opposite to each other, therefore work done is negative.
W3 = – (q E) x
Work done in moving charge on path (4) is same as that of path (2)
83
 Electrostatics-2

i.e. W4 = 0
Total work done by electrostatic force in moving charge q along this closed path will be equal to sum of
work done in moving charge on individual paths.
Wtotal = W1 + W2 + W3 + W4
= (q E) x + 0 – (q E) x + 0
=0
Total work done by electrostatic force in moving charge on path 1  2  3  4 is zero.
Now, in previous system consider two cases.
In case 1, charge moves on path (1) and stops.
In case 2, charge moves on path 4  3  2 , then stops.

Notice that in both the cases, charge started from point P and moved to point Q but in both the cases, paths
are different.
Case 1: Work done in moving charge q on path (1) –
W1 = (q E) x

Case 2: Work done in moving on path 4  3  2

W2 = W4 + W3 + W2
W2 = 0 + (q E) x + 0
= (q E) x
As W1 = W2
We can say that, on moving charge +q in two different paths, same work has been done.
Actually electrostatic force is a conservative force like gravitational force. Work done by it in a closed
path is zero. Also work done is independent of path.
2.2 Work Done by Man in Electrostatic Field
Suppose we have an infinitely long charged sheet. A man is slowly moving charge towards the sheet
through distance x.

84
Mr. Neetin Agrawal

When we say that man is moving charge slowly, it means that he is moving charge with almost zero
velocity and no acceleration. It means that net force on charge is zero.
Fnet = 0
 a=0
Let’s draw FBD of charge

Man has to apply force Fm in direction opposite to that of electrostatic force qE so as to keep net force zero.
Now work done by man can be given as
Wm = (q E) x
It will be positive as direction of force applied by man and displacement of charge is in same direction.
Consider another case where man is moving charge slowly away from the sheet through distance x.

We can see that charge is experiencing a force away from the sheet but to move it slowly man has to apply
force in opposite direction.

Now Wm = – (q E) x
Here work done is negative as force is applied by man in direction opposite to that of displacement.
We can roughly say that
1. If man moves the charge by stopping it then work done by him is negative.
2. If man has to pull the charge against electrostatic force work done by him is positive.
Illustration 3
Find work done by man in bringing +q charge from infinity to a distance ‘r’ from charge +Q slowly.

85
 Electrostatics-2

Sol. First we will physically analyze the sign of work done by man, positive or negative. Man has to pull the
charge from infinity to r, in direction opposite to that of E, so work done by him will be positive.
Let’s represent electrostatic force, (FE) and force applied by man (Fm) diagrammatically when both the
charges are at distance x.

kQ q
We know that, FE 
x2
kQ q
 Fm = FE 
x2
Is the force applied by man, constant or variable?
From above equation we can see that Fm is dependent on distance x. As x will decrease, Fm will increase. It
means that to calculate work done by man, we have to use method of integration.
We can write expression for work done by man as–
r
Wm   Fm dx

r
kQq kQq
 2
dx  

x r
But there is a problem with our result. We physically analyzed that work done by man should be positive
but our answer is coming out to be negative. Why? Actually there is a problem in our equation. We know
that as charge q is moving closer to charge Q, distance x is decreasing. So, dx (a small change in x) is
negative. We should have written our equation of work done by man as–
r
Wm   Fm  dx 

On integrating we will get our final result as–
kQq
Wm =
r
This is very important result and we shall be using it directly from next time.
This problem of sign of dx that we saw in this problem will be very common in this chapter. It is advisable
to check sign of work done by analyzing it physically.

Quiz-1
Quiz-1
In above problem, if charge +q is replaced with charge –q, calculate work done by man to bring
charge from infinity to r = 10m.

Sol.

Here, electrostatic force FE attracts charge –q to +Q. The man has to apply force FM to stop it. We have
already analyzed that if man moves charge by stopping it, then work done by him is negative.
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Mr. Neetin Agrawal

k Qq
 WM  
r

Quiz-2
Quiz-2
What will be the work done by man, in bringing +q charge from infinity to r, where r is the
distance measured from center of uniformly charged sphere of radius R (R < r) and charge Q. What
will be the work done if we replace uniformly charged sphere with a uniformly charged hollow sphere
of same radius and charge.

Sol.
We have already studied that electric field at a point outside a uniformly charged sphere or hollow sphere is
same as electric field due to point charge.
So,
kQq
WM 
r
2.3 Electrostatic Potential Energy
What is energy? We may roughly define energy as ability to do work. There are many forms of energy. We
will discuss a few of them.
 Kinetic Energy - We may define kinetic energy as ‘ability to do work due to motion’. 
 Chemical Energy - It may be defined as ‘ability to do work due to chemical reactions’. For example
bomb, nuclear reactions etc.
 Potential Energy - This form of energy is sometimes complicated to understand. We will understand it
with the help of an example. Suppose a man is sitting under an apple tree. Some apples are hanging on tree
above his head. Right now apples are not doing any work or we can say that work done by apples by just
hanging is zero. But if they fall from above, they will hit the man and work will be done! It means,
although apples are not doing any work by just hanging, they have potential to do work. So, we can say that
these apples have potential energy. As gravitational force is involved here, this potential energy is called
gravitational potential energy.

Suppose a ball is lying on ground. A man comes and picks it up very slowly. Now when man is picking up
this ball then some work has to be done by him. It means man must have lost some energy. This energy is
stored in ball in form of potential energy. So overall potential energy of ball has increased.
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 Electrostatics-2

If PE is change in potential energy and mgh is work done by man in picking up the ball to height h.
PE = mgh
Now we will understand electrostatic potential energy. As gravitational force is involved in case of
gravitational PE, similarly electrostatic force is involved in electrostatic potential energy.
Suppose that two point charges Q1 and Q2 are fixed at distance r. Does this system has any potential
energy? Yes, it has. Right now, both charges are fixed. If they are released then they both will repel each
other, and move apart. Due to this some work can be done.

Now this work that can be done once charges are released is potential energy of this system. We will
understand few important points related to electrostatic potential energy.
 Reference Level - It is generally convenient to take infinity as reference level for electrostatic potential
energy. So situation where two charges +Q1 and +Q2 are placed very far from each other is taken as our
reference level and we take electrostatic potential energy to be zero there.
 Suppose in previous case, a man pulls charge Q2 slowly and brings it close to charge Q1 at distance r.

To bring these charges close to each other some work ise done by man. This work done by man is given as–
kQ1Q 2
Wman 
r
Now, if work is done by man then he must have become tired which means his energy must have reduced.
This total energy that man has lost gets stored as potential energy of system.
PESystem = Wman
As, PESystem = PEfinal – PEinitial
= PE – 0
= PE
 PE = Wman
kQ1Q2
PE =
r
PE of a system of charges = Wman in assembling that system from infinity slowly.
Suppose, we replace charge Q2 by –Q2 then PE of system will be given as–
kQ1  Q 2  kQ Q
PE   1 2
r r
In this case PE has come out to be negative. This is because work done by man in this case is negative.
Illustration 4
Suppose we have a uniformly charged ring with charge +q and radius r. A point charge is placed on
axis of ring at distance ‘a’ from center. Calculate potential energy of interaction between point charge
and ring.

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Mr. Neetin Agrawal

Sol. We know that potential energy is equal to work done by man in assembling system from infinity. Imagine
that initially there is nothing placed in the system; this ring and charge are at infinity. Now man brings this
charged ring from infinity. In doing so, he didn’t experience any attractive or repulsive force. So, work done
by man in bringing ring from infinity is zero. Now he brings point charge +Q from infinity. To bring this
point charge, some work is done as charge experiences repulsive force due to ring.
Consider a situation, when distance between point charge and ring is x.

Force exerted by man will be equal to repulsive force experienced by +Q charge,

i.e. FM = FE = QE
Here, E is the electric field due to charged ring. So, work done by man will be given as–
WM   FM   dx  [We have taken dx as negative, because x is decreasing]

WM    QEdx
We know that,
kqx
E
r 
3
2
 x2 2

kqx xdx
 WM    Q dx   kQq  
r  r 
3 3
2
 x2 2 2
 x2 2

Here, limit of integration will from infinity to a.

a
xdx
WM  kQq 
r 
3

2
 x2 2

On integrating we get
kQq
WM 
r 
1
2
 a2 2

This work done by man is actually stored as PE of interaction between ring and point charge. So,
kQq
PE = 
r 
1
2
+a 2 2

Illustration 5
Consider a uniformly charged infinite rod whose charge density is . A charge +q is placed at
distance ri = 10 m from it. Calculate change in potential energy of system if charge is moved from ri
= 10m to rf = 5m.
Sol.

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 Electrostatics-2

Suppose charge q is placed at distance x from rod. Force applied by man to move charge from 10m to 5m is
given as–
2k q
FM = FE = q E =
x
Then work done will be given as -
2 k  q
rf 5
 WM   FM   dx    dx
ri 10
x

 2 k  q ln x 10 = 2kq ln2.

5

This work done by man is equal to change in potential energy of system.

Illustration 6
Four charge 2C, 3C, 4C and 5C are placed at four vertices of square of side a.
Calculate potential energy of the system.

Sol. Potential energy of the system is equal to the work done by man in assembling the system by bringing the
charges from infinity. Let’s solve it step by step.
Step1- Imagine that initially there is nothing placed on the vertices of the square. Now man beings +2C of charge
from infinity to one vertex. As there is no charge already present, so work done by man = 0
Step2- Now man brings +3C charge from infinity to distance a from 2C charge.
k  3 2  6k
WM   ... (1)
a a
Step3- Now man brings +4C charge from infinity to another vertex. This 4C charge will face repulsive force from
two charge i.e. 2C and 3C. Work done by man to bring charge 4C will be sum of work done due to
presence of 2C charge and 3C charge individually.

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Mr. Neetin Agrawal

k  2  4  k  4  3  8k 12k
WM     ... (2)
a a 2 a a 2
Step4- To bring 5C charge from infinityto vertex, man has to do work equal to sum of work done due to presence of
2C, 3C and 4C charges individually.

k  2  5 k  3 5  k  4  5 
Wm   
2a a a
10 k 15 k 20 k 10 k 35 k
     ... (3)
2a a a 2a a
Total work done to create this system can be calculated by adding work done in equations (1), (2) and (3).
This total work done is potential energy of the system.
Potential energy of system
 6k   8k 12 k   10 k 35k  49 k 22 k
      
 a   a a 2  a 2 a  a a 2

2.4 Electric Potential

Till now we were studying potential energy. Potential energy and electric potential, both these terms are
different from each other. They are different from each other in same way as electrostatic force differs from
electrostatic field. Suppose we have two charges q1 and q2 at distance r.

We can say that potential energy of this system is given as -

k q1 q 2
U=
r
Physically we can describe this potential energy as work done by man to bring charge q2 from infinity to
this point. Now let’s describe electric potential. Suppose we have a point charge +q1. At distance r from
q1, we have a point A.

If we would have brought a charge of +1C from infinity to point A, work done in bringing this charge is
called electric potential at point A.
Electric potential at a point due to point charge is given as–
k q1
V=
r
This is very important concept. Let’s see some examples on potential.

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Quiz-3
Quiz-3
Calculate electric potential at point A due to uniformly charged sphere at distance r. Charge on
sphere is Q and radius is R (R < r).
Sol.

As charge is spread on sphere uniformly, we can consider it as a point charge for any point outside the
sphere. We just saw that electric potential at a point due to point charge is given as–
kq
V
r
Potential at point A is also given as
kQ
VA 
r

Quiz-4
Quiz-4
Calculate potential at A on the axis of uniformly charged ring at distance ‘a’ from center. Charge on
ring is Q and radius is r.

Sol.
We have already seen expression for potential energy at any point.
kQq
PE 
r 
1
2
 x2 2

If we replace charge q by 1C then we can get potential at A.

kQ
i.e. V=
a 2 +r 2
Illustration 7
Calculate electric potential on axis of uniformly charged disc at distance ‘a’ from center. Charge on
disc is Q and radius is r.
Sol. Imagine that we have brought a charge of +1C from infinity to a point P on axis of disc at distance x. The
work done in doing so is electric potential at point P.

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Mr. Neetin Agrawal

So, basically calculating potential at any point is not different than calculating work done by man to bring
charge of +1C from infinity. We already know how to do that, so we’ll see this very quickly. This +1C
of charge will experience some repulsive force. Now man has to apply force equal to this repulsive force to
bring the charge at point P slowly. If Fm is force exerted by man and FE is electrostatic repulsive force,
then
Fm = FE
= qE
Fm = (1) E

Now, work done will be calculated as–

  x 
Wm   Fm  dx     E dx    1   dx
2 0  x  r2
2

Limit of integration is from infinity to a.
a
  x 
  1   dx

2 0  x r 
2 2

On integrating we get our result.

2.5 Potential Due to Charged Spheres

(i) Hollow sphere
Consider a uniformly charged hollow sphere, having charge Q and radius R. We have to calculate potential
at point A, B, C, and D.

At A: Potential at point A is equal to work done in bringing charge of +1C from infinity to point A. We have
already calculated its value –

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 Electrostatics-2

kQ
VA 
r
At B: Point B is on the surface of sphere, so here r = R.
kQ
 VB 
R
At C: Potential at C will be equal to work done in bringing +1C of charge from infinity to point C.
 VC = WC = WB + WBC
We have already seen that
kQ
V B 
R
We have to calculate work done in bringing +1C of charge from point B to point C. Electric field inside
charged hollow sphere is zero, so work done in carrying charge inside the sphere will also be zero.
kQ
 VC 
R
At D: Similarly potential at D can be given as
kQ
VD = VD = WB + WBD  0
R
kQ
 VD 
R

Quiz-5
Quiz-5
Consider a hollow sphere of radius R and charge Q. Plot a graph between (E and r) and (V and r).
Here, r is the distance from center of sphere to point where E or V has to be calculated.
Sol.
Position of Point E V
0  r < R 0 kQ
R
R r kQ kQ
r2 r
Graph between E and r.

Graph between V and r

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Mr. Neetin Agrawal

Key Point:
It is a very important point to remember that V inside a uniformly charged hollow sphere is same
kQ
everywhere and is equal to V 
R
(ii) Solid Sphere

Consider a uniformly charged solid sphere having charge Q and radius R. We have to calculate potential at
points A, B, C and D.
At A: We have already seen that, at point A, potential is given as –
kQ
VA 
r
At B: Point B is located on surface so here r = R, VB will be given as –
kQ
VB 
R
At C: Point C is located inside the sphere.
VC = WB + WBC
kQ
We know that W B 
R
In case of hollow sphere WBC was zero but in case of uniformly charged sphere, E inside sphere is not
zero, so WBC is also non-zero. Let’s calculate WBC.

We have already derived formula to calculate electric field inside solid sphere–
kQx
E
R3

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 Electrostatics-2

Electrostatic force experienced by charge of +1C at any point between B and C at distance x from center is
given as –
Fe = q E = (1) E
kQx
Fe 
R3
This force will be equal to force applied by man, say Fm
Fm = Fe
Work done by man to bring charge from point B to C is given as -
WBC   Fm  dx 
As range of x is from R to r
r
k Qx
WBC   
R
R3
dx

kQ
  R 2  r 2 
2R 3 
k Q kQ
So, VC    R 2  r 2 
R 2R 3 
3 kQ kQ r 3
 
2 R 2R 3
At D: Putting r = 0 in the above equation
3 kQ kQ
 VD   1.5
2 R R

Quiz-6
Quiz-6
Consider a hollow sphere of radius R and charge Q. Plot a graph between (E and r) and (V and r).
Here, r is distance from center of sphere to point where E or V has to be calculated.
Sol.
Position of Point E V
kQ
r=0 0 1.5
R
k Qr 3 kQ kQ r 3
0  r<R 
R2 2 R 2R 3
kQ kQ
Rr
r2 r

Graph between E and r

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Mr. Neetin Agrawal

Graph between V and r

Illustration 8
Two spheres S1 and S2 of radius R each are placed such that the distance between their centers is r (r
> R). S1 and S2 have charge Q each. Find potential at center of S1.

Sol.
VS1 = potential at center of sphere S1 due to S1 itself.
VS2 = potential at center of sphere S1 due to sphere S2.
1.5 kQ kQ
Vcentre  VS1  VS2  
R r
Illustration 9
A uniformly charged ring and a hollow sphere are placed at distance R. Calculate potential at center
of the sphere.
Sol.

Potential at center of sphere is sum of potential due to sphere and potential due to ring.
V = Vring + Vsphere
kQ kQ
 
r R
2 2 R
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 Electrostatics-2

Key Point
If we have to find potential at a point due to more than one charged objects then firstly we should calculate
potential at that point due to individual objects. Then we can sum them to find total potential.
Illustration 10
In the following figure, two concentric hollow spheres are shown. Calculate E and V at point A, B and
C.

Sol.
(i) At point A, electric field is vector sum of electric field due to sphere S1 and sphere S2.
E A  E S2  E S1
kQ 2 kQ1
EA  
 OA   OA 
2 2

Potential at point A is sum of potential due to sphere S1 and due to sphere S2

VA  VS1  VS2
kQ1 kQ 2
VA  
OA OA
(ii) Point B is in between two spheres.
E B  E S1  E S2
kQ1 kQ1
EB  0 
 OB  OB
2 2

VB  VS1  VS2
kQ1 kQ2
 
OB R 2
(iii) Point C is inside both spheres S1 and S2, so E ise zero due to both the spheres.
E C  E S2  E S1 = 0 + 0 = 0

VC  VS1  VS2
kQ1 kQ2
 
R1 R2
Illustration 11
Four charges q are placed at corner of square of side 2 a , Calculate value of E and V at center
of square.

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Mr. Neetin Agrawal

Sol.

Potential at center will be due to all the four charges.

kq kq kq kq 4kq
VA     
a a a a a
E will be vector sum of E due to all the charges

As E due to all the four charges is equal in magnitude,

Enet= 0
Key Point: -
E is a vector quantity but potential is a scalar. While finding net E, vector addition should be done but for
potential we need to do scalar addition.
Illustration 12
Two positive and two negative charges of magnitude Q are placed at four corners of square.
Calculate E and V at center of this square.

Sol. Potential at center will be due to all the four charges.

kQ kQ kQ kQ
VA    
a a a a
=0

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 Electrostatics-2

E due to charges will be in the direction shown. net will be vector sum of E due to all these charges and
hence not equal to zero. In this example we can see that although potential is zero but electric field is not
zero.
Change in Potential

If we move along line AB i.e. along electric field lines, what happens to potential, does it decrease or
increase? Let’s analyze it physically, if we move +1C charge from point A to B then work done is negative
because we have to move charge slowly by stopping it. It means potential is decreasing.
If we move along line CD i.e. in direction opposite to that of electric field lines, what happens? Work done
is positive because we have to move charge by pulling it. It means potential is increasing.
In last case, suppose we are moving along line BC i.e. perpendicular to electric field lines, work done is
zero. Therefore, potential remains constant.
V decreases along electric field lines.
V increases opposite to electric field lines.
V is constant  to electric field lines.

Quiz-7
Quiz-7
How will value of potential vary around +Q charge such that
(i) Point moves closer to charge
(ii) Point moves away from charge.
(iii) Point moves in circle around the charge (considering charge is fixed at centre)

Sol.
(i) When point moves closer to charge, it means it is moving opposite to electric field lines.
 V increases.
(ii) When point moves away from charge, it means it is moving along electric field lines.
 V decreases.
(iii) When point moves in a circle then it moves  to electric field lines.
 V is constant.

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2.6 Equipotential Surfaces

Consider an infinitelylong positively charged sheet. In front of sheet, imagine three plane surfaces: S1, S2
and S3 such that surface of all three is parallel to surface of sheet. Let’s mark few points on surface of S1,
S2 and S3, as shown in the figure. (Note: in diagram shown below, sheets are drawn as if they are seen from
one side)

If we move along path 1 2 3, we are moving perpendicular to electric field lines. It means that these
points are at the same potential. Similarly on path 4 5 6 on S2, all the points are at same potential.
Same is true for points 7, 8, 9 on S3. It means potential at all the points on surface S1 is same; similarly
potential at all the points on surface S2 is same. Same for S3.
Equipotential surface is a surface on which potential is same at all the points. In above example S1, S2
and S3 are equipotential surfaces.
For a point charge, equipotential surfaces are spherical.

2.6.1 Properties of Equipotential Surfaces

1. Between any two points on equipotential surface, V = 0
i.e. work done in moving 1C charge on this surface is zero.
2. Equipotential surface is  to electric field lines.
3. Two equipotential surfaces do not intersect each other.
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 Electrostatics-2

We can draw equipotential surfaces for two point charges of equal magnitude as shown in the figure.

Some Important Relations

 We have studied concept of electric potential energy and electric potential. We can relate both of them as-
U = qV
 If we choose any two points in electric field E, potential difference between these two points can be given
as-
 
V    E.dx
We can derive this relation –
Consider some non-uniform electric field lines, and two points A and B as shown in the figure.

Potential difference between point A and B is work done by man in bringing +1C of charge from point B to
A.
 
V   FMan .dx

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Mr. Neetin Agrawal

This FMan will be equal to qE where q is charge which is being moved and E is electric field.
As, q = 1C
 
So, FMan  (1)E [negative sign indicates, opposite direction of F and E vector]
 
 V    E.dx

2.7 Motion in Electric Field

Now we should see problems which include knowledge of electrostatics and mechanics both.

Quiz-8
Consider two charges +Q and –Q placed close to each other. Now suppose another small charge +q is
placed as shown in the figure. This charge will experience some force and start to move. Will path of
the charge be along the field lines?

Sol. Force will act on the small charge along electric field line. You might be tempted to think that the charge will
move along the field line as shown in the figure. But it will NOT move along the field line. If you are not
getting me, you need to recall an important concept of mechanics. Suppose a football is moving horizontally
with velocity V. Now we hit it with force F such that direction of F is same as that of V, as shown in the
figure. Ball will continue to move horizontally in the same direction with changed speed.

Now consider another similar situation. Again a ball is moving with velocity V horizontally. If we hit the
ball with force F at an angle with V, then what will happen to the path of the ball?

Clearly, path of the ball changes. Here take components of force F, one parallel to velocity and another
perpendicular to velocity.

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 Electrostatics-2

F// is along velocity so it does not change the line of motion of the ball. F is responsible for changing the
line of motion. A perpendicular force is always needed to change the line of motion of an object.
Now come back to our original problem. Let’s assume that charge is moving along the field line. So, it is
moving along a curved path. Its velocity or line of motion, being tangential to the path, is changing as the
charge moves. Force acting on the charge is also tangential to the field line. Thus, it means that both F and
V are parallel and yet line of motion is changing. This is in contradiction of the concept we just saw.
Thus our assumption is wrong. It means that charge cannot move along the field line in this case.
But what will be the actual path of this charge? It’s too complicated to answer this question at this stage but
it is sure that the path will not be along the field line.
Illustration 13
A charge Q1 = 2C is fixed. Another object having charge Q2 = 1C and mass m = 3kg is moving
towards Q1 from infinity with velocity 10m/s. Find the distance of closest approach.
Sol. As the charge Q2 is moving towards charge Q1, it will face force of electrostatic repulsion in opposite
direction. After sometime, velocity of Q2 will become zero. At this time distance between both the charges
is minimum and is called distance of closest approach.

Initially when two charges were far away from each other, their potential energy is zero but charge Q2 had
some kinetic energy. As charge Q2 moves closer to charge Q1, its velocity and K.E decrease. But potential
energy of system increases. At distance of closest approach, kinetic energy of charge Q2 becomes zero and
potential energy of the system becomes maximum.
As, total energy of system is conserved, we can write.
 K E (initial) + U (Initial) = KE (final) + U (final) 
1 kQ Q 1 kQ Q
 mu 2  1 2  mv 2  1 2
2  2 r
1 k  2 1
 310   0  0 
2

2 r 1012
9 109  2  2
 r
3 1014
 r = 12 × 10–5 m
Illustration 14
A uniformly charged sphere having charge Q = 10C and radius R = 0·5m has narrow opening along
its diameter. Another object of mass m = 3kg and charge q = 2 C is projected from infinity
(i) What should be its initial velocity (v0) such that it just reaches center of the sphere.

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Mr. Neetin Agrawal

Sol.
(i) When object moves towards sphere, its velocity decreases due to repulsive electrostatic force offered by
sphere.
At center, velocity of charge becomes zero. Here, we can use law of conservation of energy. Let potential
energy at center be Vq.
K E (initial) + U (initial) = K E (Final) + U (Final)
1
  3 v 20  0  0  Vq
2
3 2 1.5 k Qq
 v0 
2 R
2 3 9 109 10  2
 v 20   
3 2 0·5
 v0 = 6 × 105 m/s
(ii) What should be the initial velocity of particle such that it reaches point A?
Sol. If particle crosses center of sphere, repulsion from sphere will take it to point A and even beyond A. So,
particle should be projected with velocity slightly greater than 6 × 105 m/s.
2.8 Electric Dipole
If we arrange a system of two charges of same magnitude but opposite sign, separated at small distance d,
then this system is called electric dipole.

This system is very common in chemistry. Compounds like NaCl, HCI, H2O are examples of electric
dipole.

A very important term related to dipole is dipole moment. It is defined as:

 
P  qd
Where q is magnitude of charge and d is distance between them. Dipole moment is a vector quantity. Its
direction is same as direction of d, i.e. from negative to positive.
Illustration 15
Calculate dipole moment of the system.

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 Electrostatics-2

Sol. In above figure we can imagine that there are two dipoles, say P1 and P2.

Now,
 
P1  1 a
 
P2  1 a

 Pnet  P12  P2 2
  2a 2  a 2
Illustration 16
Calculate dipole of the given system.

Sol. Let’s redraw this figure.

From above diagram

 
P1  2a
  
 
P2  2 3a  6 a
   
P net  P1  P2  8 a
In previous problem, we can also take pair of dipole moments as shown in the figure below.


P1   2  2a 

P 2   2  2a 
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Mr. Neetin Agrawal

Pnet = 4a + 4a
= 8a
No matter how we pair the charges, dipole moment, Pnet will be same.

Illustration 17
A rod of length l is placed such that its middle point lies at origin. For rod,  is 2x3. Calculate its
dipole moment.

Sol. Let’s take two small elements dx, one at distance x from center and another at distance –x from center.
These small elements dx have small charge dq and –dq.

Now this pair makes a small dipole. We will denote this small dipole with dP.
dP = dq (2x)
= dx (2x) [as dq = dx]
3
= 2x × 2x × dx
= 4x4 dx
Similarly, we have infinite pairs of such dipoles.
To calculate dipole of complete rod, we have to integrate above equation.
P =  4x4 dx

Range of x is from 0 to
2
 /2
 /2
 x5  5
P  4x dx  4   
4

0  5 0 40
5
So, net dipole of rod is 
40
2.8.1 Electric Field Due to Dipole
Now, we will calculate electric field due to dipole at various points.
Let’s analyze some cases.
Case -I E on the axis.

The line joining two charges is called axis of dipole. Suppose we have to calculate E at a point A on the axis
as shown in the figure.

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 Electrostatics-2

Here E+ is denoting E due to charge +q and E– is denoting E due to charge – q. We can see that E+ > E– as
+q charge is closer to point A than –q charge. So net electric field will be in direction of E+.
Enet = E+ – E–

  d 2  d  2   
 r     r     

kq

kq   2  2   2rd 
 kq  kq 
  2 2
2 2 2
 d  d  d  d   r 2  d  
r   r    r   r   
 2  2   2  2    4  
Let’s make a small approximation here. As value of d is very small in comparison to value of r, so we can
d2
neglect
4
kq  2rd 
E net  [d << r]
r4
2k  qd 

r3
2kP
Enet = [P = qd]
r3
Case - II E on equatorial line

Equatorial line is a line passing through center of dipole and  to axis.

If E+ and E– are electric fields due to charge +q and –q respectively, then let Enet be their resultant.
From figure we can see that vertical component of E+ and E–l cancel out each other but horizontal
components add up.
So,
Enet = E+cos  + E– cos 

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Mr. Neetin Agrawal


Distance between charge –q and A is same as distance between charge +q and A, say it is x. Using
Pythagoras theorem–
d2
x  r2 
4
kq
Now, E   E   2
x
kq
So, Enet = 2 E+ cos   2 cos 
x2
kq d / 2
2
x2 x
kq d kp
 3  3
x  2 d2 
 r  
 4 
 
As, d << r
kP
E net =
r3
Key Points: -
2kp
 Electric field due to dipole at any point on axis of dipole is and its direction is along the dipole.
r3
kp
 Electric field due to dipole at any point on equatorial line of dipole is 3 and its direction is opposite to
r
that of dipole.
In both the points above, r is the distance of point from center of dipole.

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 Electrostatics-2

Illustration 18
Consider the system as shown in figure.

If r >> a, calculate electric field at point A.

Sol. We can solve above problem by two methods.
Methods 1:-
Calculate electric field at A due to individual charges and then find vector sum of all three of them.
This method will be very lengthy. Let’s see another method.
Method 2:-
Imagine –4C charge as two separate charges of –2C each. This way we can see two dipoles say P1 and P2.
Where, P1 = P2 = 2a.

Pnet  P12  P22  2P1P2 cos 90o

 8 P1  2 2 a
Now point A is on axis of resultant dipole. Electric field at A will be given as.
2kP
EA 
r3
Here p will be pnet

EA 

2k 2 2 a 4 2 ka
3
r r3
Key Point: -
We can represent dipole (P) with an arrow.

Negative charge is at the tail of the arrow and the positive at the head.
Illustration 19
A dipole P0 whose center coincides with origin, makes an angle 45º with x-axis. Calculate electric field
at point A on x- axis which is at distance r from origin.

Sol.
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Mr. Neetin Agrawal

We can take horizontal and vertical components of this dipole, say PH (horizontal component) and PV
(vertical component)

P0
Here PH = P0 cos 45º 
2
P0
And PV = P0 sin 45º 
2
Now, effectively we have two dipoles, PH and PV. Point A lies on axis of dipole PH and on equatorial line
for dipole PV.
Value of electric field at point A due to PH will be–

2k PH 2 k P0 2 k P0
EH   
r 3
2r 3
r3
Value of electric field at point A due to PV will be.
k PV k P0
EV  3

r 2 r3

k 2 P0 2 2 k 2 P0 2 k P0 5
 EV    E H 
2 2
E net     3
2 r6 r6 r 2
Case III - E at any point around dipole

Now consider a point A at distance r from origin and center of dipole.

 We can make two components of this dipole as shown in the figure.

Now point A is on axis of dipole P cos and on equatorial line of P sin

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 Electrostatics-2

We know that E due to dipole on axis is given as–

2KP
E
r3
2KP cos 
 E P cos  
r3
Similarly, E due to dipole on equatorial line is given as
KP
E
r3
KP sin 
 EPsin =
r3

  
E net  E P sin   E P cos 
 E net  E Pcos
2
  E Psin 
2

Illustration 20
In the given figure calculate angle  for which E due to dipole at point A is parallel to y-axis.

Sol. We have just seen that electric field at any point due to dipole is vector sum of E due to components of
dipole.

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In the above diagram P1 and P2 are components of P. E1 and E2 are electric fields due to dipole P1 and P2
respectively. E is vector sum of E1 and E2. It is possible that for some value  E is parallel to y-axis.
Now we will calculate this angle .

If is vertical it means
E1 cos = E2 sin

 2KP cos   KP sin  

   cos     sin 
 R   R 
3 3

 2 cos2 = sin2 
 tan = 2
   tan 1
 2
2.8.2 Potential Due to Dipole
In the following figure three points are marked A, B and C.

As we can see from figure that point A is on equatorial line, point B is on axis and point C is at angle  from
axis. We have to find potential at all these three points.
At A: We have already seen direction of E on equatorial line.

Potential at point A can be defined as work done in bringing +1C of charge from infinity to point A.
VA = WA

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 Electrostatics-2

Now image that we bring the charge from a very far off point on equatorial line to A. As E is perpendicular
to r on equatorial line
 WA = 0
 VA = 0
At B: Now we will calculate potential at B.

Potential at B will be given as

VB = WB
  r
2KP 
   E.dr    3 dr

r
KP
VB =
r2
At C: Now we will calculate V at point C.

We have taken components of dipole.

Potential at point C can be given as.
VC = Vdue to Pcos + Vdue to Psin
Point C lies on equatorial line of dipole Psin so Vdue to P sin  will be zero.
 VC = VPcos
  r
2KP cos 
   E1 .dr   dr

r3
KP
VC = cosθ
r2
2.8.3 Dipole in Uniform Electric Field
1. Force - Suppose a dipole is placed in uniform electric field.

+q charge of dipole will experience qE force in direction of E. -q charge of dipole will experience qE force
in direction opposite to E. So net force on dipole will be 0
Fnet = 0

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2. Torque - We can roughly say that torque is the tendency of force to rotate objects. We saw that two forces
F+q and F–q are acting on dipole. These forces will try to rotate the dipole. Let’s calculate value of torque
in this case. Net torque acting on dipole will be sum of torques due to force F+q and torque due to force F–q

 = F+q (r) + F–q (r)

F+q = F–q =q E

d
r = sin 
2
  = 2 q E r
d
= 2qE sin 
2
= q E d sin 
= PE sin
In vector form we can write torque as–
  
τ = P×E
Illustration 21
Calculate  in the given situation.
(i)

Sol. In this case angle between P and E is 0o

  = PE sin 
= PE sin 0º
=0
It seems logical also. Forces experienced by the dipole will be as shown

So both these forces are not trying to rotate the dipole, rather they are trying to elongate it.

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 Electrostatics-2

(ii)

Sol. In this situation, angle between P and E is 180º

 = PE sin 
= PE sin 180º
=0
This result also seems logical. Again analyze direction of force on positive and negative charge.

Both these forces are not rotating dipole, rather they are trying to compress it.
(iii)

Sol. Here angle between P and E is 90º

  = PE sin 
= PE sin 90º
= PE
We can analyze this result also. Check the direction of force on positive and negative charge of dipole.

Both these forces will rotate dipole in clockwise direction.

3. Potential Energy - Consider a dipole placed in uniform electric field as shown in figure.

Charges of dipole will experience force qE. These forces will try to rotate dipole in clockwise direction.
Now consider two cases:
Case1- Man tries to rotate dipole in anti-clockwise direction. To do so man has to do some work. Work
done by man is positive as man has to pull the dipole against the rotation caused by the electric forces.
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Mr. Neetin Agrawal

Case2- Man tries to rotate dipole in clockwise direction. Even if man does nothing, then also dipole rotates
in clockwise direction. But he has to rotate it very slowly by stopping it. So in this case, work done by man
is negative.
When man does work, potential energy of the system changes. In these kinds of situations, we define
potential energy of dipole as –
  
U = - P .E
 U = – PE cos

Quiz-9
Quiz-9
In the figure given below, dipole is placed in different orientations in uniform electric field E.
Calculate potential energy of system in each case.

(a) (b)

(c) (d)
Sol.
(a)

Here, P and E are perpendicular to each other, so  = 90o

As U = – PE cos 
 U–PE cos90o
 U0
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 Electrostatics-2

(b)

Here, angle between P and E is

 = 60o
As U = – PE cos
 U–PE cos60o
PE
 U–
2
(c)

Here, angle between P and E is  =120o

As U = – PE cos
 U–PE cos120o
 1  PE
 U–PE    =
 2 2
(d)

Here, angle between P and E is  =180o

As U = – PE cos 
 U–PE cos180o
 U–PE (–1) = PE

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Mr. Neetin Agrawal

Illustration 22
In the following diagram, calculate work done by man in rotating dipole by 180º.

Sol. Electric field due to sheet is uniform. First we should calculate initial potential energy of the dipole. As
angle between P and E is 0º
so Ui = – PE cos0o
Ui = – PE ... (1)
Now we should calculate final potential energy of dipole. When dipole is rotated by 180º, angle between P
and E becomes 180º.
 Uf = – PE cos180º
 = PE ... (2)
We can see that potential energy of dipole has increased. This increased potential energy is the work done
by man.
Wman = U = Uf – Ui
= PE – (– PE) = 2PE
2.8.4 Force on dipole in non-uniform electric field
Suppose A dipole of charge q = +1C is placed at distance of 10m from charge of +5C, as shown in the
figure.

Electric field due to +5C charge is non-uniform. Force experienced by this dipole, due to 5C charge is as
shown in the figure.

As, F+ > F–
Fnet = F+ – F–
Using coulomb’s law
KQq KQq
Fnet  2
 2
 d  d
r   r  
 2  2

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 Electrostatics-2

 
 
1 1
 KQq   
  d  2  d 2 
 r    r   
 2   2  
 
 
 KQq   2rd 
2 2
 r2  d  
  4  
d d
As << r, we can neglect
2 2
 2d r  2KQ q d 2KQ p
 KQq  4   
 r  r3 r3
We can calculate force on dipole due to non-uniform electric field with one more method.
Fnet = F+ – F–
 Fnet = qE+ – qE–
= q (E+ – E–)
as E+  E– , E+ – E– = dE
Here dE represents very small difference between E+ and E–
So, Fnet = q(dE) ... (1)
We know that in a dipole, positive and negative charges are placed very close to each other, so we can
represent distance between them with dr.
On Multiplying and dividing equation (1) with dr we get.
dE
Fnet  q  dr
dr
dE
Fnet   q dr 
dr
Here, q dr = p
dE
 Fnet = p
dr
This formula is very useful in calculating net force on dipole.
Now if we substitute value of E we can get our answer.
KQ
E
r2
d  KQ  KQp
 Fnet  p  2 
 2 3
dr  r  r
Here negative sign represents that net force and dipole moment are opposite in directions.
Illustration 23
An infinite long uniformly charged rod with uniform charge density  is given. A dipole P is placed at
distance r as shown in the figure. Calculate net force on dipole.

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Mr. Neetin Agrawal

Sol. We know that

dE
Fnet  P
dr
d  2k  2k
   P  2 P
dr  r  r
Illustration 24
Two dipoles P1 and P2 are placed as shown in figure. Calculate force on P2 due to P1.

Sol. Dipole P2 is placed on axis of P1. We know the formula of E due to dipole on axis, so
dE
Fnet  P2
dr
d  2K P  6 KP1P2
  3 1  P2  
dr  r  r4

2.9 Conductors
There is some elementary difference between conductors and insulators. In conductors electrons can move
freely whereas in insulators electrons are bound and cannot move freely.
Let’s see some important properties related to conductors.
1. Consider two spheres, one is conductor and another is insulator. Initially they both are neutral. Now
suppose we charge them by giving some electrons. In insulator, these excess electrons will repel each other
and try to move away as far away as possible. But electrons in insulators are bound, so they cannot move.
But in conductors, electrons can move freely. So, due to repulsive force between them, they will try
to move away from each other at maximum distance possible and accumulate on surface. This phenomenon
is valid for conductors of any shape and size. We can state above property as–
“Charge resides on surface of conductor in electrostatic equilibrium”.
In above definition, we used word “electrostatic equilibrium”. Let’s see what it is.
Suppose at time t = 0 we transfer some charge to conductor.

____
_
__ _
t = 0 __
__

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 Electrostatics-2

These charges will start to repel each other and move to surface. Suppose at time t=t0, all the charges have
moved to surface.

At this time when all the electrons stop their movement and become stable, we call electrons to be in state of
electrostatic equilibrium.
2. Imagine a conducting solid sphere. We have given it some charge –q. All this –q charge will accumulate on
surface of sphere. Now consider three equal regions of sphere as shown in figure–
+ + + +
+
+ +
+ +
+ +
+ +
+ +
+ +
+ +
+
++ ++
+ +

Which region of sphere will have more charge? Actually this sphere is symmetric, so charge distributed all
over the surface of sphere is same. Therefore charge in all the regions is same. We can consider this solid
conducting sphere equivalent to uniformly charged hollow sphere. This is because just like hollow sphere,
all the charge in conducting solid sphere is on surface. As charge is distributed in same fashion in both the
cases, electric field should also be same in both the cases. As E inside uniformly charged shell is zero, E
inside charged conductor should also be zero.
_ _ _ _
_ _ _ _
_ E=0 _ E=0
_ _
_ _ _ _

Uniformly Charged Charged Conducting

Hollow Sphere Solid Sphere
So, we conclude that charge on conducting sphere is on surface and E inside it is zero, in electrostatic
equilibrium. Actually, for conductor of any arbitrary shape, E inside is zero in electrostatic
equilibrium.
For instance, consider a conductor of arbitrary shape as in figure in electrostatic equilibrium. E inside it is
zero. We can even prove it.
+ +
+

+ +

+ +
+
+ +
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Mr. Neetin Agrawal

Let’s take spherical Gaussian surface inside this conductor.

Direction of area vector is as shown in above figure.

Calculating flux through this surface–
 
  E.A
= EA cos ... (i)
Here,  is angle between E and A.
Calculating flux using Gauss Law –
q enclosed
 ... (ii)
0
As charge enclosed by this gaussion surface is zero. So,
= 0 ... (iii)
On equating (i) and (iii) we get,
E A cos  = 0
In this equation, area (A) cannot be zero. So either E is zero or cos is zero.
If cos = 0, = 90o
Then electric field is perpendicular to area vector as shown in figure below.

A
E E
A A

E E
A
It means electric field lines are circular.

E E

E E

If  = 90º, electric field lines make circular closed loop, which is not possible.
Therefore,  90º
So, we are left only with option where E = 0. We can state this important property as -

E inside conductor is zero in electrostatic equilibrium.
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 Electrostatics-2


3. E just outside conductor is perpendicular to surface in electrostatic equilibrium.
E E
E E
E E

E E
E E

For instance, in case of sphere, we already know that electric field lines are perpendicular to surface as
shown in figure.

Now the question is: why are these electric field lines perpendicular to the surface of conductors?
Suppose, a conductor has some positive charge. Assume that electric field lines are not perpendicular to its
surface. Consider an electric field line as shown in figure.

Draw components of this E.

Perpendicular component E exerts force on charge on surface in outward direction. But it is not possible
for charge to move outside so this component is not able to move charge. Parallel component E// tries to
move this charge along the surface. But conductor is in electrostatic equilibrium which means that charge
must be at rest. This contradiction implies that E// is zero.
This proves that E just outside conductor must be perpendicular to surface.
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4. Consider a conductor as shown in figure.

Take two points A and B inside the conductor. We have to calculate potential difference between them.
VAB is defined as work done in moving 1C of charge from A to B (WAB)
As electric field (E) inside conductor is zero.
 WAB = 0
 VAB = 0
 VA = VB
We can state that, “potential is same at every point inside a conductor, in electrostatic equilibrium”.
2.9.1 Conductor in External Electric Field
Till now we have studied all the basic properties of a conductor. Now let’s see how conductor behaves when
it is placed in an external uniform electric field. Suppose a conducting infinite slab is placed in front of
charged infinite sheet. Initially slab is neutral.

Direction of E due to sheet is as shown in above figure. Due to electric field of sheet, electrons and protons
on slab experience some force. As protons are fixed, they do not move but electrons are attracted towards
sheet.

Due to movement of electrons, face 1 of sheet gets some negative charge and face 2 gets equal positive
charge. If charge density of face 1 is ’ then charge density of face 2 is also ’. Consider any point A inside
the slab (as shown in the figure below). At this point, there is electric field due to three surfaces.
(i) Due to sheet (Esheet)

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 Electrostatics-2

(ii) Due to face 1, in direction opposite to that of Esheet (say E–)

(ii) Due to face 2, in direction opposite to that of Esheet (say E+)

+ _ +
+ _ E A+
+ _
+

+ E + Esheet
_ _

+ +
_ +
Initially, very few electrons would have moved so E+ and E– are very small. Thus net E is along Esheet. As
more e– flow towards face 1, these positive and negative charges on faces of slab continue to increase. So,
E+ and E–also increase. A time comes when E+ + E– = Esheet. Then net electric field inside conductor
becomes zero. Now, there is no force on electrons inside so their movement towards face 1 also stops. This
is the stage of electrostatic equilibrium. Now the system remains as it is.
Electric field lines which are coming out of sheet terminate at face 1 of conductor, field lines again originate
at face 2 of conductor, as shown in figure.

We can understand this concept in one more way.

+
+
+
+
+

Initially, slab is neutral. Electric field lines come out of sheet in  direction and reach to the surface of
conductor. We know that there are no electric field lines inside conductors, so these field lines are not able
to enter inside slab. It means that these field lines have to terminate on surface of slab.

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Mr. Neetin Agrawal

+ _ +
+ _ +
+ _ +
+ _ +
+ _ +
1 2
We have studied that electric field line can terminate either at infinity or at negative charge only. So,
negative charge appears on surface of slab. If face 1 of slab has some negative charge then face 2 must be
having equal positive charge because net charge on slab is zero. As face 2 is positively charged, there must
be electric field lines coming out of it. What is the direction of these field lines? Electric field lines due
to face 2 cannot be towards left (inside conductor) as E inside conductor is zero, so they are towards right
(as shown in figure).

+ _ +
+ _ +
+ _ +
+ _ +
+ _ +
1 2
This concept is very helpful in solving many problems related to conductors.

Quiz
Qui-10
A conducting sphere is placed in front of infinite long charged sheet.
(i) Which of the following diagram represents correct direction of electric field lines?
+ +
+ +
(A) + (B) +
+ +
+ +
(C)
+
+
+
+
+

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 Electrostatics-2

Sol. We have studied that electric field lines are  to surface of conductor. So, option B is correct choice. In all
other cases, lines are not  to surface of sphere.
(ii) In the following figure, calculate electric field at point A due to induced charge.

+
+
+ A
+
+

Sol. We have seen that due to external electric field, charge is induced on surface of conductors.
As A is inside conductor, at A,
Enet = 0
As, Enet = Esheet + Einduced
 Esheet + Einduced = 0
 Einduced = – Esheet


2 0
This negative sign indicates that direction of Einduced is opposite to that of Esheet.

Quiz
Qui-11
An electrically neutral solid sphere (S) is brought close to a fixed point charge +Q. Will this point
charge attract or repel the sphere S.
(i) When S is insulator.

Sol.
As S is neutral and insulator, it is neither attracted nor repelled by + Q charge
(ii) When S is conductor.

Sol.
When S is conductor, negative charge is induced on surface of sphere which is closer to charge Q. On
opposite surface, positive charge is induced (as shown in figure). The surface with negative charge is
attracted by +Q charge and surface with positive charge is repelled by +Q charge. As surface with negative
charge is closer to charge Q, net force is attractive.

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Mr. Neetin Agrawal

Quiz
Qui-12
Suppose in previous problem we replace point charge with infinitely large charged sheet. Will this
charged sheet attract or repel the sphere S.
(i) S is insulator

Sol.
As S is insulator so again nothing will happen to sphere, neither attraction nor repulsion.
(ii) S is conductor

+
_ S
+ _ +
+ +
+ FA _ FB
_ +
+ +
+
Sol.
Due to sheet, some charge is induced on sphere. But we know that electric field due to sheet is uniform. It
does not depend upon distance. So, force on positively and negatively charged surface is same. Hence, in
this case also, S will neither be attracted nor repelled.

Quiz-13
Two identical conducting slabs of area A are placed parallel to each other. One is given charge Q and
another is given charge 2Q. Calculate charge on all four surfaces (as shown in figure)
Q 2Q

(1) (2) (3) (4)

Sol. Students sometimes feel that the solution will be as in the figure.

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 Electrostatics-2

Q
Charge on face 1 
2
Q
Charge on face 2 
2
Charge on face 3 = Q
Charge on face 4 = Q
But this is wrong. Let’s see how.
Consider any point A inside first slab. At this point electric field is due to face 1, 2, 3 and 4
    
E A  E1  E 2  E3  E 4
 Q   Q 
   

2A   2A  Q Q
  
20 2 0 2 0 2 0
Q
 EA  
A 0
But as point A is inside conductor, so EA should be zero. It means that charge distribution taken by us is
incorrect.
Let’s see how to solve these kinds of problems. First assume that charge on surface 1 is q1 then charge on
surface 2 is Q – q1.
Similarly, let charge on surface 3 be q2 then charge on surface 4 is 2Q – q2.
Now consider two points A and B inside conductors as shown in figure.

q1 Q-q q2 2Q-q2

A B

1 2 3 4
We know that
EA = 0
And EB = 0
First find EA and equate it to zero.
    
E A  E1  E 2  E3  E 4

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Mr. Neetin Agrawal

q1    Q  q1     q 2 
      2Q  q 2  
EA  A    A     A    
2 0  2 0   2 0   20 
   
 
 q1 – Q + q1 – q2 – 2Q + q2 = 0
 2q2 = 3Q
3Q
 q1 
2
Similarly, we can find EB and equate it to zero.

q1    Q  q1     q 2    2Q  q1  
  
EB  A    A 
A A
2 0 2 0 2 0 2 0
 –q1 – Q + q1 – q2 + 2Q – q2 = 0
 2q2 = Q
Q
  q2 
2
As we now know the values of q1 and q2, we can easily calculate charge on all the surfaces.
So, charge on surface 1 is q1 = 1.5 Q
Charge on surface 2 is Q – q1 = – 0.5 Q
Charge on surface 3 is q2 = 0.5 Q
Charge on surface 4 is q2 Q – q2 = 1.5 Q

1.5Q -0.5Q 0.5Q 1.5Q

A B

1 2 3 4
Key Point: -
We can draw electric field lines for previous solution as in the below figure.

1.5Q -0.5Q 0.5Q 1.5Q

A B

1 2 3 4
We can make few observations here–
1. Charges on inner surfaces are equal and opposite.

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 Electrostatics-2

This is quite logical. All the field lines originating at face 3 should end at face 2. If this does not happen,
field lines will be entering inside the conductor through face 2 which is not possible. So, charges on inner
surfaces need to be equal and opposite.
2. Charges given the slabs is Q and 2Q. On outer faces 1 and 4, charges are equal and are equal to half of the
total charge given to both slabs.

qface1=
 Q  2Q   1.5Q
2
Charges on outer surfaces are equal and half of the total charge given to both the surfaces.
With help of this observation we can now solve these kinds of problems very easily.
Let’s see some more examples.
Illustration 25
Two conducting slabs are placed parallel to each other. One is given charge of +10 C and another of
+30 C. Calculate charge on all the four surfaces.
Sol.

10C 30C

1 2 3 4
Total charge given to both the slabs is 10 + 30 = 40 C
Charge on outer surfaces (i.e. face 1 and 4) = 40C/2 = 20C each
Total charge given to second slab is 30 C. If 20C charge is on face 4, then charge on face 3 is 30 – 20 = 10
C.
And we know that inner surfaces have equal and opposite charges.
 Charge on face 2 = -10 C

+ +
+ +
+ +
+ +
+ +
+20C -10C +10C +20C
This is our required answer.
Illustration 26
Three identical slabs are placed parallel to each other. First slab was given charge of 10 C, second
slab was given charge of 20 C and third slab was given charge of 40 C. Find charge on each surfaces.
10C 20C 40C

1 2 3 4 5 6

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Mr. Neetin Agrawal

Sol. Here face 1 and face 6 are pair of external surfaces. Face 2 and 3 & face 4 and 5 are pairs of internal
surfaces. We have seen that charge on outer surfaces is equal to half of the total charge given to all the slabs.

Total charge given = 10 + 20 + 40 =70 C.

70
Charge on face 1 and 6 is  35C (each)
2
If charge on face 1 is 35 C and total charge given to this slab is 10 C then charge on face 2 is = 10 – 35 = –
25 C.
Similarly charge on face5 = 40 – 35 = 5
As charge on inner surfaces are equal and opposite,
Charge on face 3 is + 25 C
Charge on face 4 is – 5 C

+35C -25C +25C -5C +5C 40C

1 2 3 4 5 6

2.10 Potential Due to Induced Charge

Before we start with this topic, let’s solve one small example.
Consider two cases as shown in figure
+Q
_Q +Q _Q
r +Q
r
_Q + Q _Q +Q
_Q +Q _Q +Q
(i) (ii)
In both the cases we have to calculate potential due to all the charges at center of circle.
First let’s take case (i)
KQ
V due to charge +Q =
r
3KQ
We have three +Q charges. So, potential due to all the 3 charges will be ... (1)
r
 KQ
Similarly, V due to – Q charge 
r
Total V due to all three – Q charge
3KQ
 ...(2)
r
Net V at centre is sum of (1) and (2).
3KQ  3KQ 
Vnet    =0
r  r 
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 Electrostatics-2

Similarly, in case (ii), net potential is due to four +Q charges and three –Q charges.
4KQ  3KQ  KQ
 Vnet   
r  r  r
We can see that, in both the cases, potential at A is due to the total charge on the circle.
In case (i), sum of all the charges is 0, therefore potential is 0.
KQ
In case (ii), total charge is +Q, therefore potential 
r
So we can say that potential at any point is given as –
KQ total
V=
r
Above formula is valid only if distance of all the charges from point is same. In our example, all the charges
were placed at perimeter of circle of radius r and we were finding potential at centre.
Now consider a conducting sphere, placed at distance r from a point charge +Q. Two points A and B are
taken inside this sphere as shown in figure. We have to calculate potential at point A and B.

B
+Q r
A

We know that some charge will be induced on this sphere due to presence of charge Q.
_q +q
_ +
_ B +
r _ +
+Q _
_ A +
_ +
+
Potential at A is due to point charge +Q and due to induced charges.
VA = VQ + Vinduced
If we say that charge +q and –q was induced on sphere then,
Total charge on sphere = 0
 Vinduced = 0
 VA = VQ
KQ

r
We have already seen that potential difference between any two points inside sphere is zero
 VAB = VA – VB
=0
KQ
 VA = VB =
r
Illustration 27
In the following figure, calculate potential at point B which is inside spherical conductor.

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Mr. Neetin Agrawal

B
+q r
A

+q
Sol. Let charge induced on surface close to both +q charges be –Q. Total negative charge on sphere will be –2Q.
Due to this +2Q charge will appear on the other side of sphere.

We have to calculate potential at point B. It is difficult to calculate potential at point B as its distance from
point charges +q is unknown. But as we know that potential difference between any two points inside
conductor is zero.
 VAB = 0
 VA – VB = 0
 VA = VB
So, if we calculate VA, we get our answer.
At point A, potential is due to two +q charges and induced charges
 VA = Vq + Vq + Vinduced
2Kq KQ total
  [Qtotal = –Q – Q + 2Q]
r R
2Kq
 0
r
2Kq

r
Illustration 28
A spherical conductor of radius R is placed at distance r from a point charge +q0. Now this conductor
is given charge +Q. Calculate potential at point B inside sphere, as shown in figure.

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 Electrostatics-2

Sol. Due to point charge q0, some negative charge is induced on surface of conductor (say –q). As this conductor
is charged, charge of (q+Q) appears on opposite surface of conductor, as shown in figure.

Just as previous problem, to calculate potential at point B, we can calculate potential at A. Potential at A is
due to point charge q0 and charges induced on surface of sphere.
 VA = Vq0 + Vinduced
Kq 0 KQ total
  [Qtotal = –q + (q + Q) = Q]
r R
Kq 0 KQ
 
r R
This is our required answer.
2.11 Conductor with cavity
Cavity is an empty space inside a conductor. Here we can discuss few cases
Case I - Empty cavity
 Consider a conductor with an empty cavity inside.

Now suppose we have given this conductor charge of +10C. So how does this charge distribute on the
conductor? We have seen that in conductors, charge gets distributed on its surface. But here we have
two surfaces outer and inner. Suppose charge +q is distributed on inner surface, then 10–q charge is
distributed on outer surface. To calculate value of q we can use gauss law.
A Gaussion
10 - q
Surface
q
A

A
A

Take a spherical gaussian surface, covering whole cavity, as shown in figure. We can calculate flux through
this surface as
q enclosed q
 
0 0
Finding flux with another formula.
 
   E.dA
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Mr. Neetin Agrawal

But we know that E inside conductor is zero

 = 0
q enclosed
 0
0
So charge enclosed by this gaussion surface is zero. It means that charge on inner surface is zero.
So, we can state that “there is no charge on inner surface of empty cavity”
 Are there electric field lines inside an empty cavity? Electric field lines originate from positive charge. In
this case, field lines are due to positive charge at outer surface of conductor. If there were electric field lines
inside the cavity then they must be originating from the surface of conductor and will be crossing the
conductor, as shown in the figure.
E
+ + +
+ +
+
+
E +
+ +
+
+ +
+ +
+ +

But we have studied that electric field cannot cross through the conductor. So, it is impossible that there will
be electric field lines due to outer charge. Even if there were negative charge on the surface of conductor,
using similar approach we could have said that there is no electric field lines inside empty cavity.
We can state this important property as “there can be no electric field lines inside empty cavity”.
 Consider two situations, in first situation, a solid conducting sphere has charge +Q on its surface. Charge
distribution on outer surface of this sphere is uniform. Due to this, all the points inside sphere have E = 0
(We have already studied this).
+ +
++ +
+ +
+ +
+ +
+ +
+
+ + + +
In second situation, a solid conducting sphere, having a cavity inside, has charge +Q on it. This charge is
also accumulated on surface of the sphere. Now consider points A, B and C inside the sphere, as shown in
the figure.
+ +
+ + +
+ .A +
+ +
+ B
. +
+
.C +
+ +
+ + +

137
 Electrostatics-2

E at points A and B is zero. But what is the electric field at point C? Clearly, it is also zero as there can be
no field lines in empty cavity. If we compare these two situations, we can see that E at all the points inside
both the spheres is zero. They are exactly alike. But what will be the charge distribution on sphere in second
situation? Even in this case charge distribution is uniform. Then only, E inside can be zero everywhere. We
can state this concept as, “there is no effect of empty cavity on charge distribution on outer surface”.

Quiz-14
Quiz-13
Consider two identical conductors as shown in figure. Charge on each conductor is equal to +10C

(i) Is charge distribution same?

Sol. Yes, distribution of charge on outer surface of conductor is exactly same in both the cases.
(ii) Are electric field lines for both the conductors same?
Sol. As charge on both the conductors is +10C and even there distribution is same so it is obvious that lines out
of both the conductors is also same. EF lines are as shown in the figure.

(iii) Is EA = EA’?
Sol. Yes
(iv) Is EB = EB’
Sol. Yes, electric field at E and E’ is be zero as they are inside conductors.
(v) Is EC = EC’?
Sol. Yes, point C is inside conductor, so EC = 0
Point C’ is inside empty cavity, so EC’ = 0
From above discussion we can observe that a conductor with empty cavity and a conductor without cavity
acts and behaves is the same way.
Case II: Charge inside Cavity
Consider a conductor with cavity inside. Suppose +Q charge is kept inside this cavity as shown in figure. As
there is charge inside this cavity so this is no more an empty cavity.

+Q

We know that some electric field lines will start from this +Q charge. As electric field lines cannot pass
through conductor, so all the lines originating from this charge has to end at inner surface of the conductor.
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Mr. Neetin Agrawal

Charge induced on inner surface is –Q because all the lines originating from +Q charge can terminate only
at equal and opposite charge. If charge on inner surface is –Q then charge on outer surface has to be +Q as
net charge on the conductor is zero. In this case, electric field and electric field lines are there inside cavity
but not in the body of the conductor.
Illustration 29
Consider a conductor having two cavities C1 and C2. C1 has charge of +2C and C2 has charge of –
3C. This conductor was given additional charge of +10C. Calculate charge distribution on all the
surfaces.

C1
C2
+2C
-3C

Sol. In this case, we have three surfaces, two inner surfaces of cavities C1 and C2 and outer surface of
conductor.
Charge induced on inner surface of C1 due to +2C charge is –2C.
Charge induced on inner surface of C2 due to –3C charge is + 3C.
Outer surface of conductor was already given charge of + 10 C. So net charge on outer surface is = + 10C –
3C + 2C = 9C
+9C
_ -2C_
_ _ +3C +
_ + +
+2C _ +
_ +
_ _ +
_ _ -3C +
+
+
+ +
+

Quiz-14
Quiz-15
A spherical conductor has spherical cavity at its centre (point O). A point charge (+q) is placed at
centre of cavity. Calculate electric field at point A and B.

139
 Electrostatics-2

A
+q B
O

Sol. First let’s calculate charge induced on surface of conductor due to +q charge. Inner surface of conductor
will have –q charge therefore charge on outer surface will be +q.

q
q A
+ _ +q B _ +
_ O _
+ _ _ +
_
+ +
+ +
+
Now we will calculate E at point A. In this conductor, we have two types of charges.

(i)Inner charges – Point charge +q and charge induced on inner surface of cavity.
(ii)Outer charge – Charge induced on outer surface of conductor.
Electric field at point A is due to inner and outer charges. We can write that.
EA = Einner + Eouter
 Kq k  q    Kq 
EA       
  OA  2  OA 2   
inner   OA   outer
2

Kq
 0
 OA 
2

Kq

 OA 
2

i.e. electric field at point A is only due to outer charge only.

Now we have to find electric field at point B.
EB = Einner + Eouter
 KQ 
  0   0 outer [E inside shell is zero]
  OB  2

 inner
KQ
 +0
 OB
2

KQ

 OB
2

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Mr. Neetin Agrawal

Key Point :-
Electric field due to inner charge at any point outside conductor is always zero. Similarly, electric field due
to outer charge at any point inside cavity of conductor is always zero. This phenomenon is called
electrostatic shielding. This concept is applicable for conductors of any shape and size.
To understand this concept better consider a conductor having a cavity and a charge +q in it. Charge
distribution on all the surfaces will be as given in figure.

EA due to inner charges (q and –q) = 0

EA due to outer charge (q1)  0
EB due to inner charges (q and –q)  0
EB due to outer charge (q1) = 0
Let’s understand it in more details, with help of few examples.

Quiz-16
Quiz-15
Consider a spherical conductor with spherical cavity at center. This cavity has charge of +2C at its
center as shown in the figure.

B A

+2C

Now, this point charge is displaced from its initial position as shown in figure.

A
B

+2C

Comment on the change in electric field at point A and B due to displacement of point charge.
Sol. Point A is outside the conductor and point B is inside the cavity of conductor. From concept of electrostatic
shielding, we can say that electric field at point A (an outside point) is not affected by movement of inner
charge. However, at point B, electric field changes as inner charges have been disturbed.

141
 Electrostatics-2

Quiz-17
Quiz-16
Consider two cases as shown in figure.

(i) In both the cases calculate EA due to charge on outer surface S1.
Sol. First consider case I

As S1 is outer surface and point A is shielded from electric field due to outer surface.
So, (EA)S1 = 0
Now take Case II

In this case there are two types of outer charges, one is induced charge on the surface S1 and another is
point charge Q. From the concept of electrostatic shielding we can say that–
(EA) outer= 0
  E A S   E A  Q  0
1

KQ
  E A S  0
1
r
KQ
  E A S  2
1
r
From the concept of electrostatic shielding, net E due to all the outer charges is zero inside conductor.
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Mr. Neetin Agrawal

(ii) Is charge distribution on S1 uniform?

Sol. Case I – Yes, charge distribution is uniform. We can see that due to charge on S1, E at point A comes out to
be zero. This is possible only if this conducting sphere behaves like a uniformly charged hollow sphere (E
inside a uniformly charged hollow sphere is zero at all points).
Case II – Charge distribution is non-uniform. If charge on S1 were uniformly distributed then E at point A
would have been zero due to charge on S1. But it is not the case. So, we can say that charge on S1 is not
distributed uniformly.
We can understand this in one more way. In case I, we can see symmetry in all the regions. But in case II
there is no symmetry. This point charge +Q will repel positive charge on surface S1 close to it. So there will
be more positive charges at the other end of sphere.

There is clearly non uniform charge distribution on surface S1.

Illustration 30
A conducting sphere has a spherical cavity at its center (O). Now consider two cases.

(i) In both the cases, find EA due to S2 only

Sol. Firstly, take case (i).

We know that EA due to the inner charges is zero.

EA (inner) = 0
Inner charges are, +q point charge and charge on inner surface of cavity.
 EA (+q) + EA (S2) = 0
kq
  E AS2  0
 OA 
2

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 Electrostatics-2

kq
 E AS2  
 OA 
2

Now take Case (ii)

Again we can write that, EA due to inner charges is zero.
EA (inner) = 0
 E  q  E A  S2   0
kq
  E AS2  0
 PA 
2

kq
 E AS2  
 PA 
2

(ii) Is charge on S2 uniform?

Sol. In case (i), it is uniform as the system is symmetric in all the direction.
But in case (ii), it is non-uniform because there is no symmetry. Negative charge on surface S2 closer to
charge +q will be more, due to attractive force of +q charge.
Connecting Two Conductors
Consider two conductors C1 and C2 with charges Q1 and Q2
+ Q1 + + + Q2
+ + +
+
+ A + +
+ C +
+ +
+ + +
+ B + + D +
+
+ + +
+ + + + +
C1 C2
In both the conductors two points A and B are marked as shown in figure.
We know that VA = VB
And VC = VD
But, VA  VC
And VB  VD
Because, points A and B and points C and D lies in different conductors.
Now suppose we connect these two conductors with thin conducting wire. Will charge on conductors C1
and C2 still be Q1 and Q2?
No, it’s not necessary. It might be possible that some charge has flown from C1 to C2 or other way round.
When we connect any two charged conductors then charges may redistribute in them.
Suppose, charge on conductor C1 after redistributed is Q1’ and on C2 it’s Q2’.
Still we can surely say that
Q1 + Q2 = Q1’ + Q2’
+ Q1| + + + Q2
|
+ + +
+
+ +
A + + C +
+ +
+ + +
+ B + + D +
+
+ + +
+ + + + +
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Mr. Neetin Agrawal

Before connecting wire

VA = VB
And VC = VD
Now once we connect these two conductors with wire, then effectively this whole system has become a
single new conductor.
So, VA = VB = VC = VD

Quiz-18
Quiz-17
Two conducting infinite slabs are placed parallel to each other. One in given charge of +10 C and
another of +30 C.

(i) Calculate charges on all the four surfaces.

Sol. This problem has already been discussed previously in this chapter. Instead of discussing these problems
again, we will directly write its answer.

+20C -10C +10C +20C

(ii) Now we connect these two conductors with a wire. What will be the charge distribution on all the four
surfaces?

Sol. First we find charge on outer surfaces 1 and 4. Just as previous problems it is half of the total charge given
to conductors i.e.
10C  20C
 15 C
2
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 Electrostatics-2

Now charge on face 1 of conductor is +15 C and total charge of +10 C has been given to the left plate. Does
this means that face 2 will have charge of
(10 – 15) C = – 5 C?
No, it is not necessary. Both the conductors have been connected by thin conducting wire. Some charge may
have flown into or out of the left plate though this wire. Total charge on it need not be 15C anymore. We
need to think of some way to find this charge.
Assume that charge on face 2 is q then charge on face 3 has to be –q (Both are inner faces so charge on
them should be equal and opposite). Now, take points A and B inside both the conductors.

We have seen that when two conductors are connected, they have same potential at all the points.
So, VA = VB
Thus, work done in bringing +1C charge from point A to B should be zero.
Let’s draw electric field lines between face 2 and 3.
+15C q -q +15C

A B

If there is some electric field between these two plates then to bring +1C of charge from point A to B, some
work have to be done. But potential at A and B is same, it means no work should be done in moving this
charge. This can happen if q=0 and there is no electric field between conductors.
So, our final solution is
+15C 0C 0C +15C

A B

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Mr. Neetin Agrawal

Illustration 31
Three conductors C1, C2 and C3 are placed parallel to each other as shown in figure.

1 2 3 4 5 6
C1 C2 C3
Conductors C2 and C3 are connected by thin metallic wire. Conductors C1, C2 and C3 are given
charge of +10C, +20C and +40C respectively. Calculate charge on each face.
Sol. In this problem, face 1 and face 6 are outer faces and pair of (2 and 3), and (4 and 5) are inner faces. We
know that charge on outer surfaces is equal to half of the total charge given to all the conductors.
 Charge of face 1 and 6
10  20  40
= = + 35 C (each)
2
Conductor C1 is isolated i.e. it is not connected to any other conductor. It was initially given +10C charge
and if face 1 has +35C charge, charge on face 2 has to be
10 C – 35 C = – 25 C.
As face 2 and 3 are inner surfaces, so charge on them has to be equal and opposite.
So, charge on face 3 is 25 C
As we can see, conductors C2 and C3 are connected with wire, so charge on inner surface (face 4 and face
5) is zero. We have already seen this concept in previous problem. Our solution will be as shown in the
figure.

Illustration 32
Suppose a conducting sphere is placed at center of conducting hollow sphere.
This sphere is given a charge of +5C and hollow sphere is given charge of +10 C.
Calculate charge on all the surfaces.

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 Electrostatics-2

Sol. We have 3 surfaces here, as shown in the figure below.

1 2 3

All the electric field lines originating from inner sphere (surface 1) terminate at inner surface of hollow
sphere (surface 2). As charge on surface 1 is +5C, charge on inner surface (surface 2) of hollow sphere is –
5C. Now if charge on surface 2 of hollow sphere is –5C and total charge given to this sphere is +10 C, it
means charge on surface 3 is [10 – (– 5)] = 15 C
15C
-5C
5C

Illustration 33
In previous problem what will be the charge on all the surfaces, if we connect both spheres with thin
conducting wire.
3
2
1

Sol.
Charge on surface of inner sphere need not be +5C anymore. Some charge may have flown in or out of this
sphere through the connecting wire. Assume that charge on S1 is +q. Then, charge on S2 is -q. Let charge
on surface 3 be q3.

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Net charge given to both the spheres is

(10 + 5)C = 15C.
So, q + (-q) + q3 = 15 C
 q3 = 15C
As surface 1 and 2 are connected, there potential must be same
 V1 = V2
It means work done in bringing 1C of charge from surface 1 to 2 should be zero. If work done is zero, it
means there are no electric field lines between surface 1 and 2. Therefore there is no charge at surface 1 and
2. So, q = 0
q=15C
q=0
q=0

Illustration 34
A metallic sphere is placed at center of two concentric metallic hollow spheres. The innermost sphere
S1 is connected to outer most sphere S2 with a wire as shown in figure.

Spheres S1, S2 and S3 are given charge 5C, 10 C and 20 C respectively. Calculate charge on all the
surfaces.
Sol. As spheres S1 and S3 are connected with a wire, charges on them no longer remain 5C and 20C. Some
charge can either flow to S1 from S3 or from S1 to S3. Let’s assume charge at surface 1 to be +q, then
charge on surface 2 is – q. Total charge given to sphere S2 is +10C.
So charge on surface 3 = 10 – (–q) = 10 + q
If charge on surface 3 is (10+q), charge on surface 4 should be equal and opposite.
So, charge on surface 4 = – 10 – q
Let’s assume charge on surface 5 as q’.
Now, total charge given to the system
= 5 + 10 + 20
= +35 C
Net charge on a system is conserved so sum of charges on all the surfaces should be equal to +35C.
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 Electrostatics-2

 q1 + q2 + q3 + q4 + q5 = 35C
Here q1, q2..... q5 are charges on surface 1, 2, .... 5 respectively.
 q + (–q) + (10 + q) + (–10 – q) + q’ = 35C
 q’ = 35 C
Now we have to find q.
Let’s take two points A and B on spheres S1 and S3.

q'=35C
-10-q
10+q
-q
+q

A B

As sphere S1 and S3 are connected.

So, VA = VB
Let’s find VA
k  q1  k  q 2  q 3  k  q 4  q5 
 VA   
R 2R 3R
kq k  q  10  q  k  10  q  35
  
R 2R 3R
kq k 10 k  25  q 
   ... (1)
R 2R 3R
Similarly we can find VB
kq1 k  q 2  q3  k q 4  q 5 
VB   
3R 3R 3R
kq k  q  10  q  k  10  q  35
  
3R 3R 3R
kq k 10 k  25  q 
   ... (2)
3R 3R 3R
On equating (1) and (2) we get
kq 10k kq 10k
  
R 2R 3R 3R
q 10
 q5  
3 3
2 10  15
 q
3 3

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5
 q  2.5 C
2
So, q1 = – 2· 5 C
q2 = 2· 5 C
q3 = 7· 5 C
q4 = – 7·5C
q5 = 35 C

2.12 Grounding or Earthing of Conductors

 We can consider earth as a big solid conducting sphere. Potential of earth=
kQ
VE 
Re
Here, Re is the radius of the earth.
Radius of earth is a very large quantity so VE  0
Potential of earth is always taken as zero.
 Earth can be considered as electrically neutral. No matter what charge is added to it or taken from it.
 Grounding of conductor means connecting conductor to earth. Symbol of grounding is drawn as shown in
the figure below.

 When we ground any conductor, potential of that conductor also becomes zero.
Note: - Grounding a conductor does NOT mean that all its charge will flow into the ground.
Illustration 35
In the following figure, calculate the charge on each surface when switch is closed.

S2 +2C +3C
S1 -2C
R

2R

Sol. When we close the switch, sphere S1 is earthed and charge on surface of S1need not be +2C anymore. Some
charge may have flown in or out of this sphere through the connecting wire.
Let’s assume charge on S1 = q then charge on inner surface of sphere S2 is –q.
Total charge on sphere S2 is: + 3C + (–2C) = 1 C.

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 Electrostatics-2

If inner surface has – q charge then charge on outer surface is

1 – (–q) = 1 + q

Now, VA = 0 [as sphere S1 is grounded]

K  q 2  q 3  Kq1
  0
2R R
K 1  q  q  Kq
  0
2R R
1
 q  0
2
 q = – 0.5 C
So q1 = – 0·5 C
q2 = 0·5 C
q3 = 0·5 C

Illustration 36
In the following diagram, sphere S1 and S2 are given charge of +10 C and +20 C. Sphere S1 is
grounded. Calculate charge on all the surfaces.

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Sol. Charge distribution on all the surfaces of two hollow spheres is as shown in figure.

Consider a point A on the surface S1. Potential at this point is zero as it is connected to ground.
VA = 0
k 10  k  q1  q 2  k  q 3  q 4 
   0
R R 2R
k 10  k  10  q  k  q  20  q 
   0
R R 2R
 10 – 10 + q + 10 = 0
 q = – 10 C
So, q1 = – 10 C
q2 = –10 C
q3 = 10 C
q4 = 10 C

2.13 Electric Field Just Outside Conductor

We have seen that E just outside a conductor is perpendicular to the surface. We will now calculate
magnitude of E. Consider a positively charged conductor of any arbitrary shape with charge distribution .
Assume a small cylindrical Gaussian surface as shown in the figure.

In this cylindrical Gaussian surface, we can see three area vectors, two discs and one curved surface (say
A1, A2 and A3) as shown in the figure. Let’s calculate flux through this Gaussian surface.

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 Electrostatics-2

q enclosed

0
Here qenclosed is charge enclosed by the Gaussian surface. As Gaussian surface is enclosing area dA of the
conductor and its charge distribution is given as ,
So, q enclosed = σ dA
 dA
  ... (1)
0
Now, we can find flux with another method.
   = A1 + A2 + A3
    = E.A1 + E.A2 + E.A3
Area vector A3 lies inside the conductor where
E = 0, therefore A3 = 0
A2 is perpendicular to electric field E.
So, A2 = 0
  = E.A1 = E.dA ... (2)
Equating equation (1) and (2)
 dA
E.dA 
0

 E
0
This equation makes sense! According to this equation, if  is more, E is more. We can verify this formula
for a special case. Consider a conducting solid sphere having charge +Q and radius R. Electric field just
outside the sphere as per the above discussion should be

E
0
But we know that E just outside sphere is
kQ
E
R2
1
Here, substitute k  and Q = 4R2
40
(4R 2 )
   E
(40 )R 2

   E
0
2.14 Electrostatic Pressure
Consider a conductor of charge density having charge +Q. Now consider a small element at P on the
surface of this conductor.

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Mr. Neetin Agrawal

Positive charge present everywhere else on the conductor applies repulsive force on this element as shown
in the figure.

Due to this, a net force acts on this element in outward direction. Pressure due to this force is called
electrostatic pressure.
σ2
Pressure(P)=
2ε0

As, electric field just outside conductor (E) 
0
  = E0
E 2 0 2
P=
20
1
P = E 2 ε0
2
Illustration 37
Consider a charged spherical shell of radius R. We have cut out a small elemental area dA from
surface of the shell. This small portion will experience some force in the outward direction due to all
the charges present on surface. To stop this portion from moving out, we have placed a negative point
charge at center of the shell. What is the value of this negative charge?

Sol. All the charges present on the shell exerts some force on this small portion of the shell which has been cut
out. Say, force applied by these charges is FR. The negative charge at the center applies attractive force in
direction opposite to FR, say FA.

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 Electrostatics-2

To stop this portion from moving

FA = FR
We have already seen that force experienced by any small point of area dA on the surface of conductor is
given as–
2
FR  dA ... (1)
2 0
Charge on this small area dA is dA. So, FA is given as
k  q  dA 
FA  ... (2)
R2
On equating Equations 1 and 2 we get
2 k  q  dA 
dA 
2 0 R2
2 k
q  02
R
 1 
2 0  
 q  40 
 Q
4R 2 
R2
Q
  q
2 
Thus at the center of the shell has to be –Q/2.
2.15 Self Potential Energy
We have already studied potential energy. Now we will see what self-potential energy is. Consider a point
charge +q and a sphere with charge +Q fixed at distance r. Does this system have any potential energy?

Yes, initially sphere and charge are fixed, if they are released then due to the repulsive force they will move
away from each other in opposite directions. Now if we remove the point charge, does this charged sphere
alone have any PE? Yes, it does have. Let’s see how. Assume that we divide this sphere into two parts, say
part I and part II. When released, both these parts will repel each other and move away from each other. It
means, even a single body with some charge on it has PE. This potential energy is called self PE. Let‘s see
how to calculate self PE.
Recall that we calculated PE of a system of 4 charges. To calculate self PE, we follow the same approach.
Let’s take one example.
Suppose a hollow sphere of radius R is given some charge +Q. We have to calculate self PE of this sphere.
Initially, charge on sphere is zero. Now we bring small charge +dq from infinite to the sphere. In
bringing this charge, no work has been done because while bringing this charge from infinity it didn’t
experience any repulsive or attractive force.

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Mr. Neetin Agrawal

Now we bring another +dq charge from infinity to sphere. To bring this +dq charge, some work has to be
done due to repulsive force of +dq charge already present on the sphere. Similarly, we bring more +dq
charge from infinity to sphere. After some time, charge on sphere gradually increases and repulsive force in
bringing any more +dq charge also increases. This process is continued until system is assembled i.e. charge
on sphere becomes Q.
Let’s say that at any time during this process, charge on sphere is q (q < Q) and we are bringing charge +dq
from infinity to sphere. Say, work done in bringing this dq charge is dW.
We know that V is the work done in bringing +1C of charge from infinity, so
 kq 
dW = Vdq    dq
 R 
Q
k  q2 
Q
kq kQ2
 W   dq    
0
R R  2 0 2R
kQ 2
So self-potential energy of hollow sphere is given as
2R
Illustration 38
Two hollow spheres of radius R are placed at distance r (r >> R). If one sphere is given charge Q1 and
another sphere is given charge Q2 then calculate total potential energy of system.
Sol.

Here, potential energy is due to-

(i) Self potential energy of S1
(ii) Self potential energy of S2
(iii) PE due to interaction of S1 and S2
KQ12 KQ 2 2 KQ1Q2
So, Total PE   
R R r

*****

157
 Exercise of Electrostatics
Multiple Choice Types
Only One Option Correct
Q.1 In a uniform electric field,
(a) All points are at the same potential
(b) Pairs of points separated by the same distance must have the same potential difference
(c) No two points can have the same potential
(d) None of the above

Q.2 The electric potential V at any point (x, y, z) in space is given by V = 6x2 volt. The electric field at the point
(1 m, 0, 2 m) is
(a) 12 i V/m (b) –12V/m (c) 24 V/m (d) 12 5 V/m
Q.3 A point charge q is within an electrically neutral shell whose outer surface has spherical shape. Find the
potential V at the point P lying outside the shell at a distance r from the centre O of the outer surface.
1 q 1 q 3 q 1 q
(A) (B) (C) (D)
4 0 r 2 0 r 4 0 r 0 r

Q.4 The linear charge density on a dielectric ring of radius R is varying with  as  =  0 cos.
The potential at the centre of the ring is:

0 0 0
(A) 0 (B) (C) (D)
2  0 4  0  0
Q.5 A uniform electric field pointing in positive x-direction exists in a region. Let A be the origin, B be the point
on the x-axis at x = +1 cm and C be point on the y-axis at y = + 1 cm. Then the potentials at the points A, B
and C satisfy:
(A) VA < VB (B) VA > VB (C) VA < VC (D) VA > VC.
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Mr. Neetin Agrawal

Q.6 An infinite non-conducting sheet of charge has a surface charge density of 10–7 C/m2. The separation
between two equipotential surfaces near the sheet whose potential differ by 5V is
(A) 0.88 cm (B) 0.88 mm (C) 0.88 m (D) 5 × 10–7 m
Q.7 When a negative charge is released and moves in electric field, it moves toward a position of
(A) Lower electric potential and lower potential energy
(B) Lower electric potential and higher potential energy
(C) Higher electric potential and lower potential energy
(D) Higher electric potential and higher potential energy

Q.8 An electric charge 10–3 C is placed at origin (0, 0). Two points A and B are situated at  
2, 2 and (2,
0) respectively. The potential difference between the points A and B will be –
(A) 9 volts (B) zero (C) 2 volts (D) 4.5 volts
Q.9 A hollow charged metal sphere has radius r. If the potential difference between its surface and a point at a
distance 3r from the centre is V, then electric field intensity at distance 3r from the centre is -
V V V V
(A) (B) (C) (D)
3r 4r 6r 2r
Q.10 A large hollow metal sphere of radius R has a small opening at the top. Small drops of mercury, each of
radius r and charged to a potential V, fall into sphere. The potential of the sphere become V’ after N drops
fall into it. Then -
(A) V’ = V for any value of N
2
 R 3
(B) V’ = V for N   
r 
1
 R 3
(C) V’ = V for N   
r 
R
(D) V’ = V for N 
r
Q.11 Two large identical plates are placed in front of each other at x = d and x = 2d as shown in figure. If charges
on plates are Q and – 5Q, the potential versus distance graph for region x = 0 to x = 3d is: (d is very small
and potential at x = 0 is V0)

(A) (B)

(C) (D)

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 Electrostatics-2

Q.12 Two identical positive charges are placed on the

y- axis at y = – a and y = + a. The variation of V (potential) along x-axis is shown by graph -

(A) (B)

(C) (D)
Q.13 Figure shows the variation of electric field intensity with distance x. What is the potential difference
between the points at x = 2m and x = 6m from 0

(A) 30 V (B) 60 V (C) 40 V (D) 80 V

Q.14 Consider a uniformly charged wire that has the form of a circular loop with radius b. Consider two points on
the axis of the loop. P1 is at a distance b from the loop's center, and P2 is at a distance 2b from the loop's
center. The potential V is zero, very far away from the loop. At P1 and P2 the potentials are V1 and V2,
respectively.

What is V2 in terms of V1?

V1 5 2
(A) 2V1 (B) (C) V1 (D) V1
2 2 5
Q.15 A conducting disc of radius R rotates about its axis with an angular velocity . Then the potential difference
between the centre of the disc and its edge is (no magnetic field is present):
m ω2 R 2 m ωR 3 em e ωR 2
(A) Zero (B) e (C) e (D)
2e 3e 2
Q.16 Figure shows equipotential surfaces for a two charges system. At which of the labeled points will an
electron have the highest potential energy?

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Mr. Neetin Agrawal

(A) Point A (B) Point B

(C) Point C (D) Point D
Q.17 What is not true for equipotential surface for uniform electric field?
(A) Equipotential surface is flat
(B) Equipotential surface is spherical
(C) Electric lines are perpendicular to equipotential surface
(D) Work done is zero
Q.18 Figure shows a set of equipotential surfaces. The direction of electric field that exists in the region
is -

(A) At 45º with x axis

(B) At 135º with x axis
(C) Along x axis
(D) Along y-axis
Q.19 The equation of an equipotential line in an electric field is y = 2x, then the electric field strength vector at (1,
2) will be
(A) 4 ˆi+3 ˆj (B) 4 ˆi+8 ˆj (C) 8 ˆi+4 ˆj (D) 8 ˆi+4 ˆj
Q.20 An electric dipole is placed at the origin and is directed along x-axis. At a point P, far away from the dipole,
the electric field is parallel to the y-axis. Then the angle  made by OP with the x-axis is given by
1
(a) tan = (b) tan = 1 (c) tan = 2 (d) tan = 2
2

Q.21 An electric dipole is situated in non-uniform electric field. It may experience -

(A) Resultant force and couple
(B) Only force
(C) Only couple
(D) All of these
Q.22 Two point charges q and – q are at positions
(0, 0, d) and (0, 0, – d) respectively. What is the electric field at (a, 0, 0)?

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 Electrostatics-2

2qd qd
(A) k̂ (B) k̂
40 (d 2  a 2 ) 3/ 2 40 (d 2  a 2 ) 3/ 2
2qd qd
(C) k̂ (D) k̂
40 (d 2  a 2 ) 3/ 2 40 (d 2  a 2 ) 3/ 2
Q.23 An electric dipole is placed at an angle of 30º to a non-uniform electric field. The dipole experiences -
(A) A torque as well as a translational force
(B) A torque only
(C) A translational force only in the direction of field
(D) A translational force only in a direction normal to the direction of the field
Q.24 A charge is situated at a certain distance from an electric dipole on axis, experiences a force F. If the
distance of the charge is doubled, the force acting on the charge will be:
(a) F/4 (b) F/8 (c) 2F (d) F/2.

Q.25 Point P lies on the axis of a dipole. If the dipole is rotated by 90° anti-clock wise, the electric field vector E
at P will rotate by
(A) 90° clock wise (B) 180° clock wise (C) 90° anti clock wise (D) none
p
Q.26 Two point dipoles p k̂ and k̂ are located at (0, 0, 0) and (1m, 0, 2m) respectively. The resultant electric
2
field due to two dipoles at the point (1, 0, 0) is:
9p –7p 7p
(A) k̂ (B) k̂ (C) k̂ (D) none of these
32πε 0 32 π ε 0 32 π ε 0
Q.27 The dipole moment of a system of charge +q distributed uniformly on an arc of radius R subtending an
angle /2 at its center where another charge -q is placed is:
2 2qR 2qR qR 2qR
(A) (B) (C) (D)
   
Q.28 Two equal point charges are fixed at x = -a and x = +a on the x-axis. Another point charge Q is placed at the
origin. The change in the electrical potential energy of Q, when it is displaced by a small distance x along
the x-axis, is approximately proportional to
(a) x (b) x2 (c) x3 (d) 1/x
Q.29 A point charge is surrounded by eight identical charges at a distance r as shown in the figure. How much
work is done by the force of electrostatic repulsion when the point charge at the center is moved to infinity –

8q 2 8q 64q 2
(A) Zero (B) (C) (D)
40 r 40 r 40 r
Q.30 On moving a charge of 2C from a point A where potential is +12V to a point B where potential is
–12 V, the work done is –
(A) +24 J (B) –24 J
(C) 48 J (D) – 48 J
Q.31 Three charges Q0, –q and –q are placed at the vertices of an isosceles right angle triangle as shown in the
figure. The net electrostatic potential energy is zero if Q0 is equal to -

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Mr. Neetin Agrawal

q 2q
(A) (B) (C) 2q (D) +q
4 32
Q.32 A spherical shell of radius R1 with uniform charge q is expanded to a radius R2. Find the work performed by
the electric forces in this process.
q2 1 1  q2 1 1  q2  1 1 q2  1 1
(A)
4π 0 R - R  (B)
8π 0 R - R  (C)
8π 0 R - R  (D)
4π 0 R - R 
 1 2  1 2  2 1  2 1

Q.33 A conducting liquid drop has charge uniformly distributed over the surface. Electrostatic energy of drop is
E0. Now this drop is broken in 8 small liquid drops such that mass and charge get equally distributed. What
is the change in electrostatic energy of the system is the process. Assume drops to be widely separated after
break up.
3E 0 E0 3E 0
(a) 0 (b)  (c) (d)
4 2 4
Q.34 Three charges 0.1 coulomb each are placed on the corners of an equilateral triangle of side 1 m. If the
energy is supplied to this system at the rate of 1 kW, how much time would be required to move one of the
charges onto the midpoint of the line joining the other two?
(A) 1· 2 ×104 S (B) 1·2 × 105 S (C) 104 S (D) 105 S
Q.35 Three concentric metallic spherical shell A, B and C of radii a, b and c (a < b < c) have surface charge
densities –, +, and – respectively. The potential of shell A is :
(A)[a + b – c] (B)   0  [a – b + c]
(C)   0  [b – a – c] (D) none

Q.36 A metallic solid sphere is placed in a uniform electric field. The lines of force follow the path (s) shown in
figure as:

(A) 1 (B) 2 (C) 3 (D) 4

Q.37 A positive point charge is placed at P in front of an earthed metal sheet S. Q and R are two points between P and S as shown in
figure. If the electric field strength at Q and R are EQ and ER respectively and potential at Q and R are VQ and VR respectively.
Then-

(A) EQ > ER (B) EQ < ER (C) VQ > VR (D) VQ < VR

Q.38 Two concentric spheres (hollow) are shown in diagram. What charge should be given to the smaller sphere so
that potential at point P outside the sphere is zero? (Inner sphere of radius = r, outer sphere of radius = R and charge on outer sphere
= Q) :

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 Electrostatics-2

Qr QR 2QR
(A)  (B)  (C) – Q (D) 
R r r
Q.39 Eight point charge of charge q each are placed on the eight corners of a cube of side a. A solid neutral
metallic sphere of radius a/3 is placed with its center at the center of the cube. As a result charges are
induced on the sphere, which form certain pattern on its surface.
What is the potential of the sphere?
16 kq 8 kq 16 kq 8 kq
(A) (B) (C) (D)
3a 3a 5a 5a
Q.40 A point charge +Q is placed at point A at a distance 3R from the center O of an uncharged thin conducting
shell of radius R as shown in figure, then the potential (VB) at point B will be:

Q Q Q
(A) (B)  (C)  (D) Zero
40 R 40 R 4 0 R
Q.41 S is a solid neutral conducting sphere. A point charge q = 1× 10–6 C is placed at point A. C is the center of
sphere and AB is a tangent BC = 3 m and AB = 4 m

(A) The electric potential at B due to induced charge on the sphere is 1.2 kV.
(B) The electric potential at B due to induced charge on the sphere is –1.2 kV.
(C) The electric potential at B due to induced charge on the sphere is –0.45 kV.
(D) The electric potential at B due to induced charge on the sphere is 0.45 kV
Q.42 Three concentric spherical metallic shells A, B and C of radii a, b and c (a < b < c) have surface charge
densities , –  and  respectively. If the shells A and C are at same potential, then the correct relation
between a, b and c is -
(A) a + c = b (B) b + c = a
(C) a – b = c (D) a + b = c
Q.43 There are four concentric shells A, B, C and D of radii a, 2a, 3a and 4a respectively. Shells B and D are
given charges +q and –q respectively. Shell C is now earthed. The potential difference VA – VC is:
Kq Kq Kq Kq
(A) (B) (C) (D)
2a 3a 4a 6a
Q.44 Given two concentric spheres of radii r and R (r < R). The inner surface carries a charge qo and the outer
sphere is earthed. Find the charge on the outer sphere

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Mr. Neetin Agrawal

(A) –q0 (B) 2q0 (C) –2q0 (D) q0

Q.45 In the previous example if the outer sphere carries a charge +qo and the inner sphere is earthed, then find the
charge on the inner sphere.
r r R
(A) q 0 (B) q 0 (C) q 0 (D) q 0
R R r
More than One Correct
Q.46 Two point charges Q1 and Q2 lie along a line at a distance from each other. Figure show the potential
variation along the line of charges-

(A) Q1 is positive and Q 2 is negative

(B) Q 1 is negative and Q 2 is positive
(C) Magnitude of Q 1 is more than magnitude of Q2
(D) Magnitude of Q 1 is less than magnitude of Q 2
Q.47 A uniform electric field E0 exists in a region at an angle 45º with x axis. There are two point A (a, 0) and B
(0, b) having potential VA and VB respectively, then –
(A) VA > VB if a > b
(B) VA = VB if a = b
(C) VA = VB if a < b
(D) VA < VB if a > b
Q.48 Potential at a point A is 3 volt and at a point B is 7 volt, an electron is moving towards A from B.
(A) It must have some K.E. at B to reach A
(B) It need not have any K.E. at B to reach A
(C) To reach A it must have more than or equal to 4 eV K. E. at B.
(D) When it will reach A, it will have K.E. more than or at least equal to 4 eV if it was released from rest at
B.
Q
Q.49 Two points charges Q and  are separated by a distance x. Then
4
x Q
(A) Potential is zero at a point on the axis which is on the right side of the charge 
3 4
x Q
(B) Potential is zero at a point on the axis which is on the left side of the charge 
5 4
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 Electrostatics-2

Q
(C) Electric field is zero at a point on the axis which is at a distance x on the right side of the charge 
4
(D) There exist two points on the axis, where electric field is zero.
Q.50 When a dipole is placed inside a cavity in a solid conducting body
(A) No charges are induced on the inner surface of ca vity.
(B) No charges are induced on the outer surface of conducting body.
(C) Everywhere outside the body electric field due to dipole is zero
(D) Everywhere outside the body net electric field is zero
Q.51 A conducting sphere A of radius a, with charge Q, is placed concentrically inside a conducting shell B of
radius b. B is earthed. C is the common center of A and B -

KQ
(A) The field at a distance r from C, where a  r  b, is
r2
KQ
(B) The potential at a distance r from C, where a  r b, is
r
 1 1 
(C) The potential difference between A and B is KQ   
 a b 
1 1 
(D) The potential at a distance r from C, where a  r  b, is KQ   
r b
Q.52 An electrically isolated, hollow conducting sphere has a small positively charged ball suspended by an
insulating rod from its inside surface, see diagram. This causes the appearance of negative charge on the
inner surface of the sphere. The electric field outside and far from the conducting sphere is approximately –

(A) Zero
(B) The same as of the sphere was not there
(C) Half what it would be if the sphere was not there
Q
(D) Is , where r is the distance from center of sphere
40 r 2
Q.53 In front of an earthed conductor a point charge +q is placed as shown in figure -

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Mr. Neetin Agrawal

(A) On the surface of conductor the net charge is always negative

(B) On the surface of conductor at the same points charges are negative and at some points charges may be
positive distributed non-uniformly
(C) Inside the conductor electric field due to point charge is non-zero
(D) None of these
Q.54 Three concentric conducting spherical shells have radii r, 2r and 3r and charges q1, q2 and q3 respectively.
Innermost and outermost shells are earthed as shown in the figure. Select the correct alternatives:

q2 q3 q3 1
(A) q1 + q3 = – q2 (B) q1   (C) 3 (D) 
4 q1 q1 3
3
Q.55 Two concentric shells have radii R and 2R, charges qA and qB and potentials 2V and V respectively.
2
Now shell B is earthed by closing the switch S. After earthing of shell B charge on them become qA and
qB -


q 1
(A) A 
qB 2
q 1
(B) A 
qB 1
3
(C) Potential of A after earthing become V
2
V
(D) Potential difference between A and B after earthing becomes
2
Q.56 Mark the correct statement(s) for the situation shown:

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 Electrostatics-2

Neutral isolated spherical conductor with spherical cavity

(A) If a point charge q is placed inside the cavity but not at centre, then potential of the conductor is
q
40 R
(B) If a point charge q is placed at the centre of cavity, then potential of the conductor will be zero
(C) If a point charge q is placed inside the cavity but not at centre the then potential of the conductor will be
q  1 1 1
   
4 0  R r r1 
(D*) If a point charge q is placed inside the cavity but not at centre, then potential at the center of the
q
conductor due to charges on the outer surface of conductor is .
40 R
Q.57 In front of an earthed conductor a point charge + q is placed a shown in figure:

(A) On the surface of conductor the net charge is always negative.

(B) On the surface of conductor at some points charges are negative and at some points charges may be
positive distributed non-uniformly
(C) Inside the conductor electric field due to point charge is non-zero
(D) None of these
Q.58 An uncharged thin conducting spherical shell A of radius ‘a’ is placed concentrically with a thick
conducting spherical shell B of inner radius 2a and outer radius 3a as shown in the figure. If the shell B is
given a total charge + Q, then:

Q
(A) Charge on shell A will be 
5
2Q
(B) Charge on shell A will be 
5
3Q
(C) Charge on outer surface of shell B will be
5
Q
(D) Charge on outer surface of shell B will be
5
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Mr. Neetin Agrawal

Comprehension
Comprehension # Q.59 to Q.61
Four metallic plates are placed as shown in the figure. Plate 2 is given a charge Q whereas all other plates
are uncharged. Plates 1 and 4 are joined together. The area of each plate is same.

Q.59 The charge appearing on the right side of plate 3 is

(A) zero (B) +Q/4 (C) –3Q/4 (D) Q/2
Q.60 The charge appearing on right side of plate 4 is
(A) Zero (B) –Q/4 (C) –3Q/4 (D) +Q/2
Q.61 The potential difference between plates 1 and 2 is
3 Qd Qd 3 Qd 3Qd
(A) (B) (C) (D)
2 0 A 0 A 4 0 A 0 A
Comprehension # Q.62 to Q.66
A point charge q1 is placed inside the cavity 1 and another point charge q2 is inside cavity 2. A point charge
q is placed outside the conductor.

Q.62 The charge on outer surface of the conductor would be:

(A) Q + q1 + q2 and non - uniformly distributed
(B) Q + q1 + q2 and its uniform or non- uniform distribution depend upon location of q1 and q2.
(C) Q + q1 + q2 would be distributed uniformly
(D) Q + q1 + q2 and the distribution depends upon the location of q1, q2 and q

Q.63 If q1 is at the center of cavity 1 then at a point S, at the distance r from center of cavity 1(r > r1) due to
induced charge on the surface of cavity 1, is:
q1
(A) Away from center of cavity 1
4 0 r 2
q1
(B) Away from center of cavity 1
40 r12
(C) Zero
q1
(D) Towards center of cavity 1
4 0 r 2
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 Electrostatics-2


Q.64 E inside the conductor at point S distant r from point charge q due to charge on outer surface of conductor
would be:
Q  q1  q 2
(A) Away from charge q
4 0 r 2
q
(B) Towards charge q
4 0 r 2
(C) Zero
(D) Cannot be determined
Q.65 If charge q2 is at point Q (inside cavity2), then at the center of cavity 2 due to induced charge on the surface
of cavity 2 would be:
q2
(A) Towards q2
4 0 r2 2
q2
(B) Away from q2
4 0 r2 2
(C) Zero
(D) Cannot be determined
Q.66 If the potential of the conductor is V0 and charge q2 is placed at centre of cavity 2, then potential at point Q,
is:
q2
(A)  V0
40 r2'
q2  1 1 
(B)     V0
4 0  r2' r2 
q2  1 1 
(C)     V0
4 0  r2' r2 

(D) V0
Comprehension # Q.67 to Q.68
There are infinite equipotential lines all parallel to BC in a right angled triangular region ABC as shown in
figure. All the points on a equipotential lines have the same potential proportional to the length of the line.

Q.67 An electron kept at the centroid of the triangular will move parallel to the vector -
  
(A) AB (B) BC (C) AC (D) will remain at rest
Q.68 Work done against electric field in moving positive charge from A to B and B to C separately is WAB
and WBC respectively, then-
(A) WA B > W A C
(B) WA  B < WA  C
(C) WA B = WA  C
(D) Not predictable
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Mr. Neetin Agrawal

Comprehension # Q.69 to Q.71

Two spherical cavities, of radii a and b are hollowed out from the interior of a neutral conducting sphere of radius R. At the centre of
each cavity a point charge is placed, call these charges qa and qb, distance between qa and qb is r.

Q.69 What is the force on qa?

qa  q b qa  q a  q b  qa  q a  q b 
(A) (B) (C) (D) None of these
4 0 r 2 40 R 2 40 r 2
Q.70 What is the field outside the conductor at any point P at a distance r from centre of conductor?
qa qa  q b qa  qb qb
(A) (B) (C) (D)
40 r 2 40 R 2 40 r 2 40 r 2
Q.71 In each cavity, there is certain electric field say E. If another charge qc were brought near the conductor then
what will be effect on E -
(A) It will increase
(B) It will decrease
(C) It will remain same
(D) It depend on the nature of charge qc i.e. whether it is positive or negative
Comprehension # Q.72 to Q.73
Two equal and opposite charges separated by small distance constitute an electrical dipole. The product of
the magnitude of either charge (q) of the dipole and separation (2) is called an electric dipole moment. A
   
dipole of moment P in an electrical field experienced a torque given as   P  E . The electrostatic energy is given by
  1 2P
U  P.E . The electric field due to dipole on its axial line at a distance r from its center is given by E a  . The
40 r 3
electric field due to dipole on a perpendicular bisector at a distance r from its center is given by
1 P
E 
4 0 r 3
Q.72 An electric dipole of moment P is placed normal to the lines of force of electric intensity E, then the work done in deflecting it
through an angle of 180° is -
(A) Zero (B) 2PE (C) 3PE (D) PE [A]
Q.73 Three charges are arranged on the vertices of an equilateral triangle as shown. The dipole moment of
combination is –

(A) Zero (B) 3qd (C) 2qd (D) 3 qd

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 Electrostatics-2

Assertion & Reasoning

STATEMENT
In the following questions
(A) Statement-1 is true, statement-2 is true and statement-2is correct explanation for statement1.
(B) Statement-1 is true, statement-2 is true and statement-2 is NOT the correct explanation for statement-1.
(C) Statement-1 is true, statement-2 is false.
(D) Statement-1 is false, statement-2 is true.
Q.74 Statement -1: Electric field E at a point P is zero if potential at that point is zero.
Statement -2: Potential difference between two points in space is zero if electric field at all points in space
is zero.
Q.75 Statement -1: When charges are shared between two bodies, there occurs no loss of charge but there does
occur a loss of energy.
Statement - 2: In case of sharing of charges, conservation of energy fails.
Q.76 Statement -1: At x = – 2 electric potential is 20 V and at x = 4 electric potential is – 100 V. From this we
can conclude that electric field strength in the region is 20 V/m.
Statement -2: Electric lines of forces flow from higher potential to lower potential.
Q.77 Statement -1: A charged metal plate has the same potential at all points on its surface and different
distribution of charge.
Statement -2: As conductors have uniform distribution of charge, so potential and charge distribution is
same at every point.
Q.78 Statement-1: For a charged particle moving from point P to point Q, the net work done by an electrostatic
field on the particle is independent of the path connecting point P to point Q.
Statement2: The net work done by a conservative force on an object moving along a closed loop is zero.
Q.79 Statement -1: For a non-uniformly charged thin circular ring with net charge zero, the electric field at any
point on axis of the ring is zero.
Statement -2: For a non-uniformly charged thin circular ring with net charge zero, the electric potential at
each point on axis of the ring is zero.
Subjective Type
Q.80 Two identical thin rings, each of radius R, are coaxially placed a distance R apart. If Q1 and Q2 are
respectively the charges uniformly spread on the two rings, the work done in moving a charge q from the
centre of one ring that of the other is:

172
 ANSWER KEY
Multiple Choice Types
Only One Option Correct
1. [D] 2. [B] 3. [A] 4. [A]
5. [B] 6. [B] 7. [C] 8. [B]
9. [C] 10. [C] 11. [A] 12. [A]
13. [A] 14. [D] 15. [B] 16. [B]
17. [B] 18. [A] 19. [D] 20. [C]
21. [D] 22. [C] 23. [A] 24. [B]
25. [A] 26. [B] 27. [A] 28. [B]
29. [B] 30. [D] 31. [B] 32. [B]
33. [B] 34. [B] 35. [C] 36. [D]
37. [C] 38. [C] 39. [A] 40. [C]
41. [C] 42. [D] 43. [D] 44. [A]
45. [A]
More than One Correct
46. [A], [C] 47. [B], [C], [D] 48. [A], [C] 49. [A], [B]
50. [B], [D] 51. [A], [C], [D] 52. [B], [D] 53. [A], [B], [C]
54. [A], [B], [C] 55. [A],[D] 56. [A] 57. [A], [B], [C]
58. [A], [C]
Comprehension
59. [B] 60. [D] 61. [C] 62. [A] 63. [D]
64. [B] 65. [D] 66. [C] 67. [A] 68. [C]
69. [D] 70. [C] 71. [C] 72. [A] 73. [D]
Assertion & Reasoning
74. [D] 75. [C] 76. [D] 77. [C] 78. [B]
79. [D]
Subjective Type
q  2 1 
80. W  Q2  Q1   
40 R  2 

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 CHAPTER
CURRENT ELECTRICITY 3
Electricity is all around us. Mobile phones, computers, fans, even our bodies, all work on electricity. In this
chapter, we will study concept of current electricity in detail.
3.1 Current
Current means flow. If anything is flowing, we call it current. Like, when water flows in river we say that
there is water current. Similarly when charge flows, we say that there is charge current or electric current.

So, we define electric current as “flow of charge”.

Suppose some charge is flowing through cylindrical conductor. Consider a cross sectional area (A) of this
cylinder as shown in the figure.

Total charge (Q) flows through this cross sectional area (A) in any time (t).
Then, we can say that –
Q
i
t
Direction of current is along the flow of positive charge.
I
+ + +
+ + +
In case of flow of negative charge, direction of current is taken opposite to the direction of the flow of
charge.
I
_ _ _
_ _ _

As direction of current is opposite in this case, it is often confusing. So, we draw a simpler equivalent of
this system. In this equivalent system, we assume that positive charges are replaced by negative charges and
are flowing in opposite direction, as shown in the figure.
I I
_ _ _ + + +
_ _ _
+ + +

Still the current will flow in the same direction. In most of the cases of our interest, it is not important which
charge is flowing, the direction of current is important. So by drawing this equivalent, we are not disturbing
the direction of current but as directions of charge flow and current are same, situation is simpler to analyse.
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Mr. Neetin Agrawal

3.2 Motion of Electrons in Conductors

In this chapter, we will primarily focus on flow of current in conductors. We have studied that in
conductors, electrons are free to move but protons are bound. Therefore, in conductors, flow of current is
due to electrons only.
Let’s see how electron moves inside conductors. Imagine a box containing some gas. Molecules of this gas
will collide with each other and will move randomly in any direction.
Now, suppose instead of gas, we have a conductor. Free electrons in conductors collide with stationary
protons and with each other and perform random motion, just like molecules do in gas. So conductors are
said to have electron gas.

Let’s see some important terms and points related to motion of electrons in conductors –
 Mean free path - Average distance travelled by an electron between any two successive collisions.
 Relaxation time () - Average time between two successive collisions.
 As temperature of conductor increases, random motion of electrons increases similar to gases. Relaxation
time () decreases.
3.3 Current Through Conductors
Is there any current flowing through conductor when electrons are doing random motion as discussed
above?
. No, for the flow of current, all electrons should move in the same direction. Due to this random motion,
there is no net flow directed towards any direction and thus net current is zero.
Then, how do we make these electrons move in same direction?
We can apply electric field across the conductor as shown in the figure.
E
_ _ _
_
_ _ _

Due to this electric field, these electrons will experience some force in direction opposite to the direction of
electric field. Electrons will still be moving randomly but due to the force of the electric field, they will have
tendency to move towards right.
E
_ F_ _ _
_ F _ F _

As electrons are propagating forward while performing random motion (as shown in figure above), current
will flow through the conductor.
To understand this motion of electrons in conductors, we can compare it to an analogy.
Consider an inclined plane. If we release a ball from top of the plane, it will roll down to bottom due to
influence of mg force.
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 Current Electricity

Suppose we hammer some nails on this plane as shown in the figure below.

Now, if we release this ball from top of the plane, it will still come down due to influence of mg force. But
this time it will collide with nails and perform random motion also. So this time ball will not come straight
downwards but it will roll down while performing random motion.
Motion of this ball is similar to that of electrons inside conductors under influence of electric field.
3.4 Drift Velocity (Vd): -
In above case, electron is moving under influence of electric field, from any point P to Q. Time taken by this
electron in moving from point P to Q is t and displacement is x along the line of E. Area of cross section of
conductor is A.
E
_ _ _Q
_
_ _ _
P
Drift velocity of electron can be given as
We can define drift velocity as effective velocity by which electron is moving forward.
x
Vd 
t
We can draw a simplified model of the flow of electrons as in figure. Here we are ignoring the random
motion and considering that electrons are moving straight with drift velocity Vd. This is ok with us as we
are interested in current and random motion anyway does not contribute to the flow of current.
E
_
V _ _Q
_d
_ _ Vd _ A
P
x
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Mr. Neetin Agrawal

What do you think will happen if E is increased?

If we increase the value of E, force on electrons will increase and thus Vd will also increase.
Actually, Vd  E
 Vd = E
Where  is constant of proportionality called mobility. This is related to relaxation time ()
Let’s see how. The following derivation may sound difficult to you but the good news is that it is not
important so you can safely skip it.
Force experienced by each electron in conductor -
F = – eE
 m a = – eE
-eE
 a= ... (1)
m
Here, m is mass of electron.
Average relaxation time for an electron will be
τ1 + τ 2 + ... + τ n
τ=
n
Here, 1, 2... n are the time intervals between 1st, 2nd... nth collisions. Let u1, u2...un be the velocities of
electrons before every collision. Let v1, v2...vn be the velocities of electrons after every collision.
 v1 = u1 + a1
v2 = u2 + a2
: : :
vn = un + an
The drift velocity Vd is defined as average of all these velocities.
v1 + v 2 + ... + vn
Vd =
n
(u + u 2 + ... + u n ) + a(τ1 + τ 2 + ... + τ n )
 Vd = 1
n
(u1 + u 2 + ... + u n ) a(τ1 + τ 2 + ... + τ n )
 Vd = +
n n
As average thermal velocities of electrons is zero
a(τ1 + τ 2 + ... + τ n )
 Vd = 0 +
n
 Vd = aτ
Substituting value of a from equation 1.
 -eE 
 Vd =  τ
 m 
V
μ= d
E
eτ  -eE 
μ= [As, Vd =  τ]
m  m 

Quiz-1
Choose correct option out of the following–
177
 Current Electricity

(A) Electrons flow opposite to the direction of E.

(B) Electrons flow in the direction of E
(C) Current flows in the direction of E
(D) Current flows opposite to the direction of E
Sol. Choices A and C are correct.
3.5 OHM’S LAW

Now consider a conductor in which electrons are moving with drift velocity Vd due to which current i is
flowing through conductor. We will now find out relation between this current i and Vd.
We know that
Q
i
t
Distance moved by an electron in time t = Vdt.

In the above figure, all the electrons that are present in the shaded region at time t = 0 will cross this region
in time t.
Volume of this shaded region is -
Vol.shaded = A (Vd t)
If charge enclosed in this volume is Q, then
Q = ne Vol.shaded
Q = ne (A Vd t)
Where, A is cross sectional area,
n is number of e– per unit volume,
e is charge on electron.
Q
As, i
t
 i = n e A Vd

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Mr. Neetin Agrawal

Here we get relation between i and Vd.

This equation suggests that if Vd is more, i will be more. This makes sense! Obviously if electrons are
moving faster, more current will flow.
Now, as we have already seen -
Vd = E
 i = ne A  E)
= (ne ) A E ... (i)
Here n, e and  are constants, so we can replace them with another constant 
 i=AE ... (ii)
 is called conductivity.
This equation suggests that if E increases, i increase. This also makes sense! If E is more, electrons
experience more force and thus move faster resulting in more current.
Here, we will define another term J.
i
J=
A
J is called current density.
In a conductor, if we take a unit cross sectional area (A = 1m2), current passing through that unit cross
sectional area is called current density.

_ Unit Area
_ _ v
d
_ _
I

 AE
J= [From equation (ii)]
A
J=E
Now, suppose conductor has length l, as shown in the figure below.

Is there any potential difference between point P and Q?

Yes, when we move from point Q to P, potential will decrease as we are moving along the electric field
lines. In electrostatics we have studies that
|VQ – VP | = |V| = El
V
 E
l
We have seen that
i = AE
V 1 V 1
 A  A [Resistivity     ]
l  l 
V

l
A
l
We write,  = Resistance (R) and thus
A

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 Current Electricity

ΔV
i=
R
This is called ohm’s law.
R is the resistance provided by material in flow of charge. If R increases then I decreases and vice-versa.
Key point:-
 R depends on material.
 Resistance is tendency of material to resist flow of current by collision. As value of R increases, collision
increases.
 Unit of R is ohm and represented by .
Illustration 1
Current (i) is flowing through conducting frustum. Two faces of frustum are represented by P and Q
as shown in the figure.

Out of the following, which is greater?

(i) iP or iQ (ii) JP or JQ
(iii) (Vd)P or (Vd)Q (iv) EP or EQ
Sol.(i) Total number of electrons that are passing through face P = Total number of electrons that are passing
through face Q.
 iP = iQ
(ii) We know that,
i
J
A
As, Area of P > Area of Q
 JP < JQ
(iii) We know that
i = ne A Vd
As, AP > AQ
 (Vd)P < (Vd)Q
(iv) We know that
i = AE
 EP < EQ
Illustration 2
A frustum of length l = 5 m is given. It’s  = 6 m and area A = (10 – x) m2.
l = 5m
P Q

Calculate resistance offered by frustum along length PQ.

Sol. As area of frustum varies with length, we cannot use -
l
R
A
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Mr. Neetin Agrawal

To solve this problem, we have to use integration.

At distance x from point P, take an elemental disc of width dx.
P Q
dx

Resistance of this small disc will also be small,

Say dR.
 dx  dx
 dR  
A 10  x
 dx
 dR 
10  x
Limit of integration will be in range of x.
5
dx
 R  
0
10  x
On solving we get –
R    log 2  

3.6 Temperature Dependence of Resistor for Metals

If we change temperature of a conductor then and its resistance changes.
Relation between  and temperature can be given as –
 = 0 (1 + T)
Here,  is thermal coefficient of resistivity.
T is change in temperature.

R  0 1  T 
A
This relation implies that a graph of  plotted against T would be a straight line. But in reality at
temperatures much lower than 0°C, the graph deviates considerably from a straight line as you can see
below.

Some materials like Nichrome (alloy of nickel, iron and chromium), Manganin and Constantan exhibit a
very weak dependence of resistivity on temperature.

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 Current Electricity

Now the question is why depends on temperature Moreover, for metals it increases with temperature but
for semiconductors, it decreases with temperature, why? We have seen that
1 1 m
ρ= =  2
σ neμ ne τ
As we increase temperature, average speed of electrons increases resulting in more frequent collisions. The
average time of collisions  thus decreases with temperature. So resistivity decreases with temperature.
3.7 Temperature Dependence of Resistor for Semiconductors
Unlike metals, resistivity of semiconductors decreases with increasing temperature. A typical dependence is
shown in figure.

As we will study in other chapters, semiconductors have very few free electrons. As temperature increases,
n increases and thus resistivity decreases.
3.8 Circuit Theory
Till now we have studied some very important concepts related to current. Now we will study Circuit
Theory.
Let’s see some important points related to circuit theory.
 Till now we have studied about current in conductors. We studied that these conductors offer some
resistance to flow of electrons by collisions. In circuits we represent resistance of conductors as shown in
figure.
Q E P Q P
i i
 We have studied that potential decreases along electric field lines. In the above diagram, from the direction
of E we can tell that P is at high potential and Q is at low potential. We also know that current will flow
along the direction of E, from point P to Q. So we can conclude that in resistor, current flows from higher
to lower potential.
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Mr. Neetin Agrawal

 We discussed that current in conductor is due to electric field. But how do we create this electric field? To
create E inside resistor we use battery.
 Battery is represented symbolically as –

_ _ +
+
Here + sign indicates terminal of battery with higher potential and – sign represents terminal with low
potential.
 V across the ends of battery is called EMF of the battery. EMF stands for Electro Motive Force.
i
i

i _
+
Suppose if a battery has EMF of 10 V, it means that once battery is connected across the two ends of a
resistor, potential difference between two terminals of resistor will be 10 V.
 In above diagram, we can see that current flows from high potential to low potential for a resistor. But
inside battery, current is flowing from low to high potential. (When we said that current flows from high to
low potential, it was applicable only for resistors).
 It is also not necessary that inside the battery, current will always flow from low to high potential. It may be
other way round also as we shall see ahead in more complicated cases.
 iin = iout
This equation is valid for both resistor and battery.
Illustration 3
In the following circuit, calculate value of i.
R= 5 

EMF = 20V
Sol. In above problem, end of resistor which is connected to positive terminal of battery will be at higher
potential and end of resistor which is connected to negative terminal of battery will be at lower potential.
We have already studied that current flows from higher to lower potential in a resistor, so direction of
current will be as shown in the figure below.
VH VL
i

_
+
From Ohm’s law–
V VH  VL
i 
R R
20
  4A
5
Above example was a very simple case of circuit analysis. But we will study some very complicated cases
in this chapter. We will see that it is not possible to solve all the problems with the above method. We will
study some laws and some rules which will help us to solve complicated circuits.

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3.9 Kirchoff’s Laws

Gustav Robert Kirchhoff gave two laws to understand complicated circuits.

3.9.1 Junction Law: -

Consider a circuit as shown in the figure below.
i2
i1 R2
J
R1
i3 R3

Suppose current i1, i2 and i3 is flowing through three branches of the above circuit.
Point J, where all the three branches are meeting is called junction or node.
According to junction law, sum of all the currents coming to a junction is equal to sum of all the currents
going away from the junction.
In the above circuit, we can write that–
i1 = i2 + i3
3.9.2 Loop Law: -
Consider two circuits as show in the figure below.

In circuit (i) we can see two loops. In circuit (ii) we have only one loop.
According to loop law, if we traverse a complete loop, total change in potential is zero.
Mathematically, V = 0
Let’s understand this law in detail.
R

A
E
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Mr. Neetin Agrawal

Suppose in above circuit, we start to traverse from point A in clockwise direction. The first circuit element
that we encounter is battery. When we cross this battery, potential will change. This change in potential will
be equal to the potential of the battery i.e. +E.
On traversing further, next circuit element that we encounter is resistor R. When we cross this resistor then
also potential changes. We can find this potential with the help of ohm’s law i.e., V = i R.
Now if we move forward, we again reach at point A.
According to Kirchoff’s loop law, if we traced a complete loop, then–
V = 0
E + (– iR) = 0
 E – iR = 0 ... (1)
Note: - We have taken potential drop across R as negative. Let’s see why.
When we calculate voltage across a circuit element while traversing a loop, we write change in voltage
across the element. In case of battery we moved from lower to higher voltage, so change in voltage was
positive. But in case of resistor, we moved from higher to lower voltage, so change in voltage was negative.
VH VL

VH VL
It is not necessary to always move in clockwise direction. We can also traverse the loop in anti-clockwise
direction.
Let’s verify above statement. Consider same situation as in previous circuit.
R
VH VL

VH VL A
This circuit is exactly similar to previous one. This time we have taken direction of loop anti-clockwise.
When we traverse our path from point A then we first encounter resistor (R). When we cross resistance,
change in potential is from low voltage to high voltage. This time change in potential across resistance is
positive. Remember, we are observing direction of loop not of current.
Now if we traverse further then we will encounter battery. Here, change in potential is from high voltage to
low voltage. In this case change in potential across battery is negative.
This way we get our equation.
iR + (– E) = 0
 E – iR = 0 .... (2)
We can see that equation (1) is exactly same as equation (2).
This verifies our statement that we can traverse a loop in whatever direction we wish to.
Key Point: -
 If we are traversing in direction of current then
for resistance –
R i
V = – i R
In the above figure, the bigger arrow is representing direction in which we are traversing.
If we are traversing in direction opposite to that of current then for resistance –
R i
  V = i R

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 Current Electricity

 For battery -
E i
V = – E
E i
V = E
3.10 Solving Complicated Circuits
In previous article we studied Kirchoff’s laws. These two laws are very useful in solving complicated
circuits. Using these two laws we will develop techniques to analyze any circuit and solve it.
1. Loop Analysis: - Let’s understand loop analysis with help of an example.

In the above circuit we have to calculate value of current flowing through each resistor.
Let’s follow step wise approach to solve this problem.
Step-1:- Assume some value of current in each branch, say i1, i2 and i3 as shown in figure.

From junction law i3 = i1 + i2

Step-2: Now we will make equations of Kirchoff’s loop law. Here we can see two loops. Lets talk about
loop 1 now.

In loop 1, we start from point A in clockwise direction. First we will encounter 2 resistance. Change in
potential across this resistor is -2i1.
When we move forward in this loop, we encounter 4 resistance. Change in potential across this resistor is
+4i2.
As, V = 0
 –2 i1 + 4i2 = 0
 i1 = 2i2 ... (1)
Now we will study loop 2.
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Mr. Neetin Agrawal

In loop 2, we start from point B in clockwise direction. First we encounter battery. Change in potential
across battery is +13 V. When we move forward, we encounter 4 resistance. Change in potential for 4
resistance is –4i2.
When we move forward we encounter 3 resistance. Change in potential for 3 resistance is – 3(i1 + i2).
As,  V = 0
  – 4i2 – 3(i1 + i2) = 0
 13 – 4i2 – 3 il – 3i2 = 0
 13 – 3 i1 – 7 i2 = 0 ... (2)
We have two variables (i1, i2) and two equations.
From equation (1) substituting value of i1 = 2i2 in equation (2). We get–
13 – 3(2i2) – 7i2 = 0
 13 = 13 i2
 i2 = 1 A
Using equation (2) –
i1 = 2 A
Key Point:-
To solve circuit using loop analysis, follow these steps.
Step-1:- Considering junction law assume current in all the resistors.
Step-2:- Make equation of Kirchoff’s loop law.
On solving equations we will get our result.
Illustration 4
In the following circuit,
(i) Find value of current through all the resistors.

Sol.
Step -1:- Assume current in all the resistors considering junction law.

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 Current Electricity

We have assumed current i1 and i2 as shown in figure above.

Step-2:-In this circuit, we can see two loops. Let’s find equation for loop 1.
10V
i1 i1
loop1
2
4V 3
A
i2
4 i1+i2

Suppose we start traversing from point A in clockwise direction.

At 2 resistance V = – 2i1
At 10 V battery V = –10 V
At 3  resistor V = 3i2
At 4V battery V= – 4V
net V = 0
 – 2i1 – 10 + 3i2 – 4 = 0
 – 2i1 + 3 i2 = 14 .... (1)
For loop 2
10V
i1 i1
2
4V i2 3
A
loop2 i1 +i2
4
B
Suppose we start traversing from point B in anti-clockwise direction (Remember we can traverse in
clockwise direction also)
At 3resistor V = 3i2
At 4 V battery V = – 4V
At 4 resistor V = 4(i1 + i2)
net V = 0
3i2 – 4 + 4 (i1 + i2) = 0
7i2 + 4i1 = 4 ... (2)
On solving equations (1) and (2),
13i2 = 32
32
 i2  ฀ 2.5A 
13
 Put this value in equation (1) –
– 2i1 + 3 (2.5) = 14
 i1 = –3.25 A
Note: - Value of i1 is negative. Negative value of current means that actual direction of current is opposite
to that of assumed direction.
So, from above calculations we see that –
Current through 2 resistor is –3.25A
3 resistor is 2.5A
4  resistor is – 0.8A

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Mr. Neetin Agrawal

(ii) Calculate potential difference across each resistor.

Sol. Once we have calculated current through the resistors, it is very easy to find potential difference across
them.
From Ohm’s law,
V = i R
So, V = 3.3× 2
= 6.6V
V3 = 2.5 × 3
= 7.5 V
V4 = 0.8× 4
= 3.2 V
2. Nodal Analysis: - We can analyze circuits with one more method called nodal analysis. Let’s understand
nodal analysis with help of an example.
Consider the following circuit.

We have to calculate current through each resistor.

We have already solved this problem with loop analysis. Let’s solve it again using nodal analysis.
We will see its solution stepwise.
Step-1: Assume potential at any one node as zero.
In this diagram, we have many nodes. We can assume any node at zero potential. But it is a good practice to
take negative terminal of battery at zero potential. It makes further calculations easier.

Step-2: Find potential of other nodes. If it is not possible to find potential of any node, assume it a variable. First
let’s name all the nodes.

We have already assumed potential at A as

VA = 0
As A and B are connected with wire and there is no circuit element between them,
so VA = VB = 0
At point E potential will be –
VE = 13V
So, potential at D will also be 13 V.
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 Current Electricity

It is not possible to find potential of point C so we will assume some value for it. Let VC = V.
Step-3: Use junction law at node with variable V.
Three branches are meeting at node C. Suppose current i1, i2 and i3 are flowing through them.

From junction law

i3 = i1 + i2 ... (1)
From ohm’s law
V 13  V
i1  
R 2
13  V
i2 
4
V0
i3 
3
On substituting value of i1, i2 and i3 in equation (1) we get –
13  V 13  V V
 
2 4 3
4V
 26  2V  13  V 
3
4V
 39  3V 
3
 117 – 9 V = 4 V
117
 V  9V
13
Now we can calculate values of i1, i2 and i3.
13  V 13  9
i1  =  2A
2 2
13  V 13  9
i2    1A
4 4
V 9
i3    3A
3 3
Note: - Result from both the methods is same. Sometimes it is convenient to use nodal analysis and
sometime it is easier to use loop analysis, depending on the problem.
Key Point:-
To solve problems using nodal analysis we have to follow these steps.
Step-1: Assume any node at zero potential.
Step-2: Calculate potential at other nodes. If it is not possible to calculate potential then assume it as some variable.
Step-3: Apply junction law on nodes where potential cannot be determined. After applying junction law we get our
equations, and on solving we get our result.
3.10.1 Some More Examples on Circuit Analysis:
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Mr. Neetin Agrawal

Illustration 5
Calculate current through each resistor.

Sol. This problem can be solved by both the methods. But lets use nodal analysis.
Step-1:

Let’s assume potential of node A as zero. As nodes A, B, C and D are connected directly, without any
circuit element in between, so potential at these nodes will also be zero.
VA = VB = VC = VD = 0
Step-2: Now we will find potential at other nodes.
As node E is connected to the positive terminal of the battery so potential at node E is V.
Similarly, VF = 10 V
and VG = 2 V
We cannot calculate potential at node H. Let’s consider it as V.
If potential at H is V then potential at I, J and K will also be V.
Step-3:Let’s find out equation using junction law. Consider the direction of current i1, i2, i3 and i4 as shown in the
figure.

Applying junction law at K,

i1 + i2 + i3 = i4 ...(1)
From Ohm’s law we can write
6V
i1 
2
10  V
i2 
4
2V
i3 
4
V0
i4 
5
Substituting value of i1, i2, i3 and i4 in equation (1) –
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 Current Electricity

6  V 10  V 2  V V  0
  
2 4 4 5
12  2V  10  V  2  V V  0
 
4 5
4V
 24  4V 
5
 120 – 20 V = 4 V
120
V  5V
24
Now we can easily calculate value of i1, i2, i3 and i4.
65 1
i1 = = A
2 2
10  5
i2 = = 1.25A
4
25
i3= – 0.75A
4
50
i4= = 1A
5
Illustration 6
Calculate current through each resistor.

Sol. Lets use nodal analysis to solve this question.

Step-1: Assume that node A is at zero potential, as shown in the figure.

Step-2: Analyze potential of the remaining nodes.

VF = 20 V (Connected to higher potential of battery)
VD = VF = 20 V
VB = VA = 0 V
We cannot find potential at nodes C and E. Let’s assume their potential as –

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Mr. Neetin Agrawal

VC = V1
VE = V2
Step-3:

If we apply junction law on node C then–

i1 = i2 + i3 ... (1)
From ohm’s law we can write value of i1, i2 and i3 as –
20  V1
i1 
2
V1  0
i2 
3
V  V2
i3  1
6
Note: - We know that current flows from higher to lower potential. We have assumed direction of current
(i3) from node C to E which means we will take V1 > V2 in calculations.
So, from equation (1)
20  V1 V1 V1  V2
 
2 3 6
20  V1 2V1  V1  V2

2 6
120  6V1  4V1  2V1  2V2
120 = 12V1 – 2V2
6V1 – V2 = 60 ... (2)
In this equation we have two variables. To solve this equation we need another equation in terms of V1 and
V2.

Let’s apply junction law at node E.

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 Current Electricity

i3 + i4 = i5
From ohm’s law we can write value of i3, i4 and i5 as –
V1  V2 20  V2 V2  0
  
6 4 4
2V1  2V2  60  3V2 V2
 
12 4
 2V1 – 8 V2 + 60 = 0
 V1 – 4 V2 + 30 = 0 ... (3)
On solving equation (2) and (3) we get–
V1 = 10.87V
and V2 = 5.22V
Now we can easily find the value of current through different branches.
i1=4.56A,
i2 = 3.62A,
i3 = 0.94A,
i4 = 3.69A,
i5 = 1.305A
Illustration 7
Calculate values of current through all the resistors.

Sol. Lets use nodal analysis.

Step-1: Assume a node with zero potential.

This time we have assumed node A at zero potential which is connected to higher potential of battery.
Step-2: Analyze potential of the remaining nodes.
VF = – 4V
VI = [(– 4) + (– 5)] V
= –9V
VJ = 3V
VD = VE = – 10 V
VK = – 5 V
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Mr. Neetin Agrawal

Step-3:

From the diagram we can see that we have found out potential of all the nodes just by analysis. So in this
step we don’t have to apply junction law at any node.
We can find current through all the resistors easily by using Ohm’s law. Say for example we have to find
current between nodes E and J through 3  resistor then
VJ  VE 3   10 
i 
3 3
13
 A ฀ 4.3A
3
Similarly if we have to calculate current through 2  resistor then
VB  VK 0    5 
i 
2 2
5
 A  2.5 A
2
Illustration 8
In previous example, calculate VAJ.
Sol. VAJ means potential difference between nodes A and J.
i.e. VAJ = VA – VJ
We have already calculated potential at all nodes,
so –
VA = 0 V
VJ = 3 V
 VAJ = 0 – 3
=–3V
Similarly we can find potential difference between any two nodes.
Key Point:-
All the above questions could have been solved either by loop analysis or by nodal analysis. Which method
to use can be decided if we keep following points in mind:
1. On using loop analysis, we will end up with as many equations as the number of loops.
2. On using nodal analysis, we will end up with as many equations as the number of nodes with variable
potential.
We would always like to have minimum number of equations so as to minimize calculations. If there are
more than two loops, there will be more than 2 equations to be solved if we use loop analysis. Then, it is
advisable to use nodal analysis as we did most of the examples. Loop analysis is mostly useful in easy
questions only.
3.11 Some Special Circuits-
3.11.1 Series:-
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 Current Electricity

In series circuit, two or more resistors are connected to each other as shown in figure –
R1 R2
i i

In these kinds of connections, current i passing through both the resistors are equal. But potential difference
across both the resistors is different.
VR 1  iR 1
VR 2  iR 2
Where and are potential difference across resistor R1 and R2.
These types of connections are called series connections. Let’s analyze this circuit. We will calculate i
through these circuits.
R1 R2 i
loop

i E
Using loop analysis we get –
E – i R1 – iR2 = 0
E
i
 R1  R 2 
As, V1 = iR1
 R1 
 V1   E
 R1  R 2 
Also, V2 = iR2
 R2 
 V2   E
 R1  R 2 
These types of circuits are also called potential divider circuits.
3.11.2 Parallel: -
In parallel circuits two or more resistors are directly connected with battery.
i1 R1

i2 R2
i
E
In these kinds of connections, current i bifurcate into all the branches. But potential difference across the
resistors is same.
We can calculate value of current i1 and i2 using Ohm’s law.
E
i1  ... (1)
R1
E
i2  ... (2)
R2
From junction law,
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Mr. Neetin Agrawal

i = i1 + i2
E E
 
R1 R 2
1 1 
 E   ... (3)
 R1 R 2 
Using equation (1) eliminate ‘E’in equation (3).
1 1 
i  i1R 1   
 R1 R 2 
 R2 
i1   i
 R1  R 2 
Similarly using equation (2) eliminating value of ‘E’ in equation (3).
 R1 
i2   i
 R1  R 2 
These kinds of circuits are also called current divider circuits.
Key Point: -
In above article we have seen some important results.
(i) In series circuits, potential across resistor is given as–
 R1 
V1 =  E
 R1 +R2 
 R2 
V2 =  E
 R1 +R2 
(ii) In parallel circuits, current through any resistor is given as–
 R2 
i1 =  i
 R1 +R2 
 R1 
i2 =  i
 R1 +R2 
Illustration 9
In the following potential divider circuit, which one is greater V2 or V3? Also find potential
difference across them.

Sol. We have seen that for potential divider circuit

 R1 
V1   E
 R1  R 2 

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 Current Electricity

 R2 
and V2   E
 R1  R 2 
Here, R1 = 2; R2 = 3 and E = 5 V
 2 
So, V2    5
 2  3 
=2V
 3 
and V3   5
 2  3 
=3V
 V2 < V3
Illustration 10
In the following current divider circuit which one is greater i2 or i3?

Sol. We have seen that

 R2 
i1   i
 R1  R 2 
 R1 
and i2   i
 R1  R 2 
Here, R1 = 2 
R2 = 3 
E=5V
 3  3
So, i2    i i
 2  3 5
 2  2
and i 3    i i
 2  3 5
 i2 > i3
Key Point:-
In potential divider circuits,
if R1 < R2
Then, V1 < V2
In current divider circuit
If R1 < R2
Then, i1 > i2
3.11.3 Open Circuit:-
Open circuits are circuits in which loop is not complete.
Illustration 11
A circuit is given as shown in the figure.

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Mr. Neetin Agrawal

Calculate current in the circuit.

Sol. To calculate current through this circuit, let’s apply Kirchoff’s junction law at node B.

Total incoming current = Total outgoing current

Here, total incoming current to node B is i but total outgoing current is 0.
  i=0
Remember, current through open circuit is always zero.

Quiz-2
Calculate current through 10  resistor.

Sol. Current through 10  resistor will be zero as it is not a part of closed circuit.

Quiz-3
In the following circuit calculate VAB.

Sol. We have already seen this circuit in above example.

Let’s use nodal analysis to calculate VAB.
5V 2
A(5V) C(0V) B
We have already seen that current through an open circuit is zero.
As no current is flowing between nodes B and C
 VB = VC = 0
 VAB = VA – VB
=5–0
=5V

Quiz-4
In the following circuit,

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 Current Electricity

(i) Calculate current through 5  resistor.

Sol. 0 A, as this branch is not part of any loop.
(ii) Calculate VPQ.
Sol. To find VPQ, let’s use nodal analysis.
Step-1: Assume node Q is at zero potential.

Step-2: Calculate potential at other nodes.

VA = 6 V
VB = VA = 6 V
VC =VB = 6V {as current through BC is zero}
VP = (10 + 6) V
= 16 V
B(6V)

A(6V) 6V Q(0V)

P(16V) C(6V)
10V
VPQ = VP – VQ
= 16 – 0
= 16 V

Quiz-5
In the following circuit,
(i) Calculate current through 5 resistor.

Sol.(i) Current through 5 resistor will be zero as it is not part of any close loop.
Note: - Even though a 6 V battery is connected in this branch but still current will be zero.
(ii) Calculate VPQ
Sol. Just like previous problem we can solve it using nodal analysis.
Step-1: Assuming node Q at zero potential.

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Mr. Neetin Agrawal

B
C
6V
A 2V Q(0V)

P D
10V
Step-2:
VA = 2 V
VB = 2 V
VC = 8V
VD = 8 V
VP = 18V
B(2V)
C(8V)
6V
Q(0V)
A(2V) 2V
P(18V) 10V D(8V)
 VPQ = VP – VQ
= 18 – 0
= 18 V
3.11.4 Short Circuit: -
To understand concept of short circuit, consider a circuit as shown in the figure.

Now suppose we join a wire across 3 resistor.

Let’s calculate current through 3 resistor. We can do this using nodal analysis.
Step-1: Assume VA = 0
Step-2: VB = 0
VC = 0

As potential of point B and C is same, it means no current is flowing in 3 resistor.

Current through 2  resistor will be –
VD  VC 10  0
i   5A
2 2
Current of 5 A was drawn through the battery. This current passed through 2  resistor and didn’t cross 3
resistor, instead it went through wire with no resistance.
We can say that, we have short circuited 3 resistor.
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 Current Electricity

Purpose behind short circuiting two points is to make their potential same.
So remember, points connected or shorted will have same potential.

Illustration 12
In the following circuit diagram, calculate current through shorted wire.

Sol. Let’s solve this problem using nodal analysis.

As VD < VC, current will flow through 4 resistor from node C to D (say i1).
Direction of all the current in circuit will be as shown in figure.

We can calculate value of i1 and i2 with Ohm’s law as–

VC  VD 2
i1    0.5A
4 4
VE  VD 10  0
i2    5A
2 2
So, i3 = i1 + i2 [from junction law]
= 0.5 + 5
= 5.5 A
Illustration 13
Two switches, three resistors and one battery are connected as shown in the figure.

Calculate current drawn from the battery when

(i) Switches S1 and S2 are open.
Sol. As switches S1 and S2 are open, no current is flowing through branches containing them.

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Mr. Neetin Agrawal

We can redraw this circuit as

Now this is simple series circuit,

E 10
i   2.5A
R1  R 2 4
(ii) S1 is open, S2 is closed.
Sol. Now in this case S1 is open and S2 is closed, it means that branch containing switch S1 will have no
current whereas branch containing S2 will now be a part of closed loop.
We can redraw this figure as–

From nodal analysis, potential at all the nodes will be as shown in figure –

So, all the current will flow from 2 connect close to the battery. The other resistor is shorted and will carry
no current.

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 Current Electricity

VF  VE 10  0
i   5A
2 2
(iii) S1 and S2 are closed.
Sol. In this case S1 and S2 both are closed.
Let’s redraw figure with S1 and S2 closed.

To calculate current drawn from the battery let’s use nodal analysis.

So, again all the current drawn from battery will flow from 2  resistor connected close to to the battery.
VH  VG 10  0
 i  =5A
2 2
Other resistors are shorted and will carry no current.
3.11.5 Wheatstone Bridge: - We will understand these kinds of circuits with help on an example.
Illustration 14

Find VA and VB.

Sol. Using nodal analysis, potential at all the nodes will be as shown in figure.

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Let’s apply junction law at nodes A and B.

At node A,
i1 = i2
VR  VA VA  VQ

2 4
10  VA VA  0
 
2 4
 20 = 3 VA
20
 VA  V
3
At node B,
i3 = i4
VR  VB VB  VQ
 
3 6
10  VB VB  0
 
3 6
 20 = 3 VB
20
 VA  VB  V
3
Now suppose we connect a resistor(R) between the nodes A and B. Will any current flow through this
resistor?
As both A and B are at same potential, potential difference across the resistor will be zero. So no current
will flow through the resistor.

From this example we can summarize our concept of wheat stone bridge as–
If we have five resistors, connected as shown in the figure.

And if ratio of R1 and R2 are equal to ratio of R3 and R4, then the current through R5 will be 0.
R1 R 3
Mathematically, if 
R2 R4
 iR5 = 0
These kinds of circuits are called Wheatstone Bridge.
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 Current Electricity

Quiz-6
Consider a circuit as shown in the figure.

(i) How much current will flow through 10 resistor?

Sol.(i) First we will check the ratios of the adjacent branches.
2 5 1
As  
6  15  3
 i10 = 0

(ii) If we interchange the battery with 10 resistor, then how much current will flow through 10 
resistor?
Sol. After interchanging the battery and 10  resistor, our circuit will look like this.

Let’s redraw this circuit. For that mark all the nodes.

Now, as 10 resistor is joined between nodes A and B so we will do the same here.

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Mr. Neetin Agrawal

Battery is joined between nodes P and Q.

2 resistor is between nodes P and B. Similarly connecting 5 , 15  and 6  resistors.

Again we get a wheat stone bridge.

So, i10  = 0
Note: - In this solution we have not changed the circuit. We have just redrawn it. Redrawing of the circuit is
helpful in many cases. We will see some more cases in upcoming examples.
Key Point:-
If in a Wheatstone bridge, the middle resistor and the battery are exchanged, then also circuit will remain.
Wheat stone bridge.
Illustration 15
Calculate current through 6  resistor.

Sol. First mark all the nodes in the above circuit.

Now we will redraw this circuit. First draw all the nodes.

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 Current Electricity

Let’s first connect the battery and 6 resistor.

Now connect 5  resistor between nodes P and B.

Similarly, connect all the remaining resistors.

After redrawing this circuit, it looks like a Wheatstone bridge. So, we’ll check the condition of wheat stone
bridge.
2  5 1
 
4  10  2
As the ratio of resistors are equal therefore this circuit is a Wheatstone bridge.
 i6 = 0

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Mr. Neetin Agrawal

Illustration 16
Calculate the value of current i in the circuit shown below.

Sol. Let’s redraw this circuit.

First mark the nodes.

Now draw resistance R between the nodes C and D and battery between nodes A and B.

Now draw remaining resistors.

Again we see that, after redrawing the above circuit we get a wheat stone bridge.
 i =0
3.11.6 Current anti-symmetric -
These types of circuits may look like wheat stone bridge but they are different. Here the diametrically
opposite resistors are same in value as shown in the figure below.

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 Current Electricity

Same current i1 flows through AB and DC. Similarly same current i2 flows through AD and BC.

To find the value of i1, i2 and i, let‘s use nodal analysis.

Let us assume potential of node C to be zero.
Then VA = 10 V
We cannot find potential of node B and D. Consider them V1 and V2.

If we solve it by nodal analysis then we will have two equations. But we can use some technique to reduce
the number of equations to one.
Current and resistance in branches AB is same as in DC, we can write–
VAB = VDC
 VA – VB = VD – VC
 10 – V1 = V2 – 0
 V2 = 10 – V1 ... (1)
Applying junction on law at node B we get
i1 = i2 + i
VA  VB VB  VC VB  VD
  
2 3 5
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Mr. Neetin Agrawal

10  V1 V1  0 V1  V2
   
2 3 5
10  V1 V1  0 V1  10  V1 
   [From equation 1]
2 3 5
10  V1 V1 2V1  10
  
2 3 5
150 – 15 V1 = 2 (11 V1 – 30)
150 – 15 V1 = 22 V1 – 60
37 V1 = 210
210
V1= = 5.67 V
37
Now we can calculate all the values of current
10  5.67
i1   2.2A
2
5.67
i2   1.89A
3
2(5.67)  10
i= = 0.268 A
5
Illustration 17
Calculate current through all the resistors.

Sol. We can see that this circuit is an anti-symmetric circuit.

Calculate voltage at all the nodes with help of nodal analysis. Current and voltage in the circuit will be as
shown in figure.

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Applying junction law at node E –

VA  VE VE  VC

4 4
 10 – VE = VE – 0
 VE = 5V
Applying junction law at node B –
i1 = i2 + i4
VA  VB VB  VC VB  VE
  
2 3 5
On solving we get,
VB = 5.8V
Applying junction law at node D –
i1 = i2 + i4
VD  VC VA  VD VD  VE
  
2 3 5
On solving we get,
VD = 3.6V
Now we can easily find all the currents.
10  6
i1   2A
2
60
i2   2.1A
3
10  5
i3   1.25 A
4
56
i4   0.2 A
5
3.12 Equivalent Resistance
Consider the following resistance network.
Resistance Network

A B

Suppose current i0 is drawn from the battery due to the resistive network.
Now consider another circuit.
R0

A B

If this resistance R0 also draws the same current i0 from the battery then this R0 is called equivalent
resistance of the above resistance network.
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Mr. Neetin Agrawal

Illustration 18
In the given circuit, value of all the resistors is R. Find the equivalent resistance of the circuit.

Sol. Let’s replace resistance Req at place of this complex resistance network.

Using Ohm’s law we get

V = i Req
10
 R eq = 5 
2
3.12.1 Method to Calculate Equivalent Resistance
Previous example was very simple case for calculating equivalent resistance. There may be more complex
resistance networks for which we will need various other techniques to find equivalent resistance. Lets see
these techniques.
1. Resistance in series/parallel:-
(i) Suppose three resistors are connected in series.

Equivalent resistor for this resistance network will be –

Req = R1 + R2 + R3
(ii) If we have 3 resistors connected in parallel then its equivalent resistance Req will be –

1 1 1 1
  
R eq R 1 R 2 R 3
(iii) If only two resistors are connected in parallel then –

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 Current Electricity

1 1 1
 
R eq R 1 R 2
R 1R 2
 R eq 
R1  R 2
Note: - Sometimes it is quicker to solve the problems if we remember this result.
(iv) If we have two resistors of equal magnitude (say R) connected in parallel then

R2 R
R eq  
RR 2
If we have three resistors of equal magnitude, connected in parallel then

1 1 1 1
  
R eq R R R
R
 R eq 
3
We can generalize this concept for n resistors, connected in parallel.
R

R
n
R

R
R eq 
n
Similarly, if n resistors equal in magnitude are connected in series then

Req = nR
(v) In the series connection,
Req > Any individual resistor.
In parallel connection,
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Mr. Neetin Agrawal

Req < Any individual resistor.

We can verify this point.
Suppose two resistors of 1  and 1000  are connected in series,

Then Req = 1 + 1000

= 1001 
We can see that 1001  > 1
and 1001  > 1000 
Now, we connect them in parallel then

R eq 
11000   1000
1  1000 1001
1000
We can see that   1000
1001
1000
and   1
1001
Illustration 19
Calculate equivalent resistance.

Sol. In the figure below two resistors which are highlighted are connected in series, so we can add them.

Now, again 2R and R (highlighted in the figure below) are connected in parallel. On solving we get –
R  2R  2R

2R  R 3

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 Current Electricity

2
Now R and R are in series, we get –
3
2 5
R R  R
3 3

5
Here R and R are in parallel. On solving we get –
3
5 
 R  R  5 R
3  
5 8
RR
3

5
This R and R are connected in series.
8
5 13R
RR 
8 8

13R
and R are connected in parallel so we get–
8
 13 
 R  R 13R
R eq  
8 

13 21
RR
8

Illustration 20
Two metallic wires of same material have same length but cross- sectional area is in the ratio 1: 2.
They are connected (a) in series and (b) in parallel. Compare the drift velocities of electrons in the two
wires in both the cases.
Sol. Let each conductors be of length l.
In series combination, effective length (l1) = 2l
In parallel combination, effective length (l2) = l

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Since, drift velocity of electron is given by

eE  eV  V
Vd    E  
m lm  l 
 e  V
 Vd    .... (i)
m l
1
 Vd  
l
Vd1 l2 l
  
Vd 2 l2 2l
 Vd1 : Vd 2  1: 2
2. Equipotential Points: -
Consider the following circuit. All the resistors are same in value.

This circuit is symmetric to the line joining the terminals A and B (shown in the figure below).
C
A B
Line of Symmetry

D
In the above figure we have mentioned two nodes C and D. As circuit above the line of symmetry is exactly
similar to that of the circuit below the line of symmetry.
 VC = VD
Concept of equipotential point’s states that two points (nodes), which are at same potential, can be
connected. This connection does not affect the circuit in anyway (circuit remains the same).
In the above circuit, we can connect node C and D.

Let’s see its application with help of a few examples.

Illustration 21
In the following circuit, all the resistors are of value R. Calculate the equivalent resistance between
terminals A and B.

Sol. We can see the line of symmetry in the above circuit.

1 2

A B
3

1' 2'
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 Current Electricity

Potential at nodes 1 and 1' are same and potential at nodes 2 and 2’ are same. So, we can connect node (1
and 1') and (2 and 2').
Let’s redraw this circuit. First draw all the nodes.

As 1, 1' and 2, 2' are now connected so we have written them in pairs. Now, we will draw the resistors
between the nodes A-1, 1-2, 2-B

Now, connect resistors between A-1', 1'-2' and 2'-B

Now, connect resistors between 3-1, 3-1', 3-2 and 3-2'.

In the figure above we can see 5 parallel connections.

On simplifying we get–
(1,1') R/2 (2,2')
R/2 R/2
R/2 R/2
A 3 B
We can further simplify this circuit as shown below.

4
Equivalent resistance between terminals A and B is R.
3
We can solve the above problem with another technique called folding. This is a simpler technique. We can
fold the circuit about the line of symmetry passing through the terminals. Then all the overlapping resistors
will be reduced to half their original value.

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Mr. Neetin Agrawal

Consider the circuit that we solved in previous circuit.

R
R R R
R
A B
R R
R R

 R
On folding

Note: - When we fold the circuit, we join equipotential points above and below the line of symmetry. While
folding, resistors below the line of symmetry become parallel to the resistors that are above the line of
symmetry. That’s why in the above problem, value of all the resistors has reduced to half.
Illustration 22
In the following circuit, each branch has resistance R. Calculate equivalent resistance between
terminals A and B.

Sol. First let’s draw a line of symmetry.

A
B

On folding we get–

R
Value of all the resistors have become except the resistors lying on the line of symmetry because these
2
resistors didn’t fold. Now we can solve this circuit easily.

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 Current Electricity

11
So, Req for the given circuit is R .
19
Remember, we check symmetry of the circuit about the line joining those terminals across which equivalent
resistor have to be found (in this case A and B). It might be possible that circuit is symmetric about any
other nodes, but in that case folding is not allowed.

Illustration 23
Calculate equivalent resistance between the points A and B. All the wires represent resistors of value
R.
A

Sol. Let’s draw a line of symmetry and then fold the circuit.
A

Note: - In the above circuit two resistors are highlighted. These resistors are not part of any loop so we can
remove them.

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Mr. Neetin Agrawal

These 3 highlighted resistors are in series so

3
Equivalent resistance between A and B is R .
5
3. Wheatstone Bridge: - We can use concept of wheat stone bridge to calculate equivalent resistance in
some cases.
Consider the following circuit. It’s clearly a wheat stone bridge.

Current through 5  resistor is zero. It means we can remove branch of circuit which contain 5  resistor.
We can redraw this circuit as–

This circuit can now be solved very easily by series and parallel combination.
Illustration 24
If each branch of the following circuit has resistance R then calculate the equivalent resistance
between nodes A and B.

Sol. We can see the line of symmetry in this circuit. Let’s fold this circuit.

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 Current Electricity

R/2 R/2
R/2
A R/2 R/2
B
A R R B

The circuit so formed after folding is a Wheatstone bridge. So we can remove middle resistor.

This circuit can be solved easily now.

4. Current Anti-symmetric -
We have studied the concept of current anti-symmetry. We can also use this concept to calculate the
equivalent resistance. Let’s understand this with help of an example. Suppose a circuit has resistance equal
to R on it’s each branch. We have to calculate equivalent resistance between A and B.

We can draw line of symmetry and fold circuit about this line.

Although this circuit has now become less complex but still it is very difficult to solve. Here we will use the
concept of current anti-symmetry.
Suppose, the flow of current in this circuit is as shown in figure.
R i1– i Q
i1 i i1
i
A i2 P i2 B
At point P, total current coming through the wire RP = Total current flowing through PQ = i. Similarly,
current in the wire AP = current in the wire PB = i2. We can redraw this figure considering above two
observations.
R i1– i Q
i1 i i1
i
A i2 P i2 B

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Mr. Neetin Agrawal

Now, this circuit has become simple series and parallel combination circuit. It can be solved very easily
now.
5. Infinite Ladder: - Infinite ladder is a kind of circuit in which a block of circuit is repeated infinite times.
A 2 2 2

3 3 3
B
Block1 Block 2 Block 3
To solve these kinds of problems we have to follow a simple procedure.
Consider two nodes P and Q in the above circuit.

Note: - Node P and Q are chosen just after first block.

Now let’s redraw this circuit by removing first block of circuit which contain terminals A and B.

We can see that this circuit is similar to that of our problem circuit. If RAB represents the equivalent
resistance across terminal A and B and RPQ represents the equivalent resistance across terminals P and Q,
then
RAB = RPQ ... (1)
We can redraw our problem figure as

3resistor and RPQ are in parallel.

3R PQ

3  R PQ
This resultant resistor is in series with 2 resistor.
3R PQ
 R AB  2
3  R PQ
As, RPQ = RAB (say R) [From equation 1]
3R
Then, R 2
3 R
On solving this equation for R we get our answer.

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 Current Electricity

Illustration 25
1 R1 2 R2 3 R3 4

R1 R2 R3

P
R1
Given that potential reduces by factor of 3 on every successive node (marked as 1, 2, 3, 4...). Find
R2
?
Sol. First let’s understand what this question means.
Apply nodal analysis to this circuit. At node P assume potential to be zero, and at node 1 it will be V.
V
Then at node 2 it will become
3
V
at node 3 it will become
9
and this will continue till infinity.

Let’s assume direction of current in the first block of this infinite circuit.

Applying junction law at node 2–

i1 = i2 + i3
V V V V
V  0
 3  3 9  3
R1 R2 R1
1 1 1 1
1 
 33 9 3
R1 R2 R1
2 2 1
  
3R 1 9R 2 3R 1
1 2
 
3R 1 9R 2
R1 3
 
R2 2
6. Circuit Solving: - We have studied many ways to calculate equivalent resistance. But sometimes it is not
possible to solve some circuits with any of those methods. For example, consider a circuit as shown below.
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Mr. Neetin Agrawal

To find equivalent resistance of these kinds of circuits, we follow the following steps.
Step 1: Connect a battery of emf E across terminals A and B. We can take any value of E (say 10V) which
makes our calculation easy.

A B

ibattery E = 10 V
Step 2: Use loop analysis or nodal analysis to find current through the battery.
Step 3: Find equivalent resistance using ohm’s law: Req= E/ ibattery
Illustration 26
Calculate equivalent resistance of the following circuit.

Sol. This circuit may look like a Wheatstone bridge, but it is not as the ratio of resistors is not the same. We will
solve this question by circuit solving method.
Assume that a battery is connected to this circuit between nodes A and B. To make calculations simple, take
E = 10 V.

We have to calculate the value of i. This circuit is an example of current asymmetric circuit.
We have already solved this problem. So we will directly use results of that problem.
i  3.5 A
From ohm’s law–
V = i Req
10
Req   = 2.8
3.5
This is the required equivalent resistance.
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 Current Electricity

3.13 Heating Effect of Current

Consider a battery connected to a resistor.

Current i is flowing through resistor R. When electrons flow through the conductor, they collide with lattice
and also with other electrons. In these collisions, they loose energy. This energy is converted into heat
energy.
When these electrons cross the battery, battery does work on them. This work done by battery is–
Wbattery = Vq
So, power of the battery is given as–
Wbattery Vq
Power (P) = 
t t
 q
 P=Vi  as i  t 
From the law of conservation of energy, we can say that work done by the battery is equal to the heat
produced in the resistor.
So, heat produced in unit time = V i
 P=Vi
 P = (i R) i = i2 R [From ohm’s law]
V  V
2
 P=V   =
R R

Illustration 27
Two heating elements of resistances R1 and R2, when operated at a constant supply of voltage V,
consume power P1 and P2 respectively. Deduce the expressions for the power of their combination
when they are connected in (a) series and (b) parallel across their same voltage supply.
V2
Sol. P1 
R1
V2
 R1 
P1
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V2
P2 
R2
V2
 R2 
P2
(a) In series combination
V2 V2
R S  R1  R 2  
P1 P2
1 1 P P 
 V2     V2  1 2 
 P1 P2   P1P2 
Now, let the power of heating element in series combination be PS.
V2 V2 PP
 PS    1 2
R1  R 2  P  P  P1  P2
V2  1 2 
 P1P2 
(b) In parallel combination
1 1 1 1 1 P P
   2  2  12  22
R p R1 R 2 V V V V
P1 P2
1 1
 2  P1  P2 
Rp V
Now, power consumption in parallel combination
V2  1 
Pp   V2 
Rp  R p 
 
 1 
 Pp  V 2    P1  P2  
V 
 Pp = P1 + P2
3.13.1 Application of Heating Effect of Current
There are wide variety of applications which use phenomena of heating effect of current.
We can list out some of them here: -
1. Bulb: - In electric bulb, current passes through filament making it hot. The hot filament radiates light and
thus glows.

2. Room Heater: - In room heater there is a long resistor which gets hot as current passes through it.

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 Current Electricity

3. Water Heater: - In water heater, a long rod is immersed in water. When current flows through this rod, it
gets hot.

4. Iron: - Iron is used in ironing clothes. When current passes through it, it’s base gets hot.

5. Fuse:-Fuse is another application of heating effect of current. Suppose, a bulb is connected to a wire and
current i is flowing through it.

i
If value of i increases beyond a certain limit, bulb gets damaged. To protect bulb from being damaged, we
connect fuse in series with the bulb.

i Fuse i

Fuse is basically a wire with low melting point. If value of i increases then temperature of this fuse wire
also increases and thus the wire melts. Due to this, circuit breaks and current stops to flow.

Increase in current may destroy almost any electronic device. So fuse is used to protect most of the
electronic devices from danger of high current.

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Mr. Neetin Agrawal

Quiz-7
In the following circuit.

Calculate –
(i) Power of battery.
Sol. We know that
V 2 10 2 100
P=  
R 3 2 5
P = 20 Watt.
(ii) Heat produced in 3resistor in unit time.
Sol. We know that heat produced in the resistor in unit time is given as–
P = i2 R = [10/(2+3)]2 (3) = 12 Watt

Quiz-8
Three circuits are given as follows:-

All the bulbs in all the three circuits have same resistance. Each bulb is marked with some number. In
each circuit which bulb will glow brightest?
Sol. Brightness is related to power. If power of bulb is more, it will be brighter. Let’s solve each circuit
separately.
(i) Using nodal analysis.

V across bulbs 1 and 2 is same.

V2
As, P
R
 P1 = P2

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 Current Electricity

So, both the bulbs will be equally bright.

(ii) Suppose i current is drawn from the battery.

Bulb 1 and 2 are connected in series therefore same current will flow through them.
As, P = i2 R
 P1 = P2
So both the bulbs will be equally bright.
(iii) Let’s use nodal analysis.

In bulb 3, power will be given as–

V2 E2
P3  
R R
Power in bulb 1 or 2 will be
V2
P1 
R
But here V < E
Hence bulb 3 will be the brightest.
Illustration 28
In the circuit given below, 3 bulbs are connected such that each glows with equal
brightness. If resistance of bulb 3 is 10  then calculate resistance of the other two.
1 2

Sol Each bulb glows with equal brightness, it means their power P1, P2 and P3 are same.
P1 = P2 = P3
Suppose, current through bulb 1 and 2 be i.
Power of bulb 1 is
P1 = i R12
Power of bulb 2 is
P2 = i R22
as, P1 = P2

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Mr. Neetin Agrawal

 R12 = R22
 R1 = R2
As R1 and R2 are same, so potential drop across them will also be same.
E
 If potential of battery is E, potential difference across bulb 1 will be .
2

As, P1 = P3
2
E
  2
2  E
R1 R3
1 1
 
4R 1 R 3
R 10
 R1  3  
4 4
10
So, R1  R 2   = 2.5 
4
3.14 Rating /Specification of Bulb: -
If you watch a bulb closely, you will see the voltage and power ratings on it. Say, on a bulb, we see a rating
of 220V/60W. It means, if we connect this bulb across a battery of potential 220 V then power consumed by
this bulb will be 60 watt. We can also calculate resistance of bulb with this information.
Let’s see how
V2
P
R
V2
 R
P
On substituting values we get–
 220 
2

R
60
= 806· 6 
Illustration 29

Both the circuits are connected across V volt battery. Which bulb will glow brighter?
Sol.(i) Both the bulbs are connected in series, it mean same current flows through them (say i).

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 Current Electricity

Resistance of 60 W bulb will be

V2 V2
R 60   ... (1)
P 60
2
V
Similarly, R 100  ... (2)
100
Now, bulb which has more power will glow brighter.

As, P = i2 R
 P60 = i2 R60 = i2 V2 / 60

and P100 = i2 R100 = i2 V2 / 100

Clearly P60 > P100.

(ii) In this case, current will not be same in both the bulbs but potential will be same.
V2
Using P 
R
V2 V 2
 P60    60  60W [From equation 1]
R 60 V 2
V2 V 2
And P100   100  100W [From equation 2]
R100 V 2
So, P60 < P100
Key Point:-
From the above problem we can see that when two bulbs are connected in series, then bulb with smaller
power rating glows brighter, but when they are connected in parallel, bulb with higher power rating glows
brighter.
Battery
We will discuss some important points related to battery.
(i) Internal resistance
Suppose we have connected a battery with a resistor and current i is flowing through it, as shown in the
figure.

When current passes through the battery, it experiences some resistance due to internal structure of the
battery. This resistance is called internal resistance of the battery.
We represent EMF of the battery and the internal resistance as shown in the figure.

Here, r is the internal resistance. A and B are terminals of the battery.

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Mr. Neetin Agrawal

Generally, r is so small that it can be neglected. We have been doing this till now. Batteries with zero
internal resistance are called ideal batteries. Batteries with non-zero internal resistance are called real
batteries.

Quiz-9
Find V across terminals of the battery.

Sol. This battery is real as it’s internal resistance (r = 1) is written along with EMF of the battery. We will
redraw this figure.

9  resistor and 1  resistor are in series.

From ohm’s law
V=iR
10
 i  1A
9 1
Now to find VAB we will use nodal analysis.

Direction of current is from node B to node P in 1 resistor. It means,

VB > VP
Potential difference across 1  resistor is
V=iR=1×1=1V
So potential at point B will be 1 V.
Now, VAB = VA – VB
= 10 – 1 = 9 V
Note that the potential difference across the terminals of this real battery is not equal to its emf. Only if a
battery is ideal, potential difference across the terminals is equal to emf.
Key Point:-
In an ideal battery

In a real battery

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 Current Electricity

(ii). Grouping of Battery-

(a) In series: - Suppose two batteries with emf 1 and 2 and internal resistance r1 and r2 are joined in series.
We can draw equivalent of this, as shown in the figure.

(b) In parallel: - Suppose two batteries with emf 1 and 2 and internal resistance r1 and r2 are connected in
parallel. We can draw equivalent of this as shown in the figure–

1 1 1 
Here,    
 r r1 r2 
r  r
and  1  2
r1 r2

Quiz-10
Calculate equivalent battery for the following circuit.

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Mr. Neetin Agrawal

1 1 1 1
Sol.   
r r1 r2 r3
r  r r
 1  2  3
r1 r2 r3
Here, we have taken 2 as negative as its polarity is reverse to that of 1 and 3.

Quiz-11
If n batteries are connected in parallel such that emf of each battery is  and internal resistance of
each is r, then calculate the equivalent battery for the system.
1 1 1 1
Sol:   .......
req r1 r2 rn
as, r1 = r2 .......... rn

1 n
 
req r
r
 req 
n
1req  2 req
 eq   ........
r1 r2
1 1 1
 eq  req   .......  [as, 1 = 2 ..... n ]
 r1 r2 rn 
n
 = req 
r
r
=  [as, req  ]
n
(iii) Charging and discharging of battery-
We have already discussed that when current passes through a battery, some work has to be done by the
battery. Let’s consider the circuit below.

As q charge has moved to higher potential, its potential energy increases. This increase in potential energy is
equal to–
U = Vq
Think of it this way. To move charge from low to high potential, battery has to do some work. In this
process, energy of battery decreases. This change in energy is gained by charge q which is equal to Vq.
Let’s analyze one more circuit. In this circuit, look at the terminals of the battery. They are connected with
opposite polarity. Current will flow as shown in the circuit.

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 Current Electricity

In this circuit first observe 10V battery. This battery is moving +q charge from low to high potential due to
which some work has to be done by the battery and eventually its energy will decrease.
Now observe 2V battery. In this case, +q charge is moving from high potential to low potential. Due to this
charge +q will loose some energy (Say U). This energy is gained by the battery.
When current comes out from the positive terminate of a battery ( as in the case of 10V battery), battery
gets discharged. When current comes out of the negative terminal of a battery (as in the case of 2V
battery), battery gets charged.

3.15 Maximum Power Theorem

Consider the following circuit with real battery.

In this circuit, ( ) is the symbol of a rheostat. Rheostat is a variable resistor. The value of its
resistance can be easily changed.
We have to find value of R so that power (heat produced per unit time) is maximum in R.
We know that
P = i2 R
2
 V  V
 = [As, i 
  r  R   R ]
  R eq
2
 10 
 P  R
 2 R 
To find maximum value of P we can use concept of maxima and minima.
For P to be maximum, it’s first derivative should be equal to zero.
dP
 0
dR
On solving we get
R=2
We can see that R = r. According to maximum power theorem, power of an external resistance (R) will be
maximum when its value is equal to internal resistance of battery (r).
i.e.. P (max) when R = r.
Power in the external resistor varies with its value as per the following graph.

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Mr. Neetin Agrawal

We can also find value of R so that power (heat produced per unit time) is maximum in r.
Again using formula–
P = i2 r
2 2
 V   10 
  r   2
rR   2 R 
As R is in denominator, with increase in value of R, power in r will decrease and vice versa.
So, power will be maximum when R = 0
3.16 Ohmic and Non - Ohmic Resistance
Resistance which follows equation of ohm’s law is called ohmic resistance.
V=iR
If we plot graph for this equation we get straight line.

v
There are some other kinds of resistors like semiconductors, diodes which do not follow ohm’s law.
i.e. Vir
They are called non- ohmic resistors.
Let’s see V-i graph for such some such resistors.

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 Current Electricity

3.17 Resistors
Commercially produced resistors for domestic use or in laboratories are of two major types:
Wire bound resistors – These are made by winding wires of alloy such as manganin, constantan,
nichrome. The choice of these materials is dictated mostly by the fact that their resistivities are relatively
insensitive to temperature. These resistances are typically in the range of a fraction of an ohm to a few
hundred ohms.
Carbon resistors – Resistors iof very high value are made mostly from carbon. Carbon resistors are
compact, inexpensive and thus find extensive use in electronic circuits. Carbon resistors are small in size
and hence their values are given using colour codes.
3.18 Super conductors
For normal conductors, with increase in temperature, resistance increases. We can plot graph between
temperature (T) and resistance (R).

T
If we plot graph for super conductors, we get–

Here, TC is critical temperature.

When T < TC then R = 0
If T > TC then superconductor acts like a normal conductor.
We can define super conductors as substances which have zero resistance at low temperature.

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Mr. Neetin Agrawal

ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENTS
We have studied various concepts related to current electricity. Now, we will study about some electronic
instruments which are used to measure electrical parameters such as potential difference, current etc.
3.19 Galvanometer -
Galvanometer is a device used to detect current in the circuit.
 Galvanometer device looks as shown in the circuit below.

Initially, when current in the circuit is zero, needle of galvanometer points at centre, as shown in figure
above.
Suppose current i starts to flow in circuit, then needle will deflect in clockwise direction.

If we increase magnitude of this current then deflection in needle will be more.

If we reverse the direction of current then needle will deflect in other direction (anti-clockwise).

 Internal Resistance - Just like any other electrical device, galvanometer offers some internal resistance. It is
denoted by symbol G and it is approximately between (10 to 20) .
 Maximum current (Igmax)
Consider the following cases.

(i)

(ii)

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 Current Electricity

i=3
(iii)

i=4
(iv)
In the above figure, four galvanometers are shown. In each case value of current is increased.
In case (i) needle of galvanometer deflects a little.
In case (ii) needle of galvanometer deflects more.
Similarly in case (iii) needle deflects to its max.
If we further increase value of current, as in case (iv), needle will not deflect anymore. So we can say that
value of current for which needle deflects maximum is Ig max. In this case Ig max is 3A.

3.20 Ammeter
An ammeter is a device used to calculate current through circuit.
 Consider the following circuit.
R1 R2

Suppose, we have to calculate current through resistor R2. We will add ammeter next to R2 in series.

Just like any other electronic device, this ammeter also has its own internal resistance. Readings of ammeter
will show current through its internal resistor. But as we have attached ammeter in series with resistor R2, it
means same current will flow through R2 and ammeter.

 Internal resistance -
Consider the following circuit.

From Ohm’s law current in circuit will be –

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Mr. Neetin Agrawal

V 10
i   1A
R eq 5  5
To measure current experimentally we connect an ammeter to circuit.
Internal resistance of this ammeter is r = 1.

From Ohm’s law current in circuit will be –

V 10 10
i   = 0.9 A
R eq 5  5  1 11
Note that value of current in circuit has changed. It means reading of ammeter is not accurate.
If we reduce internal resistance of ammeter to zero then we can make an ideal ammeter. But it is
practically not possible to achieve  resistance. So value of r is made as small as possible.

3.21 Voltmeter -
A voltmeter is a device used to calculate voltage across any two points in circuit.
 Consider the following circuit.

Suppose, we have to calculate voltage across resistor R2. We will add a voltmeter parallel to it.

 Internal resistance- Consider the following circuit.

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 Current Electricity

We have already calculated current for this circuit i.e., i = 1 A.

Using Ohm’s law potential across 5 resistor will be –
V=1×5=5V
To measure potential across this 5 resistor experimentally, we connect a voltmeter in parallel to this
resistor.

Voltmeter has its own internal resistance ‘r’. When we connect voltmeter in parallel to resistor, ‘r’ will
effect actual reading of volt meter. Let’s see how.
Resistance of voltmeter and 5 resistor are in parallel so we can redraw above circuit as–

This is a potential divider circuit. We have seen formula to calculate potential across any resistor in these
types of circuits.
 5r 
 
VAB   5  r 10
5r
 5
 5 r 
5r
   10
5r  25  5 r
5r
  10
10r  25
 
 5 
   10
25 
 10  
 r 
5
 
2.5
1
r
This reading will be slightly less than actual reading i.e. 5 V.
2.5
If we want accurate reading from voltmeter, we need to make 0
r
 r=
It means in an ideal voltmeter, internal resistance is equal to infinity. But it is practically not possible to
achieve that. So, value of r is made as higher as possible.

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Mr. Neetin Agrawal

Key Point:-
Let’s summarize concept of voltmeter and ammeter.
 An ammeter should be connected in series and internal resistance should be 0.
 A voltmeter should be connected in parallel and internal resistance should be .
V
A

Illustration 30
In the following circuit, an ammeter and a voltmeter are connected. This ammeter has reading of 1A
and voltmeter has reading of 2V. Calculate current through the voltmeter and potential across the
ammeter. (Voltmeter and ammeter are real)

Sol. Suppose resistance of ammeter is rA and resistance of voltmeter is rV. We know that current through rA is
1A. Let’s redraw this circuit and assume current through all the branches.

Applying loop law in loop 1.

10 – 2 (i –1) – 5 i – i rV = 0
 12 – 7 i – i rV = 0 ... (1)
Applying loop law on loop 2
– rA (1) + 2 (i – 1) = 0
 – rA +2i –2 =0 ... (2)
Using ohm’s law, potential across rV resistor–
V = i × rV

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 Current Electricity

2 = i rV ... (3)
On solving equation (1), (2) and (3) we get –
i = 1.4A
rV = 1.4
rA = 0.85
 So, current through voltmeter is i which is 1.4A, and potential across ammeter can be calculated by Ohm’s
law–
VA = rA(1) = 0.85V
Illustration 31
Find reading of the voltmeter across a real battery of emf 10 V and internal resistor 1  when

(i) Voltmeter is real (rV = 999 

Sol. Let’s redraw this circuit such that we replace voltmeter with resistance of 999.

From Ohm’s law,

V 10
i 
R eq 1  rV
So, potential across rV will be given as –
10 rV
VV = i rV  ... (1)
1  rV
As rV = 999  so we get–
10  999
VV  = 9.99 V
1000
(ii) Voltmeter is ideal.
Sol. As voltmeter is ideal it means
rV = 
To calculate reading of voltmeter we can use equation (1)
10rV 10
VV  
1  rV 1
1
rV
On putting rV = ,
VV = 10 V
We can solve this problem in one more way. As resistance of voltmeter is , so from Ohm’s law
V=iR
At, R=
i=0
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Mr. Neetin Agrawal

Let’s redraw this circuit.

So we can treat this as an open circuit. Now we can easily analyze that V across A and B will be 10 V.
Illustration 32
A real battery with emf E and internal resistance (r) are connected to ideal voltmeter, as shown in
the figure.

Now a resistor of 2  is connected to battery in parallel.

Calculate E and r.
Sol. As, voltmeter is ideal, we can redraw figure (i) without voltmeter.

VAB = 20 V (given)
Applying nodal analysis.
Take node B at zero potential and calculate potential at all the other nodes.

As circuit is open, so no current will flow through it . It means, potential difference across resistance is zero.
So, we can clearly see that E = 20 V.
Let’s move on to figure (ii).
Redraw figure (ii) and assume current in all the branches.
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 Current Electricity

From Ohm’s law

E 20
i 
2r 2r
Potential across 2 resistor is –
 20 
V2 = i × 2    2
 2r 
Reading of voltmeter is actually potential difference across 2 resistor.
 V2 = 15 V
20
  2  15
2r
 40 = 30 + 15 r
10 2
 r  
15 3
3.22 Making Ammeter and Voltmeter
We have studied both these instruments in detail. Now, let’s see how these instruments are made. They both
are made with the help of Galvanometer.
First we’ll see how ammeter is made.
There are two steps involved in making of ammeter.
Step-1: Consider the following circuit.
i R1 R2


 In the above circuit two resistors are connected in series and they both are connected to a battery with
varying EMF(). Due to varying EMF i.e. , current i will also vary. We want to calculate the value of i
experimentally. Connect a galvanometer in series with the two resistors. 

Will this galvanometer be able to give any reading?

Yes. We have studied that when current passes through galvanometer, its needle deflects. When more
current pass, needle deflects more and when less current pass, needle deflects less.
But we have also studied that, internal resistance of galvanometer is about 15. So, equivalent resistance of
circuit changes and less current will be drawn from the battery. This means that reading of galvanometer is
not accurate.
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Mr. Neetin Agrawal

To solve this problem we will connect a resistance (s) with this galvanometer in parallel. We select s such
that its value is ~ 0.1  i.e. very small resistance.

We know that if any two resistances RA and RB are connected in parallel and if their equivalent resistance
is Req then
Req < RA
Req < RB
Similarly, if we say that equivalent resistance of G and s is Req then
Req < G
Req < s
It means that now the change in equivalent resistance of circuit will be less than 0.1 resistance. So, the
reading given by the galvanometer will be close to accurate.
This small resistance s is called shunt.
We can state that, ammeter is combination of galvanometer and shunt connected in parallel.

Step-2: Calibration
Let’s see flow of current in the following circuit. Here iG is the current flowing through galvanometer and is
is the current flowing through shunt.

Now deflection in needle of galvanometer will give reading of current, but galvanometer is measuring
current iG. What we wanted to calculate was i.
Let’s take some arbitrary data to understand this better.
Consider following values.
E = 50 V
R=5
G = 10 
s = 0.1 
We can now calculate i.
E
i
R  rA

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 Current Electricity

Here, rA is resistance of ammeter. But as we have seen that the value of rA is even smaller than the value
of s, so we can neglect it.
E 50
We get i    10 A ... (1)
R 5
This is current divider circuit, so we can easily calculate iG–
 s 
iG   i
sG
Again, we can see that s << G. So we can neglect it in denominator.
s
iG  i
G
 s E
iG     ... (2)
G R
On putting all values, we get –
0.1 50
iG   0.1A
10  5
If we change the value of E from 50V to 100V then from equation (1) and (2) we get
i = 20 A
iG = 0.2 A
Note: - When i was 10, iG was 0.1 A
When i was 20, iG was 0.2 A
We can see that i and iG varies (vary) by some multiplying factor. In this case it is 10.
 i = 10 iG
On galvanometer, different readings are marked as shown in the figure.

These readings are actually showing current iG. We have just seen that in this case if we multiply value of
current iG with 10 then we get value of i. So, we will modify values of reading scale of galvanometer.

Now, although this galvanometer is still reading current iG but its reading is showing current i.
This process is known as calibration of ammeter.

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Mr. Neetin Agrawal

Quiz-12
Consider the following circuit of ammeter.

Find i, iG and is . Given, s = 0.5

Sol. In this circuit galvanometer is showing reading of 20A. This means
i = 20 A
It may sound confusing as we have not taken iG = 20A. This is because once in a problem an ammeter is
given, it is obvious that it is calibrated as calibration is part of process of making ammeter.
Now we can easily calculate iG.
 s 
iG   i
sG
 0.5 
   20 = 0.48 A
 0.5  20 
As, i = iG + is
 20 = 0.48 + is
 is = 19.52 A

Illustration 33
In the following circuit an ammeter is shown with Igmax = 1 A.

Find maximum current that ammeter can measure.

Sol. Let maximum current that ammeter can measure is i0.

When i0 current flows,

iG = Igmax = 1 A
We know that
 s 
iG   i
 sG 

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 Current Electricity

 1 
 i gmax    i0
 1  20 
1
 1  i0
21
 i0 = 21 A

Quiz-13
Sensitivity of galvanometer is 10 mA per division in an ammeter. Sensitivity of ammeter is 1 A per
division. Find shunt s.
Given that internal resistance of galvanometer (G) is 20.
Sol. First let’s understand the meaning of sensitivity. In reading scale of galvanometer small markings are made
of equal division. If sensitivity of galvanometer is given 10 mA, it means, when 10 mA of current passes
through the galvanometer i.e. iG = 10 mA, then needle will move one division.

Similarly, if sensitivity of ammeter is given 1 A, it means when 1A of current passes through the ammeter
then, needle will move one division.
According to problem, when i = 1A then iG = 10 mA.
We know that
 s 
iG   i
 sG 
 s 
 10 103    1
 s  20 
s + 20 = 100 s
20
 s
99
 s ฀ .2 
Now we will see how to make voltmeter.
Making a voltmeter is much simple task than making an ammeter.
Consider a circuit with two resistors and varying battery as shown in figure.
R1 R2

To calculate potential across resistor R2, we will attach a galvanometer in parallel.

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Mr. Neetin Agrawal

G
R1 R2

This galvanometer will show some reading but those readings will not be accurate. Actually we take
resistance of voltmeter to be  (We have already seen this). Resistance of galvanometer is roughly 15 .
To make it large enough we will add another resistance (r) of very large magnitude (say 999).

Internal resistance of voltmeter will be –

RV = (G + r)
Key Point: -
Ammeter:-
G

s
(s is very small resistance)
Voltmeter:-

3.23 Potentiometer
It is multipurpose instrument as it can be used to measure many quantities. Before we start with
potentiometer, let’s first see one example which will help you to understand concept of potentiometer better.
Consider the following circuit.
12V

2 A 2 B 2

Jockey
G
4V
We once touch jockey to point A and then to point B. We have to find out that in which case, galvanometer
shows no deflection.
We can use nodal analysis.
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 Current Electricity

As all the three resistors have the same magnitude, so potential drop across them will also be same.
 VA = 8 V
And VB = 4 V
If we connect jockey with node A, then no current will flow as there is no potential difference between point
C and A.
VA = VC = 8V
If we connect jockey to node B, then needle of galvanometer will deflect.
This is the basic principle behind working of potentiometer. Let’s move on to potentiometer.

This is the circuit diagram of potentiometer. Length of this potentiometer wire is 1m. Though we can take
longer or shorter wire also. Now suppose we have to find potential at point A on potentiometer wire.

Suppose that resistance of whole potentiometer wire is R.


We know that R 
A
 R 
x
So, resistance of wire (PA)  R

And resistance of wire (AQ) 
1  x  R

We can redraw above circuit by removing potentiometer wire and adding resistors to it.

We can see that this is voltage dividing circuit.

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Mr. Neetin Agrawal

 R PA 
VPA   
 
 R  R  0
 PA AQ 

 xR 
  
  VPA   
xR (1- x)R  0
  
   
= x0
Now VPA = VP – VA
 x0 = 0 – VA
 VA = 0(1– x)

3.24 Applications of Potentiometer

(i) To find EMF of battery –
Let’s understand it with help of an example.
Illustration 34
Consider the following circuit.

Find EMF of the battery E.

Sol. When we touch jockey to potentiometer wire some current will flow through circuit and needle of
galvanometer will deflect.

There will be a point on potentiometer where reading of galvanometer will be zero. This point is called null
point. Suppose we have null point at A, which is 0.5 m from point P.
To find EMF of battery E, we can use nodal analysis.

As null point is at mid-point of PQ therefore RPA = RAQ

 VPA = VAQ = 5V [VPQ = 10 V]
As jockey is at null point it means there is no current in the wire.

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 Current Electricity

So, VR = VA = 5 V
 VPQ = VP – VA
= 10 – 5 = 5 V
Hence EMF of battery E is 5 V.
Illustration 35
In this following circuit find null point.

Sol. Using nodal analysis we can find potential at all the nodes.

Potential at R is 3V. We have to find a point on wire which also has potential 3V.
Length of wire PQ is 1m and potential is varying from VP = 10 V to VQ = 0V.
 3V potential will be at 0.3 m from point Q.

This is the required null point.

Illustration 36
In the above problem where will be the null point if  = 20 V.
Sol. Again using nodal analysis we get

Potential at point R is –10V. But on wire PQ we don’t have –10V potential.

So, in this case null point is not possible.

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Mr. Neetin Agrawal

Illustration 37
In previous problem, if is still 7 V but we change its polarity, then where will null point lie.
Sol. Again use nodal analysis.

VR = 17 V
Again on wire PQ, there is no 17 V potential so, null point is not possible.
(ii) To find internal resistance of battery -We can use potentiometer to calculate internal resistance of
battery. Consider two situations.

In figure (i) a battery with EMF  and internal resistance r is given. Its null point is at 0.5 m from one end.
Now 2 resistor is connected to this battery in parallel (as in figure (ii)). Due to this, null point has shifted
to 0.4m.
Using nodal in figure (i) we get –

As jockey is at null point, it means no current is flowing in the wire PRA.

 Current through internal resistor is zero, it means there is no potential drops across the resistor r.
 VA = VR = 5 V
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 Current Electricity

Hence,  = VPR
= VP – VR
= 10 – 5 = 5 V
Using nodal analysis in figure (ii) –

On applying junction law at node S

i2 = i + i1
 i1 = i2 [i = 0]
VT  VS VS  VR
 
2 r
10  6 6  5
 
2 r
1
 r 
2
This way we can find internal resistance of any battery.
Illustration 38
In the following circuit calculate value of r.

Sol. Applying nodal analysis –

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Mr. Neetin Agrawal

At node S
i1 + i = i2
 i1 = i2 [i = 0]
VR  VS VS  VW
 
r 2
5 4 43
 
r 2
 r=2
(iii) For finding potential difference.
Consider the following circuit.
A B

Suppose we have to find VAB. We can use potentiometer for this purpose. For that we will connect above
circuit to the potentiometer, as shown in the figure.

Suppose null point on wire PQ is at point R. We know that –

VP = VA
And VR = VB [as i = 0 in wire RB]
 VPR = VAB
This way we can calculate potential difference in circuit.

Quiz.-14
We have seen two methods to find potential difference:
(i) Voltmeter
(ii) Potentiometer.
Which method is more accurate?
Sol. Obviously potentiometer is more accurate than voltmeter. Voltmeter draw some current due to which circuit
is disturbed and reading is not accurate.
Key Point:-
We can define another term here, potentiometer gradient (K). It is the drop in potential per unit length of
potentiometer wire.
V
K= ... (1)
L
Here, V is potential across two ends of potentiometer wires
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 Current Electricity

L is total length of wire.

ρL
As, R=
A
RA
 L=
ρ
Substituting this value of l in equation 1.
Vρ
K=
RA
iρ
 K=
A
Here i is the current through potentiometer wire.
Illustration 39
The length of a wire of a potentiometer is 100 cm, and the emf of its standard cell is E volt. It is
employed to measure the emf of a battery whose internal resistance is 0.5 ohm. If the balance point is
obtained at 30 cm from the positive end, the emf of the battery is
30E 30E 30E 30(E – 0.5i)
(A) (B) (C) (D) ,
100 100.5 (100 – 0.5) 100
Where i is the current in the potentiometer
E
Sol. Potential gradient (K) = V/cm
100
E
 e.m.f. of battery = 30 ×
100
So the answer is option A.
Illustration 40
The current in the primary circuit of a potentiometer is 0.2 A. The specific resistance and cross-
section of the potentiometer wire are 4 × 10–7 -m and 8 × 10–7 m2 respectively.
The potential gradient will be equal to
(A) 0.2 V/m (B) 1 V/m
(C) 0.3 V/m (D) 0.1 V/m
Sol. In potentiometer, potential gradient will be
i 0.2  4  10 7
K  = 0.1 V/m
A 8  10 7
So, the answer is option D.
3.25 Meter Bridge:-
Meter Bridge is used to calculate value of unknown resistor. It works on concept of wheat stone bridge.
Circuit diagram of Meter Bridge is as shown in figure.

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Mr. Neetin Agrawal

Working:
Suppose, jockey is connected to null point. This means no current will flow through wire AB.
Say null point is at 0.4m from point P, then

R1 = 0.4 R
R2 = 0.6 R
From the concept of wheat stone bridge we can say that
R1 x

R 2 R3
0· 4R x

0·6R 10
20
x 
3
Illustration 41
In following circuit we have two jockeys connected to null points. Calculate R1 and R2.

Sol. If we take resistance of wire PQ to be R then resistance of wire P J1 will be

0· 2
 R  0· 2 R
1
Similarly,
0 ·5
R J1J 2   R  0·5 R
1
0 ·3
R J2 Q   R  0·3R
1
As, wire J1 and J2 are connected at null points so no current will flow through them. Let’s redraw this
circuit without J2.

259
 Current Electricity

We can see that this circuit has become a wheat stone bridge.
0· 2R 5

0·5R  0·3R R1  R 2
 R1 + R2 = 20 ... (1)
Similarly, redraw circuit without J1, we get–

Again using concept of wheat stone bridge,

0.2R  0.5R 0.3

5  R1 R2
0·3 R2
  ... (2)
0·7 5  R1
On solving equation (1) and (2), we can find the value of R1 and R2.
R1 = 12.5, R2 = 7.5

3.26 Post office Box.

Just like meter bridge, post office box is also used to calculate value of unknown resistor.
Circuit of post office box is as shown in the figure.

R1 R2
J
G
R3 X

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Mr. Neetin Agrawal

In the above circuit, we have four resistors. Value of resistors R1 and R2 is known, X is resistor for which
value has to be calculated and resistor R3 is variable resistor. A jockey J is connected to circuit as shown in
the figure.
Now value of R3 is changed continuously until deflection in galvanometer is zero.
Once deflection is zero, this circuit becomes wheat stone bride.
R1 R 3
So, 
R2 X
RR
 X 3 2
R1
3.27 Colour code of Resistor -
Resistor in lab looks like figure shown below.

In above figure you can see various colour lines. These lines are named a, b, and c. These colour bands help
us to find value of resistor.

Let’s see how to calculate that. In the following table some colours and there values are given.
Black 0
Brown 1
Red 2
Orange 3
Yellow 4
Green 5
Blue 6
Violet 7
Gray 8
White 9
Now, value of resistor is given as –
R = ab × 10c
Here, a is value of colour band a
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 Current Electricity

b is value of colour band b

c is value of colour band c
Other than these three bands there is another band of either silver colour or golden colour.
Actually value of any resistance might have some error. This fourth band represents tolerance or error in the
value of resistance.
If resistance has gold colour band then resistance has error and if resistance has silver band then resistance
has error.
Illustration 13
In the following diagram calculate the value of resistance.

a = Red
b = Blue
c = Orange
d = Gold
Sol. From colour band table we can see that
a=2
b=6
c=3
d = 5%
So, resistance R will be –
R = 26  103  5% 
*******

262
 Exercise of Current Electricity
Multiple Choice Types
Only One Option Correct
Q.1 An electrical device sends out 78C of charge through a conductor in 6 sec. Find the current flown.
(A) 12 A (B) 14 A (C) 16 A (D) 13 A
Q.2 A 150 m long metal wire connects points A and B. The electric potential at point B is 50 V less than that at
point A. If the conductivity of the metal is 60 × 106 mho/m, then magnitude of the current density in the
wire is equal to:
(A) 11 × 10–4 A/m2 (B) 5.5 × 10–3A/m2 (C) 4 × 107 A/m2 (D) 20 × 106 A/m2
Q.3 Two wires each of radius r and cross sectional area A but of different materials are connected together end
to end (i.e. in series). If the densities of charge carriers in the two wires are in the ratio 1: 4, the drift
velocity of electrons in the two wires will be in the ratio:
(A) 1: 2 (B) 2: 1 (C) 4: 1 (D) 1: 4
Q.4 A current of 2 A passes through a cell of emf 1.5 V having internal resistance 0.15. The potential
difference across the ends of the cell will be –
(A) 1.35 V (B) 1.5 V (C) 1.0 V (D) 1.2 V
Q.5 An electric current is passed through a circuit containing two wires of the same material, connected in
parallel. If the lengths and radius of the wires are in the ratio of 4/3 and 2/3, then the ratio of the currents
passing through the wire will be:
(A) 3 (B) 1/3 (C) 8/9 (D) 2
Q.6 Three voltmeters A, B and C, having resistances R, 1.5 R and 3R, respectively, are connected as shown.
When some potential difference is applied between X and Y, the voltmeter readings are VA, VB and VC
respectively. Then,
(a) VA < VB = VC (b) VA = VB > VC (c) VB < VA = VC (d) VA = VB = VC

Q.7 A uniform wire of resistance 4.5 is uniformly stretched to three times its original length. Its new resistance
will be
(A) 0.5  (B) 13.5  (C) 1.5  (D) 40.5 
Q.8 In the circuit shown below, as the switch S is closed find the current passed through it.

`
(A) 4 A (B) 4.5 A (C) 3A (D) 5A
Q.9 The given network is a part of a bigger network. Determine the value of current flowing through
20resistor.
(A) 9 A (B) 8 A (C) 7 A (D) 1 A

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 Current Electricity

Q.10 In the circuit, find current through ab and bc branch of the circuit

(A) 4A, 3 A (B) 5 A, 4A (C) 3A, 5 A (D) 7A, 8 A

Q.11 Find the potential at the junction point O.

(A) 6 Volt (B) 3 volt (C) 5 volt (D) 2 volt

Q.12 In the circuit shown, find the emf’s E1 and E2. Also, find the potential difference between the junctions a
and b.

(A) 4 V (B) 5 V (C) 13 V (D) 8 V

Q.13 Calculate effective resistance between A and C?

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Mr. Neetin Agrawal

7 4
(A) R (B) R (C) R (D) 5 R
5 5
Q.14 A uniform wire has electric resistance R. The wire is cut into n equal parts. All wires are put parallel to each
other and joined at the ends. The resistance of the combination is –
(A) R/n (B) R/n2 (C) R (D) none of these.
Q.15 Find the equivalent resistance between the terminals A and B.

(A) 7  (B) 4  (C) 5  (D) 8 

Q.16 Each resistance in the circuit are of value r. The equivalent resistance between A and B is .

r 2r
(A)  (B) 4  (C)  (D) 0 
4 5
Q.17 Two resistances, when connected in series, have an equivalent resistance of 18 and when connected in
parallel, have an equivalent resistance of 4. Find their resistances.
(A) R1 = 15 and R2 = 6 OR R1 = 6 and R2 = 15
(B) R1 = 12 and R2 = 6 OR R1 = 6 and R2 = 12
(C) R1 = 12 and R2 = 16 OR R1 = 16 and R2 = 12
(D) R1 = 10 and R2 = 6 OR R1 = 6 and R2 = 10
Q.18 What will be the equivalent resistance for the figure shown below?

(A) 7.2  (B) 36  (C)  (D) None of these.

Q.19 Find the equivalent resistance of the circuit given across ab.

(A) 6·7  (B) 16·5   (C) 16·1  (D) 9·4 

Q.20 The total current supplied to the circuit by the battery is:

265
 Current Electricity

(A) 1 A (B) 2 A (C) 4 A (D) 6 A

Q.21 The equivalent resistance between A and B in the arrangement of resistances as shown in figure, is

(A) 4r  (B) 3r  (C) 2.5r  (D) r 

Q.22 In the given circuit, it is observed that the current I is independent of the value of the resistance R6. Then the
resistance values must satisfy
1 1 1 1
(A) R1R2R5 = R3R4R6 (B)   
R 5 R 6 R1  R 2 R 3  R 4
(C) R1R4 = R2R3 (D) R1R3 = R2R4

Q.23 In a wheat stone bridge, write the balanced condition.

P R  S1  S2  P R P 2R P R  S1  S2 
(A)  (B)  (C)  (D) 
Q 2S1S2 Q S1  S2 Q S1  S2 Q S1S2
Q.24 The current i drawn from the 5 Volt source will be –

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Mr. Neetin Agrawal

(A) 0.67 A (B) 0.17 A (C) 0.33 A (D) 0.5 A

Q.25 It is given that the resistances of all the elements shown in the figure are equal. A current of 12A flows into
node A and exits from node D as shown. The current flowing through BC is

(A) Zero (B) 8 A (C) 3 A (D) indeterminate.

Q.26 All resistances shown in the circuit are 2 each. The current in the resistance between D and E is

(A) 5 A (B) 2.5 A (C) 1 A (D) 7.5 A

Q.27 In the network shown, each resistance is equivalent to R. The equivalent resistance between points A and B
is

R 2R 4R
(A)  (B)  (C) R  (D) 
3 3 3
Q.28 In the shown wire frame, each side of a square (the smallest square) has a resistance R. The equivalent
resistance of the circuit between the points A and B is:
(A) R (B) 2R (C) 4R (D) 8R

Q.29 Three resistances R, 2R and 3R are connected in parallel to a battery. Then

(A) The potential drop across 3R is maximum
(B) The current through each resistance is same
(C) The heat developed in 3R is maximum
(D) The heat developed in R is maximum.
Q.30 A battery is supplying power to a tape-recorder by cable of resistance of 0.02 . If the battery is generating
50 W power at 5V, then power received by tape-recorder is?
(A) 50 W (B) 45 W (C) 30 W (D) 48 W
Q.31 A piece of fuse wire melts when the current passing through it is 5 A. While carrying this current, power
dissipated in fuse is 2.5 J/s. What is the resistance of the fuse wire?

267
 Current Electricity

(A) 0.5  (B) 10  (C) 0.1  (D) 2 

Q.32 The electrical installation in a building is protected by a 15A fuse. If the supply voltage is 220 V, the
maximum number of 60W bulbs that can be used in the building are
(A) 44 (B) 55 (C) 88 (D) 66
Q.33 A wire when connected to 220 V mains supply has power dissipation P1. Now the wire is cut into two equal
pieces which are connected in parallel to the same supply. Power dissipation in this case is P2. Then P2: P1
is-
(A) 1:2 (B) 2:1 (C) 2:3 (D) 3:4
Q.34 Four equal resistances connected in series across a source of emf together dissipate P watt of power. What is
power dissipated (PP) if they are connected in parallel across same source of emf?
(A) PP = 2P (B) PP = 4P (C) PP = 16P (D) PP = P

Q.35 An electric bulb is rated 220 Volt –100 watt. The power consumed by it when operated on 110 Volt will be
–
(A) 25 watt (B) 50 watt (C) 75 watt (D) 40 watt
Q.36 The resistance of bulb filament is 100 at a temperature of 100oC. If its temperature coefficient of
resistance be 0.005 per oC, its resistance will become 200  at a temperature of
(A) 500ºC (B) 200ºC (C) 300ºC (D) 400ºC
Q.37 For the circuit shown, find the current through the 7 resistor.

(A) 0.1 A (B) 4A (C) 1 A (D) 0.01 A

Q.38 If two bulbs of 25W and 100W rated at 220V are connected in series across a 440 V supply then which
bulb will fuse?

(A) 100 (B) 25  (C) both (D) None

Q.39 The necessary and sufficient condition that a battery of emf El and internal resistance r1 successfully charges
a battery of emf E2 and internal resistance r2 is –

(A) E1 > E2 (B) r1 < r2 (C) E1,r2 > E2’r1 (D) E1,r1 > E2’r2

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Mr. Neetin Agrawal

Q.40 A cell sends a current through a resistance R1 for time t and next the same cell sends a current through
another resistance R2 for the same time. If same amount of heat is developed in both the resistors, then the
internal resistance of the cell is
R1  R 2 R1  R 2 R 1R 2
(A) (B) (C) R 1R 2 (D)
2 2 2
Q.41 Determine the ratio of heat produced in four arms of wheatstone’s bridge.

(A) 5: 6 : 3 : 2 (B) 6 : 1.5 : 4 : 1 (C) 4 : 6 : 5 : 1 (D) 1 : 2 : 3 : 4

Q.42 In a meter bridge the length of wire is 100 cm. At what point null point is obtained if two resistances are in
ratio 2:3?
(A) 100 cm (B) 140 cm (C) 200 cm (D) 40 cm
Q.43 The deflection in a galvanometer falls from 50 divisions to 20 division after a 12  shunt is connected
keeping current constant. What is the galvanometer resistance?
60 36 24
(A) 18  (B)  (C)  (D) 
90 5 5
Q.44 Figure shows use of potentiometer for comparison of two resistances. The null point with standard resistance
R = 10 is at 58.3 cm, while that with unknown resistance X is 68.5 cm. Find X.

(A) 11  (B) 12  (C) 12.75  (D) 11.75 

Q.45 A galvanometer whose resistance is 10  is converted to a voltmeter of range 10V – 100V by connecting
resistances R1 and R2 in series, if Ig = 10 mA. find R1 and R2.

(A) 990 , 9000  (B) 9000, 990  (C) 900 , 90  (D) 90 , 9000 

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 Current Electricity

Q.46 If an ammeter is to be used in place of a voltmeter then we must connect with the ammeter a
(A) Low resistance in parallel (B) High resistance in parallel
(C) High resistance in series (D) Low resistance in series
Q.47 A real voltmeter and an ideal ammeter are connected as shown in the figure. The reading of the voltmeter is
20 V and of the ammeter is 4 A. The value of R is :

(A) 5  (B) less tha n 5 

(C) Greater tha n 5  (D) ma y be less tha n 5 
Q.48 A milli ammeter of range 10mA has a coil of resistance 1. To use it as an ammeter of range 1A, the
required shunt must have a resistance of
1 1 1 1
(A)  (B)  (C)  (D) 
101 100 99 9
Q.49 In the circuit in figure, we have R2=20 , R3=15 , and the current flowing through resistor R2 is 0.3 A.
The ammeter shows 0.8 A. Find the resistance R1.

(A) 20  (B) 30  (C) 40  (D) 60 

Q.50 A battery of emf 10 V and internal resistance r = 1 is connected to an external resistance R = 4. What
should be the value of R so that the voltmeter reads half the value it reads in the previous case when
connected across R?
4 2
(A)  (B) 1   (C) 2 (D) 
3 3
Q.51 In a practical wheat stone bridge circuit as shown, when one more resistance of 100 is connected in
parallel with unknown resistance ‘ x ‘,then ratio become ‘2’. AB is a uniform wire. Then value of x must
be

(A) 50 (B) 100 (C) 200 (D) 400

Q.52 What is the resistance of the following resistor?

(A) 470  5%    47  5%   (C) 47  10%  (D) 740  5%

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Mr. Neetin Agrawal

More than One Correct

Q.53 In the circuit shown in the figure –

(A) i = 2.5A when S1 is closed and S2 is open

20
(B) i = A when S1 is open and S2 is closed
3
5
(C) i = A when S1 and S2 both are open
3
(D) i = 20 A when both S1 and S2 are closed

Q.54 In the given figure, current I enter the network at A and leaves at B. Then,

(A) No current flows between C and D

(B) Current 3I/5 flows from D to C
(C) C and D are at the same potential
(D) The equivalent resistance between A and B is 8 
Q.55 In the electrical network, shown in the diagram R1= 5, R2= 2, R3= 3  and E1=2E2=10V. Sources have
negligible internal resistance. For this network.
(A) The power generated in R1 is 6.4 J/s
(B) If the sources of e.m.f E1 and E2 were physically interchanged, without changing the polarities, the
power generated in R1 will be the same.
(C) If the polarities of the sources E1 and E2 were both reversed, the power generated in R1 will be the
same.
(D) The ratio of the powers generated in R2 and R3 is 8 : 243

Q.56 In the circuit shown in figure, E1 and E2 are two ideal sources of unknown emf. Some currents are shown.
Potential difference appearing across 6 resistance is = 10V.

(A) The current in the 4 resistor is 5A. (B) The unknown emf E1 is 36 V.
(C) The unknown emf E2 is 54 V. (D) The resistance R is equal to 9 .
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 Current Electricity

Q.57 Consider the circuit shown in the figure

(A) The current in the 5 resistor is 2 A

(B) The current in the 5 resistor is 1 A
(C) The equivalent resistance Req = 14 
(D) The equivalent resistance Req = 15 
Q.58 In the circuit shown in the figure:

(A) Power supplied by the battery is 200W

(B) Current flowing in the circuit is 5 A
(C) Potential difference across 4 resistance is equal to the potential difference across 6 resistance
(D) Current in wire AB is zero
Q.59 In the given network, the power generated in the resistors R1 and R2 are P1 and P2 and the power generated
in R is P. For this network.

(A) If P1=P2, it necessarily follows that R1 = R2.

(B) If R = R1 + R2 then P > P1 + P2
(C) If R1 = R2, then it necessarily follows that P = P1 + P2.
(D) None of these.
Q.60 A part of the circuit is shown in the figure –

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Mr. Neetin Agrawal

(A) Power dissipation in 3 resistance is 27W

(B) VC – VD = 20 V
(C)Power dissipation in 6 resistance is 216W
(D) None of these
Q.61 Two bulbs A and B consume same power P when operated at voltages V1 and V2 respectively. If these
bulbs are connected in series, then –
(A) Ratio of potential differences across A and B will be equal to V1: V2
(B) Ratio of potential differences across A and B will be equal to V2 : V2 1 2
(C) Ratio of power consumed in A and B will be equal to V12 : V22
(D) Ratio of power consumed in A and B will be equal to 1
Q.62 Two bulbs are rated at 200V, 100 W and 200V, 50 W respectively. They are connected in series to a 400 V
supply.
(A) 50 W bulb can fuse (B) 100 W bulb can fuse
(C) 50 W bulb will not fuse (D) 100 W bulb will not fuse
Q.63 In the circuit

(A) When switches are arranged, so the current through the battery is minimum, then the VA – VB = 0 Volt
(B) When switches are arranged, so the current through the battery is minimum, then the VA – VB = 1 Volt
(C) When switches are arranged, so the current through the battery is maximum, then
VA – VB = 0 Volt
(D) When switches are arranged, so the current through the battery is maximum, then
VA –VB = 1 Volt

Q.64 Battery shown in the figure has emf E and internal resistance r. Current in the circuit can be varied by
sliding the contact J.

If at an instant current flowing through the circuit is i, potential difference between terminals of the cell is V,
power generated in circuit is P and power generated in the cell is equal to  fraction of total electrical power
generated in the circuit, then which of the following graphs are correct?

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 Current Electricity

Q.65 A network of four unequal resistors R1, R2, R3 and R4 are connected in a network (see diagram) that
contains a source of e.m.f. E and an ammeter A. The source has negligible internal resistance. For this
network.

(A) If R3 > R4, the current in the resistor R3 will be less than that shown by the ammeter.
(B) If R3 < R4, the current in the resistor R2 will be greater than that shown by the ammeter
(C) If the source of e.m.f. and the ammeter were physically interchanged in the network the ammeter will
show the same current.
(D) If the resistor R2 and R1 were physically interchanged, the ammeter will show the same current.

Q.66 Which of the following statements are correct about the circuits shown in the figure where 1 and 0.5 are
internal resistances of the 6V and 12V batteries respectively –

(A) The potential at point P is 6 V

(B) The potential at point Q is –0.5 V
(C) If a voltmeter is connected across the 6 V battery, it will read 7 V
(D) If a voltmeter is connected across the 6 V battery, it will read 5 V

Comprehension
Comprehension # Q.67 to Q.68
In the figure, 4 A current flows in the circuit.

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Mr. Neetin Agrawal

Q.67 Find potential difference across A-B branch?

(A) 2 Volt (B) 5 Volt (C) 4 Volt (D) 6 Volt
Q.68 Find potential difference across C-D branch?
(A) 2 Volt (B) 5 Volt (C) 4 Volt (D) 6 Volt
Comprehension # Q.69 to Q.71
In the circuit, voltage across the 8 resistor is 16V, with the lower end of the resistor at higher potential.

Q.69 Find the emf (including its polarity) of the battery X –

(A) 186 V, upper terminal +ve (B) 186 V, upper terminal – ve
(C) 180 V, upper terminal + ve (D) 180 V, upper terminal – ve
Q.70 Find the current I through the 200V battery including its direction –
(A) 1A from – ve to + ve terminal (B) 3A from + ve to – ve terminal
(C) 3A from – ve to + ve terminal (D) 4A from – ve to + ve terminal
Q.71 Find the value of resistance R?
(A) 10  (B) 20   (C) 30  (D) 40 
Comprehension # Q.72 to Q.73
In circuit

Q.72 Find equivalent resistance of the given circuit?

(A) 7 (B) 5  (C) 6 (D) 8
Q.73 Find i and i1?
(A) 4A, 0.25A (B) 0.25A, 4A (C) 3A, 0.50A (D) 0.50A, 3A
Comprehension # Q.74 to Q.75
In the circuit shown, the emf of the cell is 1.8V and its internal resistance is (2/3) .

275
 Current Electricity

Q.74 Calculate the current in 3 resistor?

(A) 3 A (B) 5 A (C) 0.4 A (D) 4 A
Q.75 Calculate the power consumed by the circuit?
(A) 11 Watt (B) 10 Watt (C) 5 Watt (D) 10.8 Watt
Comprehension # Q.76
Three resistances R1, R2 and R3 are connected as shown in figure with supply V volt. It is found that heat
energy in all the resistors are same.

Q.76 For same heat in all resistors, their values must be related as –
(A) R1 = R2 = R3 (B) R3 = R2 and R1 = 4R2
R2
(C) R2 = R3 and R1 = (D) R1 = R2 + R3
4
Comprehension
Comprehension # Q.77 toQ.78
# Q.77 to Q.78
In the circuit,

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Mr. Neetin Agrawal

Cell emf is fixed and internal resistance r is also fixed. As value of R changes power delivered to circuit by
cell also changes. Variation of power delivered with R is shown in graph.
Q.77 Emf of the cell is –
(A) 9V (B) 11.5 V (C) 6V (D) 4.5 V
Q.78 Current through the resistance 3R is nearly
(When R = 6)
(A) 0.37 A (B) 0.17 A (C) 0.49 A (D) 0.12 A
Comprehension # Q.79 to Q.81
A simple ohmmeter consists of battery connected in series with a galvanometer and a resistor, as shown in
figure. The resistance RS is chosen such that when the terminals a and b are shorted (put in electrical
contact, with negligible resistance between them), the current through the galvanometer gives a full - scale
deflection. Thus, a full scale deflection indicates so resistance between terminals a and b. A zero deflection
indicates an infinite resistance between the terminals. When the terminals are connected across an unknown
resistance R, the current through the galvanometer depends on R, so the scale can be calibrated to give a
direct reading of R, as shown in figure. Because an ohmmeter sends a current through the resistance to be
measured, some caution must be exercised when using this instrument. For example, you would not want to
try to measure the resistance of sensitive ammeter with an ohmmeter, because the current provided by the
battery in the ohmmeter would probably damage the ammeter. Let us use a galvanometer with resistance of
20  and maximum current of 10 mA,  = 1V. For a current more that 10 mA, galvanometer would be
damaged.

Q.79 The scale is non-linear because

(A) The resistance changes with change in temperature
(B) Of internal resistance of the battery.
(C) The current in circuit decreases with increase in resistance
(D) Of internal resistance of galvanometer.
Q.80 The minimum resistance required for rest of the circuit (other than galvanometer) is
(A) 20  (B) 30   (C) 80  (D) 100 
Q.81 The reading in galvanometer when resistance connected between a and b is 100  is
(A) 5mA (B) 3.3mA (C) 2mA (D) 8mA

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 Current Electricity

Comprehension # Q.82 to Q.83

A galvanometer has a full scale deflection for a current of 1mA. The coil of galvanometer has a resistance
of 20. To modify this instrument to make
Q.82 an ammeter that can measure up to 500 mA we need to connect a resistance of
(A) 0.04  (B) 2  (C) 4  (D) 0.02 
Q.83 a voltmeter capable of measuring 25V we need to connect a resistance of
(A) 5 (B) 25  (C) 5K (D) 25 K
Comprehension # Q.84 to Q.85
Let us consider a current-measuring instrument, often called an ammeter. To measure the current in a circuit,
an ammeter must be inserted in series in the circuit so that the current to be measured actually passes
through the meter. If a galvanometer is inserted in this way, it will measure any current from zero to 1mA.
However, the resistance of the coil adds to the total resistance of the circuit, with the result that the current
after the galvanometer is inserted, although it is correctly indicated by the instrument, may be less than it
was before insertion of the instrument. It is evidently desirable that the resistance of the instrument should be
much smaller than that of the remainder of the circuit, so that when the instrument is inserted it does not
change the very thing we wish to measure. An ideal ammeter would have zero resistance.
Q.84 A 100 µA galvanometer with internal resistance 1000 is to be converted into an ammeter of 10 A. Find the
shunt to be connected?
(A) 0.1  (B) 1  (C) 0.01  (D) 0.001 
Q.85 The three ways A, B and C of measuring a resistance are shown. Assuming R is low. The correct way of
measuring is –

(A) C (B) A (C) B (D) any of these is correct

Comprehension # Q.86 to Q.88
V
Value of an unknown resistor is calculated using the formula R = where V and I be the readings of the
I
voltmeter and the ammeter respectively. Consider the circuits below. The internal resistances of the
voltmeter and the ammeter (RV and RG respectively) are finite and non-zero.

Figure (A) Figure (B)

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Mr. Neetin Agrawal

Let RA and RB be the calculated values of resistors in the two cases A and B respectively.

Q.86 The relation between RA and the actual value R is –

(A) R > RA (B) R < RA (C) R = RA (D) dependent upon E and r.

Q.87 The relation between RB and the actual value R is–

(A) R < RB (B) R > RB (C) R = RB (D) dependent to E & r

Q.88 If the resistance of voltmeter is RV =1K and that of ammeter is RG= 1, the magnitude of the percentage
error in the measurement of R (the value of R is nearly 10) is:
(A) zero in both cases (B) non zero but equal in both cases
(C) More in circuit A (D) more in circuit B

Assertion & Reasoning

Statement
The following questions given below consist of an “Assertion” (A) and “Reason” (R) Type questions.
Use the following Key to choose the appropriate answer.
(A) If both (A) and (R) are true, and (R) is the correct explanation of (A).
(B) If both (A) and (R) are true but (R) is not the correct explanation of (A).
(C) If (A) is true but (R) is false.
(D) If (A) is false but (R) is true.
Q.89 Assertion:
Current is a scalar quantity.
Reason:
Electric current arises due to flow of charged particles or ions.
Q.90 Assertion:
The current density j at any point in ohmic resistor is in direction of electric field E at that point.
Reason:
A point charge when released from rest in a region having only electrostatic field always moves along
electric lines of force.
Q.91 Assertion:
The drift velocity of electrons in a metallic wire will decrease, if the temperature of the wire is increased.
Reason:
On increasing the temperature, conductivity of metallic wire decreases.
Q.92 Assertion:
With the increase in temperature resistance of a conducting wire increases.
Reason:
With the increase in temperature, length and area of cross-section of wire changes but resistivity remain
constant.
Q.93 Assertion:
The total resistance in series combination of resistors increases and in parallel combination of resistors
decreases.
Reason:
In series combination of resistors, the effective length of resistors increases and in parallel combination of
resistors, the area of cross-section of the resistors increases.
Q.94 Assertion:
Electrical power goes off when a short circuit happens.
Reason:
When short circuit happens, then resistance of circuit become very high.
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 Current Electricity

Q.95 Assertion:
For calculation of current in resistors of resistance R1, R2 and R3 in the circuit shown in figure 1, the circuit
can be redrawn as shown in figure 2 (this means that circuit shown in figure 2 is equivalent to circuit shown
in figure 1). All the cells shown are ideal and identical.

Reason:
Whenever potential difference across two resistors is same, both resistors can be assumed as a combination
of two resistors in parallel.
Q.96 Assertion:
In series combination of electric bulbs the bulb of lower power emits more light than comparisons of higher
power bulb.
Reason:
The lower power bulb in series gets more current than the higher power bulb.
Q.97 Statement: 1 An electrical fuse that is used in an electrical circuits is effective.
and
Statement: 2 The fuse has a large resistance and is made of a material of low melting point.
Q.98 Assertion:
Fuse wire of any electronic equipment must have high resistance and low melting point.
Reason:
Fuse is used for small current flow only.
Q.99 Assertion:
The coil of a heater is cut into two equal halves and only one of them is used into heater. The heater will
now require half the time to produce the same amount of heat.
Reason:
The heat produced is directly proportional to the square of current.
Assertion:
Q.100 Assertion:
The power delivered to a light bulb is more just after it is switched ON and the glow of the filament is
increasing, as compared to when the bulb is glowing steadily, i.e., after some time of switching ON.
Reason:
As temperature increases, resistance of conductor increases.
Q.101 Assertion:
In parallel combination of electrical appliances, total power consumption is equal to the sum of the powers
of the individual appliances.
Reason:
In parallel combination, the voltage across each appliance is the same, as required for the proper working of
electrical appliance.
Q.102 Assertion:
When an external resistor of resistance R (connected across a cell of internal resistance r) is varied. Power
consumed by resistance R is maximum when R = r

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Mr. Neetin Agrawal

Reason:
Power consumed by a resistor of constant resistance R is maximum when current through it is maximum:
Q.103 Assertion:
In a meter Bridge experiment, null point for an unknown resistance is measured. Now, the unknown
resistance is put inside an enclosure maintained at a higher temperature. The null point can be obtained at
the same point as before by decreasing the value of the standard resistance.
Reason:
Resistance of a metal remains constant with increase in temperature.
Q.104 Assertion:
A potential difference measured across cell with a voltmeter is always less than emf of cell.
Reason:
Potentiometer is used for emf measurement.
Q.105 Assertion:
A galvanometer can be used as an ammeter only.
Reason:
A galvanometer can be used in electric circuit to detect the electric current.

Subjective Type
Q.106 The I-V curves at two different temperatures T1 and T2 are shown.

(a) Is the specimen ohmic?

(b) At which temperature resistance is higher?
(c) Which temperature is greater?
Q.107 In the circuit shown, calculate the current flown in the circuit?

Q.108 In the given circuit –

(a) Find the value of I, I1, I2.
(b) Potential difference across 5 resistor.

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 Current Electricity

Q.109 Calculate the current I1, I2 and I3 in the circuit.

Q.110 In the circuit i1 and i2 shown in figure. Find the emf E and the current through all the branches.

Q.111 In the adjoining circuit diagram –

(a) Find the potential difference between a and b when switch S is open.
(b) Find the current through switch S when it is closed.

Q.112 In the given circuit.

(E1 = 3 V, E2 = 2 V, E3 = 1V, R = r1 = r2 = r3 = 1 ohm)

(i) Find the potential difference between the points A and B and the currents through each branch.
(ii) If r2 is short- circuited and the point A is connected to point B, find the currents through E1, E2 E3 and the
resistor R.
Q.113 Find the equivalent resistance between points A and B.

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Mr. Neetin Agrawal

Q.114 Five equal resistances, each of the value R, are connected to form a network as shown. Calculate the
equivalent resistance of the network between the points
(a) B and D (b) A and C and (c) A and B.

Q.115 In the diagram resistance between any two junctions is R. Equivalent resistance across terminals A and B is

Q.116 Find the current I & voltage across 7 resistor in the given circuit.

Q.117 Arrange the order of power dissipated in the given circuits, if the same current is passing through all circuits
and each resistor is R.
(I)

(II)

(III)

(IV)

Q.118 Consider the following circuit, in fig (i), null point is found at 125 cm and in fig (ii) when 20W resistor is
connected, then null point is shifted to 100cm. Find the internal resistance r of cell.

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 Current Electricity

Q.119 A battery of emf 1.4 V and internal resistance 2 ohm is connected to a resistor of 100 ohm resistance through
an ammeter. The resistance of the ammeter is 4/3 ohm. A voltmeter has also been connected to find the
potential difference across the resistor.
(a) Draw the circuit diagram.
(b) The ammeter reads 0.02A .What is the resistance of the voltmeter?
(c) The voltmeter reads 1.1 V. What is the error in the reading?
Q.120 A voltage of 30 V is applied across a carbon resistor with first, second, third and four rings of blue, black,
yellow and silver colors respectively. Find the value of current through the resistor.

Q.121 In the figure shown, each resistance is R. Match the following:

Table -1 Table-2
Resistance between R
(A) a and b (P) 2

Resistance between 2R
(B) (Q)
a and c 3
Resistance between
(C) (R) R
d and b

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 ANSWER KEY
Multiple Choice Types
Only One Option Correct
1. [D] 2. [D] 3. [C] 4. [D]
5. [B] 6. [D] 7. [D] 8. [B]
9. [C] 10. [A] 11. [B] 12. [C]
13. [A] 14. [B] 15. [D] 16. [C]
17. [B] 18. [C] 19. [C] 20. [C]
21. [D] 22. [D] 23. [D] 24. [D]
25. [C] 26. [B] 27. [D] 28. [B]
29. [D] 30. [D] 31. [C] 32. [B]
33. [B] 34. [C] 35. [A] 36. [D]
37. [A] 38. [B] 39. [A] 40. [C]
41. [B] 42. [D] 43. [A] 44. [D]
45. [A] 46. [C] 47. [B] 48. [C]
49. [D] 50. [D] 51. [B] 52. [A]
More than One Correct
53. [A], [B], [C], [D] 54. [B], [C] 55. [A], [C], [D]
56. [A], [B], [C], [D] 57. [A], [C] 58. [A], [C]
59. [A], [B] 60. [A], [D] 61. [B],[C]
62. [A], [D] 63. [B], [C] 64. [A], [B], [D]
65. [A], [B], [C], [D] 66. [B], [C]
Comprehension
67. [C] 68. [C] 69. [A] 70. [C] 71. [B]
72. [C] 73. [A] 74. [C] 75. [D] 76. [C]
77. [C] 78. [B] 79. [C] 80. [C] 81. [A]
82. [A] 83. [D] 84. [C] 85. [C] 86. [A]
87. [A] 88. [D]
Assertion & Reasoning
89. [B] 90. [C] 91. [B] 92. [C] 93. [A]
94. [C] 95. [C] 96. [C] 97. [D] 98. [C]
99. [B] 100. [A] 101. [A] 102. [B] 103. [D]
104. [B] 105. [D]
Subjective Type
106. (a) The I-V curve is linear and passes through origin, so specimen is ohmic.
(b) The resistance R2 at temperature T2 is greater than R 1.
(C) The resistance increases with temperature. Thus, T2 > T1 because R2 > R1

107. I=3A
1 9 10
108. (a) I1 = A, I2 = A and I = I1 + I2 = A
34 34 34
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 Current Electricity

25
(b) V= V
17
109. I1=2A, I2= -3A and I3= -1A
11 3
110. i1= A, i 2  A and E = 6.6 V
10 5
111. (a) Vab = –12 V
(b) – 3A
112. (i) VAB = VCF= 2 Volt
(ii) i1= i3 = 1 A and i2 = 2 A

113. R eq  6 
R
114. (a) RBD =
2
(b) (R eq)AC = R
5R
(C) RAB =
8
11R
115. R eq  
18
116. I=2.5A, I1=0.5A and V = 3.5 Volt
117. PII > PIII > PIV > PI
118. r = 5
119. (a)

(b) R = 200 ฀
(c) Error in the reading of the voltmeter = – 0.23Volt
5
120. i  5 10 A
121. (A)  Q, (B)  P, (C)  R

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 CHAPTER
CAPACITOR 4
CAPACITOR AND CAPACITIVE CIRCUITS
4.1 Capacitor
Till now we have studied various forms of energies like potential, kinetic, chemical etc. Now we will
talk about storing these energies. Consider a few examples.
 Battery- Battery stores chemical energy.

 Hydropower Plant - In hydro power plant, water in reservoirs is stored at some height. This water
stores gravitational potential energy. When it falls down on turbine, electricity is generated.

 Spring - When we compress or elongate a spring, then elastic potential energy is stored in it.

So, spring is a device used to store elastic potential energy.

In all the above examples we have seen different ways to store different types of energies. In this
chapter, we will learn how to store electrostatic potential energy. Device which is used to store
electrostatic potential energy is called capacitor.
 Capacitor

Two conductors (of any shape) are placed at some distance. One is given +Q charge and another is
given –Q charge.

287
 Capacitor

This system of charged conductors can be called capacitor.

Is there any potential difference between these two conductors?
As there are electric field lines between both the conductors, some work has to be done in bringing
+1C charge from negatively charged conductor to positively charged conductor. It means, there is
some potential difference between the two capacitors, say V.
We define a term related to capacitor, called capacitance (C)
Q
C=
ΔV
Key Points:-
 Value of C is always positive. We can write above formula as
Q
C=
ΔV
As per this formula, unit of capacitance is coulomb/volt. But ‘farad’ is the commonly used SI unit and
it is represented by F. This unit is named after the great English physicist Michael Faraday.
 Technically the conductors in the capacitor are called plates but it is not necessary that these
conductors should be in shape of plates, they can have any shape.
Illustration 1
Two conductors are placed closed to each other, calculate capacitance of this system.

Q
Sol. We know that C 
V
Here, Q = +2C
V = 100V
2
So, C
100
= 0·02 F
Symbol of Capacitors -
When connected in circuits, we use either of the following symbols of capacitor.

or
In second diagram, curved line shows that this side of conductor is negatively charged.
4.2 Some Special Types of Capacitors -
We have studied that plates of capacitors may have any shape but here in this section we will study
some special types of capacitors whose shape is well defined and symmetric. Due to this it is easier to
analyse them.
  Parallel Plate Capacitors –
 In this type of capacitors, conductors are in shape of rectangular plates which are placed parallel to
each other.

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Mr. Neetin Agrawal

Suppose charges on plates are +Q and -Q. We have seen electric field lines due to the charged plate.
EF lines start at positive plate and terminate at negative plate. They are uniform, as shown in the
figure below.

It is given that area of each plate is A and distance between them is d. We will now calculate
capacitance.
Q
As, C ... (1)
V
Here value of Q is given but V is not known.
In electrostatics, we studied that potential difference between any two points is given as–
 
V    E.dr ... (2)
Electric field in between these two conducting plates will be due to both positive and negative plate,
say E+ and E– (as shown in the figure).

At any point in between these two conducting plates.

E = E + + E–
  
E   
2 0 2 0  0
Q
As, 
A
Q
 E
A 0
Substituting value of E in equation (2), we have
Q
V    dr
 
A 0
Range of r will be from r = 0 to r = d
d
Q Qd
A 0 0
 dr  
A 0
Substituting value of V in equation (1)

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 Capacitor

Q
C
Qd

A0
ε0 A
 C=
d
4.2.2 Spherical Capacitor –
In spherical capacitor, plates of capacitor are spherical in shape. Suppose, a solid sphere of radius a is
placed co-centric to a hollow sphere of radius b. Solid sphere is given charge + Q and hollow
sphere is given charge –Q .

Is this a capacitor? Yes it is. We have studied, if there are two conductors of any shape having equal
and opposite charges, then we have a capacitor.
As this is a capacitor, so formula of capacitance is also applicable on this.
Q
C ... (1)
V
We have to calculate V.
 
V    E.dr ... (2)
Consider any point P inside the hollow sphere at distance r from the centre, as shown in the figure.

-Q

+Q P

Electric field at P will be due to inner sphere and outer sphere.

So, EP = Einner + Eouter
kQ
 0
r2
Substituting value of E in equation (2)
kQ
V   dr
r2
dr
 kQ  2
r

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Limit of r will be from a to b.

 1 1
b
dr
  kQ
a
r   kQ    
2
 b a
 b  a  kQ
  kQ    b  a
 ab  ab
Substituting this value of V in equation?

Q
 C
kQ  b  a 
ab
ab
 C=
k  b-a 
4.2.3 Cylindrical Capacitor –
A solid cylinder (radius a) is placed co-axially to another hollow cylinder (radius b). Solid cylinder is
given charge +Q and hollow cylinder is given charge – Q. This type of capacitors are called
cylindrical capacitors.

To calculate capacitance of this system we will follow same steps as in previous two derivations.

Q Q
C 
V   E.dr
For cylinder we know the value of E as calculated in the chapter of electrostatics. We will directly use
that result over here. On integrating we will finally get this result.
2π ε0 l
C=
ln b
a
Key Points:-
We have seen that
 For parallel plate capacitor
0A
C
d
 For spherical capacitor
ab
C
k  b  a
 For cylindrical capacitor

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 Capacitor

2  0 
C
n b
a
 Can we say capacitance depends on geometry of plates i.e. shape and size of plate? Yes. First let’s see
for parallel plate capacitor.
0A
C
d
In this formula, A and d are geometrical parameters. If we change A or d, C will also change. But if
we change Q on plate of capacitor, C will remain same. Similarly, for cylindrical and spherical
capacitors, capacitance depends on radius a and b, both are geometrical parameter. Capacitor again
does not depends on charge on the capacitor.

Quiz-1
A conducting sphere of radius r is given. Calculate its capacitance.
Sol. We have seen till now that in a capacitor, two conductors are there. But here, only one sphere is given.
So, will there be any capacitance?

Before we solve this problem, consider two cases.

In case (i) EF lines are originating from inner sphere and terminating at outer sphere.
In case (ii) EF lines are originating from inner sphere and terminating at infinity.

Suppose in Case (i) we increase the radius of outer sphere more and more until b Then we get
exact situation as in case (ii)
We know that for spherical capacitor
ab
C
k  b  a
As, b 
a
C  lim
b   k  b  a
ab
 C  lim
b   kb 1  a 
 b 

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a
 C
k
Now come back to our problem. Here a positively charged sphere is given. We can assume that this
sphere is surrounded by one more sphere whose radius is so large that we can take it as infinity. So,
capacitance of this capacitor will be
r
C
k
This is a very important concept that we can talk about capacitance even if there is only one
conductor.
4.3 Energy Stored In Capacitor
In the beginning of this chapter we studied that capacitor is a device used to store electrostatic
potential energy, but how much? Let’s see – consider two neutral conductors. A man starts to transfer
a small amount of charge +dq from one conductor to another. As the man brings more and more
charge, some net charges develop on both the conductors which are equal in magnitude but opposite in
sign. Say the diagram below shows situation at an intermediate time when charges on conductors are q
and –q.

The man is still transferring dq charge and some work has to be done by him in order to transfer this
small charge. This work done by man can be written as–
dW = V dq
Here V is work done in bringing +1C of charge from negative conductor to positive conductor
W   Vdq
Initially charges on capacitors were zero. Finally it became Q, so range of q is from 0 to Q.
Q
q  q 
W  C dq
0
 as C  V 
 
1 Q2

2 C
As the man is doing work, so his energy will get reduced. This reduced energy of man gets stored in
the capacitor. So energy stored in capacitor is given as–
1 Q2
Energy =
2 C
We can write various forms of above equation of energy of a capacitor
1 Q2 1 C 2 V 2  Q 
Energy =   C  V 
2 C 2 C  
1
Energy = C  ΔV 
2
 
2
1 Q2 1 Q2
Energy  
2 C 2Q
V

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 Capacitor

1
  Energy = Q  ΔV 
2
Key Point:-
Energy stored in a capacitor can be calculated by any of these three formulas.
1 Q2 1 1
Energy   C  V   Q  V 
2

2 C 2 2
4.4 Energy Density
Suppose we have a parallel plate capacitor, as shown in the figure.
+Q -Q

A E

d
Electric field between these two plates is given as–
 Q/A
E 
0 0
[We have already seen this while deriving formula for parallel plate capacitor]
 Q = E 0 A. ... (1)
Energy stored in capacitor is given as–
1 Q2
Energy =
2 C
Using equation (1) we get
1  E 0 A  1  E 0 A 
2 2
 0 A 
Energy = 
2 0A / d as C  d 
2 C  
1
 0 E 2 Ad
2
Energy density is defined as energy of capacitor, per unit volume of capacitor.
1
Energy 2  0 E Ad
2

Energy density = 
Volume Ad
1
Energy density = ε0 E
2

2
Illustration 2
A parallel plate capacitor is given as shown in the figure below.
+Q -Q

Fman Fman

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Force is applied on both the conductors by a man and distance between the two plates becomes
2d. Calculate work done by the man.
Sol. Energy of capacitor in initial position,
1 Q2 1 Q2 Q2d
Energy (i)    ... (1)
2 C 2 0 A 20 A
d
Now calculate energy of capacitor in final position.

1 Q2
Energy (f) 
2 C
Charge on capacitor in final position will not change. It will remain Q because we are not disturbing
charges on plates. But distance between plates will change from d to 2d.
1  Q  2dQ 2
  Energy (f)    ... (2)
2   0A / 2d  20 A
Change in energy = Energy (f) – Energy (i)
2Q 2d Q2 d 1  Q2d 
    
20 A 20 A 2  0 A 
1  Q 2d 
From the above equation we can see that energy of capacitor has increases by.   Man applied
2  0 A 
force to pull these plates apart, it means man has done some work and energy of man must have
decreased. This decreased energy of man has got stored in capacitor and energy of capacitor has
increased.
So, work done by man = Change in energy of capacitor
1  Q 2d 
=  
2  0 A 

Quiz-2
A parallel plate capacitor is given
+Q -Q

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 Capacitor

If we double the distance between the two conductors then out of the following quantities, which
changes and which remains unchanged.
(i) Charge (Q)
Sol. Charge on plates will remain unchanged. We are just moving plates apart and not disturbing charge on
them.
(ii) Capacitance (C)
0A
Sol. As, C
d
When we change d, C will also change.
(iii) Potential (V)
Q
Sol. As, C
V
When C is changing, V will also change.
(iv) Energy
1 Q2
Sol. As, energy 
2 C
When C is changing, energy will also change.
(v) Electric Fled -
Sol. E will remain unchanged.
We have already calculate E for parallel plate capacitor. It comes out to be
Q
E
A 0
As Q, 0 and A, all are constant, hence E is also constant.
We can think of this in one more way. We know that electric field due to charged plate is uniform and
does not depend upon distance from plate. Here E is due to positive and negative plates, so even if we
increase the distance between plates, E will not change.
4.5 Capacitive Circuits -
In current electricity we have studied resistive circuits i.e. those circuits which have resistors
connected in them.
Resistive
Circuits
Similarly, capacitive circuits are those circuits which have capacitors connected to them.
Capacitive
Circuits
Consider the following situation.
An uncharged capacitor with capacitance = 2F is connected to a wire as shown in the figure.
A B

Is there any potential difference between A and B?

Let’s see
Q
As, C
V
 V= Q/C
As capacitor is uncharged Q = 0
 V=0

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Therefore, VAB = 0
Now, suppose we connect these terminals with battery of emf 10V, as shown in the figure.
A B

EMF=10V
Now, VAB = 10 V
It means there is a potential difference between plates of capacitor.
So, Q=CV
= 2 × 10
= 20 C
We can think of it this way, when we connect capacitor with a battery, plate connected to higher
potential of battery gets + 20C charge and plate connected to lower potential of battery gets – 20C
charge.
Initially, capacitor was uncharged, but now when we have connected it to battery, some charge
appears on it.

Here we can observe one very important concept. Consider a resistive circuit.
R

E
In above circuit, current will flow from positive terminal of battery to resistance and then from
resistance to negative terminal of battery. This current will keep on flowing until battery gets
discharged completely.
Now consider a capacitive circuit.
+20C -20C

E=10V
Initially, charge on capacitor was zero. After connecting capacitor, current will start to flow in the
circuit and charges will start to accumulate on capacitor. Current will flow until charge on capacitor
reaches 20C. After that current in circuit will stop because if more current will flow, then charge on
plate will increase beyond 20C, which is not possible for given value of V and C.
So in this case current flows for very short time, only until charge on plate becomes 20C.

Quiz-3
In the figure given below, two situations are drawn. Which of the following situations are
correct and why?

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 Capacitor

Sol. First let’s draw electric field lines for both these situations.

In both the situations, A is at higher potential compared to B as A is connected to the positive terminal
of the battery. In electrostatics we have studied that when we move along electric field lines, potential
decreases. From this we can say that situation 1 is right and 2 is wrong.
Illustration 3
Suppose a capacitor with capacitance 5F has charge of +2C. It is connected to a battery of EMF
= 10V and a switch.
(i) Find charge on capacitor when switch is closed.
(ii) Find the charge flown through the battery.
+2C -2C

E=10V
Sol. As, Q = CV
= 5 × 10 = 50 C
So, charge on capacitor will be 50C on connecting with battery.
(ii) Charge flown through the battery.

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Sol. Initially, charge on plate was 2C and now it has become 50C. This excess charge must have come
from battery.
It means charge flown through the battery is
50 – 2 = 48C
Charge of 48C must have flown out of positive terminal of battery and 48C of charge must have flown
into negative terminal of battery.

Charge given by battery = Charge taken by battery from the other side.
(iii) Work done by the battery.
Sol. Work done by the battery is calculate with this formula –
Wbattery = q V
Here, q is charge flown through the battery
So, Wbattery = 48 × 10 = 480 J
Till now we have seen basic capacitive circuit where only one capacitor was connected to the battery.
Now we will see how to solve complicated circuits.
In current electricity, to solve complicated resistive circuits, we studied Kirchoff’s law. Similarly we
will see kirchoff’s law for capacitive circuits also.
4.5.1. Kirchoff’s loop law –
Consider the following circuit with a capacitor of capacitance C and battery of emf E.

In resistive circuits we studied that in any closed loop, if we traverse a complete loop, then
V = 0
This law is also valid for capacitive circuits.
In the above diagram, if we traverse in clockwise direction starting from point A, then first circuit
element that we encounter is battery, change in potential across the battery is 10 V.

When we traverse forward we encounter capacitor. Change in potential across capacitor can be
calculated using formula.
Q
C
V
Q
 V 
C
As we are moving towards negative plate of capacitor, so potential drop across capacitor will be
negative.

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 Capacitor

Q
 V  
C
In closed loop
V = 0
Q
 E 0
C
Key Point:-

i + _ Q
V=
C
Traverse
4.5.2 Junction Law -
Consider the following situation. Initially, all the capacitors are uncharged. There is a switch
connected in the circuit which is initially open.
C1
C3
C2

Once we close the switch, there will be some charge on the plates of capacitors. Say, charge on C1, C2
and C3 are q1, q2, and q3 respectively.

In above circuit, we have drawn a box. This box encloses three plates of capacitors.
Between plates of capacitors there is vacuum, thus no charge can flow in or out of this isolated box.
So, for this block we can write that –
qf = q i
Here, qf is final charge on three plates inside isolated box after battery is connected.
qi is initial charge on these three plates before battery is connected.
Thus –q1 + q2 + q3 = 0
This was the use of junction law. Junction law says that total charge inside an isolated system as
considered here remains constant.

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Mr. Neetin Agrawal

Quiz-4
Observe the following circuit.

A box is drawn in this figure. Is this an isolated box?

Sol. No, charge can flow to capacitor C3 through the wire on left.

4.6 Solving Complicated Circuits -

Just as current electricity. We will see some techniques to solve complicated circuits.
4.6.1 Loop Analysis –
We will understand concept of loop analysis with the help of few examples.
Illustration 4
3F
2F
4F

E=12V
Calculate charge on each capacitor
Sol. Step1- Assume charge on each plate.
+q1 -q1
+q3 -q3
+q2 -q2

Step2- Traverse all the loops in the circuit and write their equations.

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 Capacitor

On traversing loop 1, we get this equation.

q1 q 3
12   0
2 4
 q3 + 2q1 = 48 ... (1)
On traversing loop 2 we get this equation.
q 2 q3
  0
3 4
q 2 q3
  ... (2)
3 4
We have two equations and three variables. To solve this problem we need to find out one more
equation. For that we will apply junction law. We have already seen this example so we will directly
write equation of junction law.
–q1 + q2 + q3 = 0 ... (3)
On solving equation (1), (2) and (3) we will get–
q1 = 18.67C
q2 = 8C
q3 = 10.67C
Illustration 5
In the circuit shown below, what will be the charge on each capacitor when switch S1, S2 and S3
are closed simultaneously? Initially, charge on 2F capacitor is 5C.

+5 -5 3F
2F S2
S1 4F S
3

12V
Sol. Step1- When all the switches are closed, some charge will appear on capacitors. Assume charges to
be q1, q2 and q3.

Step2- Traverse both the loops to make equations. As circuit in this problem is similar to previous
problem so, we will get–
q3 + 2q1 = 48 …. (1)
q 2 q3
 …. (2)
3 4
In junction law we saw that in an isolated box

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Mr. Neetin Agrawal

qf = qi.
Initially
0 0
+5C -5C
0 0

Finally
+q2 -q2
+q1 -q1
+q3 -q3

So, – q1 + q2 + q3 = – 5 …. (3)
Solving the 3 equations, we get all the charges.
Illustration 6
In the given circuit, initially all the capacitors are uncharged. Find the final charge on all the
capacitors.
2V 3F

2F
4F

10V
Sol. Step1- Assume some charge on all the capacitors, say q1, q2 and q3.

Step2- There are two loops. Write equations of both the loops.

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 Capacitor

Loop1 -
q1 q
10  2 3  0
2 4
q1 q3
 8   0 ... (1)
2 4
Loop 2 -
q 2 q3
  0
3 4
q3 q2

 4 3 ... (2)
Step3- Apply junction law. Consider an isolated system as shown in the figure.

qf = q i
It is given that initially all capacitors are uncharged it means qi = 0
Finally charge on capacitors will be as assumed.
qf = – q1 + q 2 + q 3
So, –q1 + q2 + q3 = 0 ... (3)
On solving equation (1), (2) and (3) we can find the value of q1, q2 and q3
q1 = 12.44 C
q2 = 5.33 C
q3 = 7.11 C
But if battery of 2V is connected inside isolated box then how can we write (qi = qf ) ?
We know that all the charge given by battery is again received by it from the other end. So, battery
does not give any net charge. So presence of battery in an isolated system won’t effect our equation.
‘A battery can be present inside isolated system of junction law’.
Illustration 7
In the following circuit, calculate charge on capacitors on closing switch S1 and S2.

Sol. Initially, there is some charge on both the capacitors. When we will close the switch, charge on both
the capacitors will change. We have to calculate final charge on the capacitors.
Step1 - Assume charge on capacitors.

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Mr. Neetin Agrawal

q1 -q1

q2 -q2
Applying loop law

q1 q 2
  0 ... (1)
2 3
Applying junction law -
q1 -q1

q2 -q2
qf = q i
qf = q 1 + q 2
qi = 10 + 5 = 15 C
 q1 + q2 = 15 ... (2)
On solving equation (1) and (2) we can calculate values of q1 and q2
q1 = 6 C
q2 = 9 C
4.6.2 Nodal Analysis –
We will understand this technique with the help of examples.
Illustration 8
3F
2F
4F

12V
Calculate charge on each capacitor.
Sol. We have already solved this problems using loop analysis. Now we will solve it using nodal analysis.
This technique is also similar to that which we have studied in resistive circuits.
Step1 - Assume potential at any node equal to zero (Say node A).

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 Capacitor

Step2- Calculate potential at other nodes. If it is not possible to calculate potential at any node then
assume it as some variable.

Step3- Now we will write equation of junction law around the node whose potential is a variable.

Inside isolated box–

qf = q i
Initially, all the capacitors were uncharged. Finally, there is some charge on capacitors as shown in the
figure above.
 – q1 + q 2 + q 3 = 0
Using Q = CV for all the capacitors, we get
–2 (12 – V1) + 3(V1) + 4(V1) = 0
 –24 + 2 V1 + 3V1 + 4V1 = 0
 9 V1 = 24
 V1 = 2.67 V
Now
q1 = 2 (12 – V1) =18.66 C
q2 = 3(V1) = 8 C
q3 = 4(V1) = 10.68 C
Illustration 9
In the following circuit find the charge on all the capacitors. Initially all the capacitors are
uncharged.

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Mr. Neetin Agrawal

Sol. Here, we have three loops. It will be easier to solve if we use nodal analysis.
Assuming node A to be at zero potential and calculating potential at all the other nodes we get

Now we will make equation of junction. To apply junction law we have to choose an isolated system.
Here we can make isolated system in two ways.

But we always choose isolated system which is covering up nodes with variable potential. Assume
some charge on all the plates.

qi = q f
 0 = – q1 – q2 – q3 – q4
Using q = CV,
q1 = 2 (4 – V1),
q2 = 3 (2– V1),
q3 = 4 (3– V1),
q4 = 6 (– 5 – V1)
So,

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 Capacitor

0 = – 2(4 –V1) – 3(2–V1) – 4(3–V1) – 6(–5–V1)

= – 8 + 2V1 – 6 + 3V1 – 12 + 4V1 + 30 + 6 V1
= 4 + 15 V1
4
 V1  
15
Now, we can easily calculate value of q1, q2, q3 and q4.
q1 = 8.13 C
q2 = 9.2 C
q3 = 12.27 C
q4 = – 29.6 C

Quiz-5
Consider two situations

In Situation 1, both the capacitors are uncharged whereas in Situation 2, one capacitor has
charge of 2C. When we close the switch then how will charge distribute on them?
Sol. When switch is closed, capacitors will have some charge as shown in the figure below.

In Situation 1, make an isolated system to apply junction law.

q1 -q1 q2 -q2

As, qf = q i
 –q1 + q2 = 0
 q1 = q 2
Now, come to Situation 2. Again draw an isolated system
q1 -q1 q2 -q2

qf = q i
 –q1 + q2 = – 2
So, q1  q2
From the above observation, we can state that “If two or more capacitors are connected in series
which are initially uncharged, then they acquire same charge on connecting to a battery”.
This is very important concept and it helps in solving many problems.

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Illustration 10
In the following circuit all the capacitors are uncharged.

2F 3F

4F 5F
S1 S2
When we close switch S1 and S2, charge on 2F capacitor is 10C. Calculate charge on 5F
capacitor.
Sol. When both the switches are closed, charge on 2F capacitor is 10C. As 2F and 3F capacitors were
initially uncharged and are connected in series. So, charge of 3F capacitor will also be 10C.
Assume charge on 4F and 5F capacitor to be q1 and q2 respectively.
10C -10C 10C -10C

q1 -q1 q2 -q2

In this problem we have two variables q1 and q2, It means we need two equations.
We can get our first equation by junction law. Consider the isolated system as shown in the figure.
10C -10C

q1 -q1 q2 -q2

So, qi = q f
0 = – 10 – q1 + q2 ... (1)
We can get our second equation by loop law.
10C -10C 10C -10C
2F 3F
Loop1
q1 -q1 q2 -q2
4F 5F

On moving clockwise in loop we get,

10 10 q1
   0
2 3 4
q1 25

4 3
100
q1  C ... (2)
3
From equation (1) and (2) we can calculate value of q2.
q2 = 43.3 C
This is the required answer.

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Illustration 11
A capacitor with capacitance C is connected to a battery. If distance between its plates is
reduced to half then calculate charge flown in the circuit.

Sol. Suppose initially charge on capacitor is Q1 then value of Q1 will be–

 0A 
Q1 = CV = 10  
 d 
If charge on capacitor after decreasing d is Q2, then
 A
Q2 = CV = 10  0 
d 
 2
It means, Q2 - Q1 amount of charge has flown through the circuit.

One use associated with the above example is computer keyboard. In keyboard, there are several keys.
Beneath each key there is a capacitor. When we press any key say character ‘H’ then capacitor
beneath key H gets compressed and some charge flows through it. With the help of this charge, CPU
identifies which key was pressed.
4.7 Heat Production -
Consider two capacitors, one charged and another uncharged, connected as shown in the figure.
9C -9C
2F
Initial
System
4F
When switch is closed some charge will flow through circuit and 4F capacitor will also get charged.
Suppose final charge on capacitors is q1 and q2.
q1 -q1
2F
Final
System
q2 -q2
We have studied how to calculate value of q1 and q2. On solving we will get q1 = 3C and q2
= 6 C.
Now, calculate initial energy of system
1 Q2
Eint ial 
2 C

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1 92 81
 0  = 20.25 J
2 2 4
Now, calculate final energy of system
1 32 1 62 27
Efinal    = 6· 75 J
2 2 2 4 4
Initially, system had 20.25 J of energy. On closing the switch, energy of the system reduced to 6.75 J.
So, where has this reduced energy gone?
This energy got converted into heat energy.
Heat energy = 20.25 – 6.75
= 13.50 J
You must be wondering that why was heat produced in this system?
Any switch will have some resistance R. When we close the switch, current i flows through it.
Heat produced per unit time in the resistor is given as
H = i2 R
This is the reason why heat was produced in the system.
Illustration 12

2F

10V
Initially capacitor is uncharged.
When switch is closed, find–
(i) Energy in capacitor
Sol. When switch is closed, capacitor will get charged. Suppose charge on capacitor is Q.
Q = CV = 2 × 10 = 20 C
+20C -20C

10V
1 Q2
Energy stored in capacitor =
2 C
1  20 
2

 = 100 J
2 2
(ii) Work done by battery
Sol. Wbattery = qV.
Here, V is potential across the battery
q is charge flown through the battery.
We know that initially capacitor was uncharged. When switch is closed, charge on capacitor becomes
20C. Where has this charge come from? Obviously from battery.
So, q = 20 C
It means Wbattery = 20 × 10 = 200 J

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(iii) Heat Produced

Sol. In this circuit work done by battery is 200J. It means circuit must have 200J of energy. 100J of energy
is stored in the capacitor, remaining 100J of energy got converted into heat.
Illustration 13

2F 3F

10V
(i) Find charge on capacitors before and after closing the switch.
Sol. First we will find out charge on capacitors before closing the switch

As both the capacitors were initially uncharged and connected in series, so charge on both capacitors
will be same, say q.
To calculate q we can use loop analysis.

From loop analysis we get

q q
10   0
2 3
 q = 12 C
Now we will find charge on capacitor after closing switch.

2F 3F

10V
It will be more convenient if we solve this problem using nodal.
Assume any one node at zero potential and find potential of others.

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10V 2F 0V 3F 0V

0V
10V
V across 3F capacitor is 0.
So, q on it = 0
V across 2F capacitor is 10 V.
So, q on it = CV
= 2 × 10 = 20C
(ii) Heat produced on closing switch
Sol. When switch is closed then charge on capacitors gets changed as we saw in the previous part of this
problem.

To calculate heat, first we have to calculate some quantities.

1 Q 2 1 12  1 12 
2 2

Energyinitial =   = 36 + 24 = 60 J
2 C 2 2 2 3
1  20 
2

Energyfinal =   0 = 100 J
2 2
Wbattery = q V
Initially charge on 2F capacitor was 12C, finally charge became 20C. It means battery has supplied 8C
of charge to capacitor.
So, Wbattery = 8 × 10 = 80 J
Heat produced:
Heat = (EInitial + Wbattery) – Efinal
= 60 +80-100 = 40 J
(iii) Find charge flown through switch on closing it.
Sol. Consider the isolated box when switch was open.

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But once switch is closed, is this box still isolated?

No, it is not.

Initially charge in this box was

+ 12 C – 12 C = 0
Finally charge in this box is – 20 + 0 = – 20C
It means, – 20C of charge must have gone inside the box. The only way for charge to get into this box
is through wire containing switch. Therefore, –20C of charge must have passed through this switch
4.8 Equivalent Capacitance
We have seen that if a network of resistors is given then we can replace it by a resistance called
equivalent resistance.

Similarly, if a network of capacitors is given then we can replace it by equivalent capacitor.

To calculate equivalent capacitors C1 and C2 connected in series–

1 1 1
 
C1 C2 Ceq
To calculate equivalent resistance of capacitor C1 and C2 connected in parallel–
C1 Ceq

C2

C1 + C2 = Ceq

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Note- Formulas to calculate equivalent capacitance when capacitors are connected in series and
parallel is exactly opposite to that of resistance.
We can prove this result.
Suppose, we have two capacitors C1 and C2 connected in parallel. They are connected across a
battery of V volt. Suppose total q charge has flown through the battery. This q charge will bifurcate
into two branches, as shown in the figure below.

q = q1 + q2
Using nodal analysis we can calculate potential at all the terminals of the circuit.

We can now calculate value of q1 and q2 using formula

Q = CV
So, q = C1V + C2V
q = (C1+C2) V
This charge q is basically the charge that has flown through the battery.
Now suppose that we have a capacitor whose capacitance is equal to (C1 + C2). This capacitor is
connected across a battery of V volt as shown in the figure.

In this case, charge flown from the battery will be

q = (C1 + C2) V
We can see that charge flown from the battery in both the cases is same. It means circuit in second
case is equivalent to circuit in first case i.e. when two capacitors C1 and C2 are connected in parallel
then we can write equivalent capacitance between them as (C1+C2).

=
This was the case of parallel connection of capacitors. You can try the same technique to prove the
equivalent connection of capacitors when connected in series.

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Illustration 14
In the given circuit calculate equivalent capacitance.
(i) C

Sol. These three capacitors are in parallel

So, Ceq = C + C + C
= 3C
3C

(ii)
C C C

Sol. These three capacitors are in series

1 1 1 1
So   
Ceq C C C
C
Ceq 
3

Illustration 15
Calculate equivalent capacitance of this circuit. All the capacitors have capacitance C.

A B

Sol. We have solved similar question previously in current electricity also. We will solve this
problem with similar approach.
We can see line of symmetry in this circuit. So we will fold this circuit along that.

Note that value of capacitor has become double. It is because on folding, two capacitors fall on each
other and become parallel to each other.
Now this problem is very easy to solve.
All the methods that we learned to find equivalent resistance are valid even in case of capacitors.
Let’s have a look at another problem.

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Illustration 16

Calculate charge on 7F capacitor.

Sol. This is a wheat stone bridge.
We can verify it by checking ratios of adjacent capacitors.
3 6

5 10
No current flows through 7F capacitor, so charge on it will be zero.
4.9 Change on both sides of plates of a capacitor
Part I – In this part, we will first review some basic concepts of charge distribution on
conducting parallel plates that we studied in electrostatics.
Consider two parallel conducting plates. One is given charge of +5C and another is given charge of
+7C as shown in the figure.
+5C +7C

1 2 3 4
Let’s calculate charge over surfaces of these two conductors recalling concepts of electrostatics–
Charge on outer surfaces (1 and 4)
Totalcharge given 5  7
   6C
2 2
As charge on surface 1 is + 6C and total charge given to plate is +5C, so charge on surface 2 will be –
1C.
Similarly, charge on surface 4 is +6C and total charge given to plate is +7C, so charge on surface 3
will be +1C.
Our final result will be –

Quiz-6
Consider two metallic plates. Calculate charge on each surface, if
(i) One plate is given +5C and another plate – 5C.

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Sol.

Charge on outer surfaces (1 and 4)

Totalcharge given 5   5 
=  0
2 2
As charge on surface 1 is zero and total charge given to plate is +5C, so charge on surface 2 will be
+5C.
Similarly,
Charge on surface 4 =0
Charge given to plate = –5C
 Charge on surface 3 will be –5C.

(ii) Both the plates are given equal charge of +5C each.
55
Sol. Charge on outer surface (1 and 4)   5C
2
Charge on surface 1 = +5 C
Charge given to plate = +5C
 Charge on surface 2 = 0
Similarly,
Charge on surface 4 = +5C
Charge given to plate = +5C
 Charge on surface 3 = 0

Key Points: -
In above problem we can make two very important observations.
 When charge given to both the plates are equal and opposite then whole charge given to each plate
will come on inner surfaces.
 When charges given to both the plates are equal and of same sign then, whole charge given to each
plate will come on outer surface.
Let’s verify these observations with the help of examples.

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Quiz-7
Two charged plates are placed parallel to each other.
(i) One plate is given charge of +1C and another plate is given charge of –1C. Calculate charge on
each surface.

Sol. Left plate already has (4 + 2) = 6C of charge. If we give it additional +1C of charge then net charge on
plate will become + 7C.
Similarly, on right plate, total charge is (– 2 + 4) = 2C. If we give it additional –1C charge, then net
charge will become 1C.
We can assume this situation as if +7C charge is given to left plate and +1C charge is given to right
plate.
7C 1C

1 2 3 4
Now we can easily solve this problem.
Charge on outer surface (1 and 4) will be –
1 7
  4C
2
Charge on surface 2 will be = 7 – 4 = 3C
Charge on surface 3 will be = 1 – 4 = –3C
4C 3C -3C 4C

(ii) Charge of +1C is given to both the plates. Calculate final charge on all the surfaces.

Sol. Left plate already has (4 + 2) = 6C of charge and additional 1C makes it 7C.
Similarly, right plate already has (–2 + 4) = 2C of charge and additional 1C makes it 3C.

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Assume this situation as if +7C of charge is give to left plate and +3C of charge is given to right plate.
7C 3C

1 2 3 4
Charge on outer surface (1 and 4)
73
  5C
2
Charge on surface 2 = 7 – 5 = 2 C
Charge on surface 3 = 3 – 5 = –2 C
7C 2C -2C 3C

Note - In the above problems we have verified our previous observations.

In case (i) When charge of +1C and –1C was given to the plates, then these charges came on inner
surface and outer charges remained as they were (i.e. +4C).
In case (ii) When charge of +1C was given to each plate, then these charges came on outer surface
and inner charges remained as they were (i.e. +2C and –2C).
The above concept will be very useful in solving many problems.
Now let’s move on to charge distribution on the plates of capacitor.
Consider a capacitive circuit, as shown below.

Once the switch is closed, charge will start to flow from the battery. This charge will now charge the
capacitor.
We know that, if battery is giving some charge from one end, then it will take back equal amount of
charge from the other end. It means it gives equal and opposite charge to both the plates.

We have seen that when equal and opposite charge is given to the conductor, then this charge appears
on inner surfaces and charge on outer surface remains as it was. Therefore, charge on outer surface of
capacitor will remain zero whereas charge on inner surface will be +Q and –Q respectively.

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Quiz-8
Consider two parallel conducting plates, with some charge on them.

Now we connect a battery across them.

Due to this battery, charges on which of the surfaces will get changed (outer or inner)?
Sol. We connected a battery to these plates, it means that we have given +Q charge to one plate and –Q
charge to another plates. So, only inner charges will get changed.
Key Point:-
Only inner charge on capacitor can change due to a battery.
Part II- Consider three cases. Here three capacitors each with capacitance 4F have some charge as
shown in the figure.
2C -2C

Case 1
+4C 2C -2C +4C

Case 2

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 Capacitor

We can see that in all the three cases, inner charge is same but outer charge is different. We have to
calculate V across all the capacitors. To do this, first draw electric field lines for all the cases.

Electric field inside capacitor is same in all the cases as inner charge is same. Whereas electric field
due to outer surface will be different in all the three cases.
V is same across all the capacitors. Let’s understand how.
We know that V is the amount of work done in moving +1C of charge from one point to another. In
this case we can define V as work done in moving +1C of charge from one plate to another.

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In all the cases, this work done is same because work has to be done due to inner electric field lines
only. As inner electric field lines are same in all the cases, so V across all the three capacitors is
same.
Now, let’s calculate V across the capacitor in case 1
Q
Using, V 
C
2 1
 V   V
4 2
While calculating V in case 2 and 3, where capacitor has both inner and outer charges, we should
consider inner charges only as potential difference is only due to them.
Qinner 2 1
V    V
C 4 2
From the above observations we can rewrite our equation of capacitance as–
Qinner
C
V
Capacitance is associated with inner charge only and outer charge does not affect it.
Illustration 17
+5C -5C

+10C
The capacitor had 5C of charge on the inner surface as shown. One plate of this capacitor is
given additional charge of +10C, as shown in the figure. Find V across the capacitor.
For this capacitor C = 6F.
Sol. Think this problem in another way. Suppose, we are giving +15C (10C+5C) of charge to one plate and
–5C of charge to another plate.

+15C -5C
Now we can easily calculate charges on all the surfaces.
15   5 
Charge on outer surfaces =  5C
2
Charge on inner plates are +10C and –10C

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Now we can easily calculate V

Qinner 10 5
i.e., V    V
C 6 3
Illustration 18
A charged capacitor of capacitance 3F is connected across a battery.

(i) Calculate charge on all the surfaces when switch is closed.

Sol. We have studied that due to battery, only inner charge changes. In this case, let new charge on inner
surfaces be q.

To find the value of q we will use equation of capacitor.

Qinner
C
V
q
 3
10
 q = 30 C
(ii) Work done by battery?
Sol. Work done by battery is calculated as
Wbattery = q V
Here, q is the charge flown through the battery.
Initially, charge on capacitor was +2C
Finally, it becomes +30 C.
So, charge flown through battery is = (30 – 2) C = 28 C
So, Wbattery = 28 × 10 = 280 J.
Part -III - In this part we will see some advanced problems of equivalent capacitances.
Suppose three conducting plates, each of area A are placed parallel to each other at distance d. We
have to calculate equivalent capacitance of these plates.

There will be some capacitance between surfaces (2,3) and (4,5) due to charges on them. Let’s say
capacitance between these pairs of surfaces is C1 and C2.

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We can think of this as two capacitors connected in series. We can redraw this figure in form of circuit
diagram –
C1 C2

0A A
Here, C1  and C 2  0
d d
We can see that C1 = C2 = C (say)

C
So, equivalent capacitance of these three plates will be .
2
Illustration 19
In the following figure, four plates each of area A are placed parallel to each other. Calculate the
equivalent capacitance between them.

Sol. We can see that these four plates are making three capacitors connected in series. Capacitance of each
0A
capacitor will be C 
d
So,
C C C
=
C
 Ceq 
3
Illustration 20
In previous problems if we connect two outer plates with a wire, then calculate equivalent
capacitance between terminal X and Y.

Sol. Suppose capacitance of capacitors between these plates are C1, C2 and C3.

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 Capacitor

In current electricity, we studied concept of redrawing of circuit. We can use same concept here also.
Consider one additional terminal Z on wire.
First draw terminal X, Y and Z.

Capacitor C1 is connected between the terminals X and Z–

Capacitor C2 is connected between terminals X and Y

Capacitor C3 is connected between terminal Y and Z.

For all the capacitors A and d are same, so

C1 = C2 = C3 = C (say)

3
Equivalent capacitance between X and Y C is
2

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Illustration 21

Each plate has area A and distance between all the plates is d. Calculate equivalent capacitance
between A and B.
Sol. We can again see that there are three capacitors, say C1, C2 and C3.

We will redraw this circuit.

First draw terminals A and B
A B
Capacitor C1 is connected between terminals A and B.

C2 is connected between A and B

C3 is connected in between A and B.

C1

C3
A B
C2
As C1, C2 and C3 are in parallel so
Ceq = C1 + C2 + C3
As in all the capacitors A and d are same, so
C1 = C2 = C3 = C (say)
 Ceq = 3C

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Illustration 22

Each plate has area A and distance between all the plates are d. Find charge on each surface.
Sol. We can see three capacitors here, say C1, C2 and C3. Also assume three terminals X, Y and Z, as
shown in the figure.

Now, redraw this circuit.

First draw terminal X, Y and Z, and also draw battery between terminals X and Y.

Now, drawn capacitor C1 and C3 which are between terminals (X, Z) and (Y, Z) respectively.

Draw capacitor C2 which is between terminal X and Y.

Now we can easily solve this problem by using either loop analysis or nodal analysis.

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Illustration 23
Three hollow co-centric spheres are given with radius r1, r2 and r3. Calculate capacitance
between point A and B.

Sol. We have already studied that for a spherical capacitor, capacitance is given as –
ab
C
k b  a
Where b is radius of outer sphere and a is radius of inner sphere.
In this case, we have two spherical capacitors: one between inner and middle sphere say C1 and
another between middle and outer sphere say C2.

A
C1 C2

We can clearly see that capacitor C1 and C2 are connected in series.

C1 C2
A B
We can calculate values of C1 and C2 as
r1r2
C1 
k  r2  r1 
r2 r3
C2 
k  r3  r2 
So, equivalent capacitance between A and B is
1 1 1
 
Ceq r1r2 r2r3
k  r2  r1  k  r3  r2 
On solving we get–
r1r2 r3
Ceq 
k  r3r2  r1r2 

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Illustration 24
In previous problem, if point B lies on middle sphere and innermost and outermost spheres are
connected with wire, then calculate equivalent capacitance between A and B.

B
A

Sol. Even in this case we have two capacitors, as shown in the figure.

Let’s redraw this circuit.

Capacitor C1 is connected between terminals A and B.
C1
A B
One terminal of capacitor C2 is connected to B where as another terminal is connected to outer sphere.
Now, see that inner and outer spheres are connected. It means, outer and inner sphere are at same
potential. So, technically outer terminal is also A. It means capacitor C2 is connected in between
terminals A and B.
C1
A B
C2
So, equivalent capacitance will be –
Ceq = C1 + C2
r1r2 r2 r3
Here, C1  and C2 
k  r2  r1  k  r3  r2 
On substituting value of of C1 and C2 we can calculate Ceq
r22  r3  r1 
Ceq 
k  r2  r1  r3  r2  

4.10 Dielectric
Dielectric is basically insulator like air, glass, plastic, etc. Before we start with detailed study of
dielectric we will understand some important points.
4.10.1 Dielectric Strength-
We know that in conductors, electrons are free to move but in insulators, they are fixed. Consider a
positively charged sphere placed in vacuum. There will be some electric field in the space around the

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sphere. It means, if we place a small charge at any point (say A) close to sphere then it will experience
some force F, as shown in the figure.

Now, we fill this vacuum with air (which is a dielectric). There will be molecules of air all around the
sphere. A molecule comprises of both positive and negative charge. Due to this charged sphere,
electrons present in air molecules will experience attractive force and nuclei of molecules which
contain protons will experience repulsive force.

These two forces are acting in opposite directions. As we increase charge of sphere, attractive and
repulsive forces on molecules will also increase. A point will come when charge on sphere is
sufficient to separate electrons from molecules i.e. molecules gets ionized. As air around the sphere
gets ionized and electrons of air molecules are now free, air surrounding sphere is no more a
dielectric. We can roughly say that it has become conductor.
Dielectric strength is the minimum value of electric field for which an insulator gets ionized and
becomes conductor.

Quiz-9
In the following figure three dotted circles represent three regions r1, r2 and r3 surrounding a
charged sphere. This sphere is surrounded by air. Air of which region will get ionized first?

Sol. Electric field due to sphere is strongest closer to surface of sphere. So air in region r1will get ionized
first.
Illustration 25
Dielectric strength of air is 2 ×106 N/C. A solid sphere is given some charge Q. For what value of
Q, will air around this sphere get ionized?
(i) when Q = 100 C
(ii) When Q = 1000 C
Radius of sphere is 1m.
Sol. When Q = 100 C, electric field closest to the surface of sphere will be–

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 Capacitor

kQ 9 10  100 10 

9 6

E=  = 9 × 105 N/m
r2 12
When Q = 1000C, E will be 10 times more.
 E = 9 × 106 N/m
When Q = 100 C, E < 2 × 106 N/C
and when Q = 1000 C, E > 2 × 106 N/C
When charge on sphere is 1000 C, air around it will get ionized.
 In rainy season, we see lightning in the sky. This lightning is phenomena of the dielectric.

Clouds in the sky rub with each other and get charged due to friction. When charge on clouds is large,
the air molecules between clouds and ground get ionized. Then charges flow from clouds, down to the
ground. We see this flow of charges in the form of lightning.

This flow of charge from cloud to ground is called chrona discharge. Chrona discharge is flow of
charge due to ionization of insulator.
4.11 Polar and Non Polar Substances -
All the substances can be broadly classified into two categories, polar and non-polar.
Polar substances have some dipole moment, like HCl. In HCl molecule, negative charge is shifted
towards Cl atom and H atom has some positive charge. Therefore, there is some net dipole moment in
HCl molecule.

Similarly, H2O is also a polar molecule. It has some negative charge shifted towards oxygen atom and
some positive charge on H atoms.

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Non-Polar substances don’t have any dipole moment like chlorine gas. In C2 both atoms of C have
equal charge, hence dipole on C2 molecule is zero.

Similarly, H2 is also non polar.

4.12 Polarization of Dielectric

4.12.1 Polar Dielectrics –
We have seen that molecules of polar dielectric have some dipole moment. Consider a cuboidal polar
dipole, as shown in the figure. Initially all the dipoles are oriented randomly.

What will happen if we put this dielectric in external electric field?

We have already seen that when a dipole is placed in an external electric field, it rotates and aligns
 
 
horizontally such that dipole moment P and E become parallel.

Thus, all the molecules of dielectric will align themselves parallel to E, as shown in the figure.
E
_ _ _
+

_ _ _
+

_ _ _
+

_ _ _
+

_ _ _
+

_ _ _
+

When there was no electric field, net dipole moment of all the molecules was zero. But once electric
field is turned on, the net dipole of this dielectric is non-zero. This phenomenon is called polarization
of polar substances.
We can draw equivalent diagram of the above dielectric.

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4.12.2 Non-Polar Dielectrics –

We have seen that molecules of non-polar dielectric do not have any dipole moment. Consider a
cuboidal non-polar dielectric.

What will happen when we put this dielectric in electric field? First let’s observe a single molecule of
non-polar substance. We can think that positive and negative centres of this molecule are at the same
point.

When this molecule is placed in E, these positive and negative centres will experience forces in
opposite directions. Due to these forces, these positive and negative centres will displace and thus
atom will elongate and dipole will be created.

Similarly, all the molecules of dielectric will develop dipole moments when kept in electric field.

-
This process is called polarization of non-polar substances.
Even in this case we can draw equivalent of this system.

Equivalent of polarized polar substance is exactly similar to equivalent of non-polar substance.

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4.12.3 Polarization –
We have seen the process of polarization of both polar as well as non-polar dielectrics.
In case of polarization of polar dielectrics, dipoles are already there but oriented randomly. On
applying electric field they get aligned.
In case of non-polar dielectrics, initially there are no dipoles but when electric field is applied, dipoles
are created.
However, net effect in both the situations is the same. In both the situations, dipoles are oriented
parallel to electric field and the dielectrics get induced charges on the opposite faces.
Now, here we can define a mathematical relation for polarization.
Total dipole moment
Polarization (P) =
Volume of dielectric
Here, total dipole moment is sum of all the dipole moments present inside the dielectric. This formula
is valid for both polar and non-polar dielectrics.
There is another important relation–
Polarization (P) = E
We can see that PE. As we increase E, P will also increase.
We can verify this physically –
In case of polar dielectric, if more electric field is applied, dipoles will be aligned more which means
net dipole will be more.
In case of non-polar dielectric if more electric field is applied then more dipoles will be created. It will
result into more net dipole hence more polarization.
In this equation we can see one more terms . It is a constant called electric susceptibility. Value of
this constant depends upon nature of material of dielectric.
4.13 Dielectric Inside Capacitor
In this section, we will study behaviour of capacitor when dielectric is inserted between its plates.
First consider a parallel plate capacitor which has vacuum between its plates.

Now, we fill this vacuum with dielectric. We have already seen that, due to polarization, some charge
will be induced on the surface of this dielectric, say (q).

Value of induced charge is very small, q < Q.

Now we will draw electric field lines of capacitor.

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In the above figure, we can see that some electric field lines originating from positive plate of
capacitor will terminate at one face of dielectric and some will terminate at negative plate of capacitor.
But why are all the field lines not terminating at dielectric? As induced charge on dielectric is less
therefore, less field lines will terminate at it. Charge on plate of capacitor is more, it means more field
lines will be coming out of plate, remaining field lines are terminating at negative plate of capacitor.
Observe one more thing, number of field lines terminating at one face of dielectric is equal to number
of field lines originating at other face of dielectric and all these field lines are terminating at negative
plate of capacitor.
We can notice one more thing. Electric field inside dielectric is not the same as outside dielectric.

Let’s call E inside the dielectric to be Ei

And E outside the dielectric to be Eo.
Here, we define a term called dielectric constant.
Eo
K=
Ei
Value of K is always greater than or equals to 1 as Eo  Ei
We can understand significance of K physically.
Suppose, K = 2
Eo
 2  E o  2E i
Ei
It means, electric field inside dielectric will be half of electric field outside.

Quiz-10
Suppose a dielectric with K=3 is inserted between parallel plate capacitor (charge Q1)
(i) Draw electric field lines of this new system.
Sol. As, K = 3
Eo
 3
Ei
  E o  3Ei
It means electric field lines outside dielectric will be 3 times more than electric field inside dielectric.

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So, if we say that total 9 field lines were originating from positive plate of capacitor then only 3
lines will enter into the dielectric.

(ii) What will be the value of charge induced on dielectric?

Q 2Q
(A) (B)
3 3
Sol.

You must be thinking that as dielectric constant is 3 so induced charge will be one third of charge on
capacitor.
Q
 q
3
But this logic is absolutely wrong. As K = 3, it means that E inside dielectric is three times less than E
outside. From this it cannot be inferred that charge has also become one third of charge on capacitor.
Let’s see how to calculate value of q. Suppose x number of field lines are originating from capacitor.
2
Now, two field lines out of three are terminating at dielectric i.e. x . For example in our case, total
3
2
9 field lines were originating from capacitor and number of lines terminating is 6 i.e.  9   6 .
3
2Q
It means if charge on capacitor is Q then induced charge on dielectric should be .
3
We can use the following formula to calculate induced charge on capacitor –
Q
q=Q-
K
Illustration 26
Consider the following system.

Here two dielectrics D1 and D2 are inserted between parallel plate capacitor. Charge on
capacitor is Q.

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 Capacitor

(i) Draw electric field lines for the given system.

Sol. Suppose 8 field lines are coming out of capacitor. Total field lines passing through D1 should be half
of electric field lines outside i.e.4.
In dielectric D2, field lines passing through it should be one fourth of field lines outside i.e.2.
Now, we can easily draw electric field line for the given system.

(ii) Calculate q1 and q2.

Sol. q1 and q2 are induced charges on dielectric, so we can directly use formula to calculate them.
Q
q  Q
K
Q Q
 q1  Q  
2 2
Q 3Q
q2  Q  
4 4

Quiz-11
Suppose we insert a conductor between capacitor.
(i) Draw electric field lines for this system.
Sol. We have done same type of problem in conductors also.

All the field lines that were originating from capacitor will terminate at one face of conductor. At the
other face, all the electric field lines will again originate and terminate at negative terminal of
capacitor. Electric field inside capacitor will be zero.
(ii) Calculate K for conductor.
Sol. We have seen that –
Eo
K
Ei
As Ei = 0,
 K=
This is very important result. Dielectric constant for conductors is infinity.

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(iii) Calculate induced charge on surface of conductor.

Sol. We have seen that –
Q
q  Q
K
As, K = 
 q=Q
4.14 Electric field inside Capacitor -
Consider a parallel plate capacitor with vacuum between them. Suppose, charge density of plates is 
and charge on them is Q. Area of plates is A.

At any point inside capacitor, electric field will be due to positive plate and negative plate of
capacitor, say E+ and E– respectively.

So, net electric field E inside capacitor will be –

E = E+ + E–
 
 E  
20 20
 Q
  E 
 0 A 0
Here, Q is charge on plate of capacitor and A is area of plate.
Now, suppose we insert dielectric of dielectric constant K in between the plates. Then what will be the
change in E?

Still the value of E outside the dielectric will remain but E inside dielectric will change.
0
Eo
K
Ei
E 
 Ei  o 
K 0 K
We can write, 0 K = 

 Ei 

0 is called permittivity of vacuum and  is called permittivity of dielectric.

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 Capacitor

4.15 Equivalent Capacitance with Dielectric –

Consider a capacitor having charge Q and vacuum between the plates. Area of plate of capacitor is A.
Its capacitance is given as –
0A
C
d
Now, suppose we fill this vacuum with a dielectric of dielectric constant K.

Capacitance C ' of this capacitor will be given as

Q
C' 
V
Here, Q =  A and V = Ed
A
 C' 
Ed

as, E 
0 K
A  A
 C'   K 0 
    d 
 d
 0 K 
 C'=KC
Illustration 27
Calculate capacitance for the given system.

Q
Sol. Capacitance  C  
V
Here, Q is charge on plates of capacitor.
So, Q = A
V is potential difference between two plates. We can write this as sum of V1 and V2 where V1
is potential difference between positive plate and dielectric and V2 is potential difference between
dielectric and negative plate.

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A
 CS 
 V1  V2 
d
Now, V1 = E d =
0
Here,E is electric field between positive plate of capacitor and dielectric.
d
V2 = E'd =
0 K
Here, E’ is electric field between dielectric and negative plate of capacitor.
A A
 CS  
d d d  1
 1
 0 0 K 0  K 
A
 CS 
d  1
1  
0  K 
A  K 
 CS  0   
d  1 K 
This is the capacitance of this system. But this method of calculating capacitance is very complicated
and lengthy. We can solve this in one more way. Consider this system as combination of two
different capacitors C1 and C2.

We can see that both these capacitors are connected in series. They can be represented in circuit as
shown below.
C1 C2

Now we can easily calculate value of C1 and C2 individually.

0A
C1 
d

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 Capacitor

K0A
C2 
d
1 1 1 d d d  1 d  K 1
      1     
Ceq C1 C2 0 A K0 A 0 A  K  0 A  K 
0 A  K 
 Ceq   
d  K 1 
Illustration 28
Calculate capacitance for the given system.

Sol. We can think this system as combination of three capacitors C1, C2 and C3 connected in series.

1 1 1 1
  
Ceq C1 C2 C3
 A 3 A
Where C1  0  0
d d
3
A 6 A
C2  0 K  0
d d
3
A 9 A
C3  0 K  0
d d
3
1 d 1 1 1  d 6 3 2
    
Ceq  0A  3 6 9   0 A  18 

18 0 A
Ceq 
11 d

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Illustration 29
Calculate capacitance for given system.

Sol. We can think of this circuit as combination of two capacitors connected in parallel.

So, Ceq = C1 + C2
 0A / 2 3 A
Here C1  K 0
d 2d
0A / 2 0A
And C2  K
d d
 A  3  5 A
 Ceq  0   1  0
d 2  2d
Illustration 30
Calculate capacitance of the given system.

Sol. We can clearly see that this system is combination of three capacitors C1, C2 and C3.

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 Capacitor

A
0
Here, C1  2 K  20 A
d d
2
A
0
And C2  2 K  30 A
d d
2
0 A
C3  2
d
As, C1 and C2 are in series so –
1 d d
 
C' 20 A 30 A
6 A
 C'  0
5d
Now, C ' and C3 are in parallel.
60 A  0 A 17 0 A
 Ceq   
5d 2d 10d
Illustration 31
In the given diagram, dielectric of thickness d/2, is inserted between the plates of capacitor.
Plates of capacitor are separated by distance d. What will be the equivalent capacitance of the
system if dielectric is not placed anywhere between the plates?

Sol. Suppose distance between negative plate of capacitor and one face of dielectric is x, then distance
d
between positive plate of capacitor and dielectric will be x .
2

We can think of this circuit as combination of three capacitors C1, C2 and C3 connected in series.

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Mr. Neetin Agrawal

Now we can find out values of C1, C2 and C3.

0A
C1 
d
x
2
A 4 A
C2  0 K  0
d2 d
A
C3  0
x
1 1 1 1 d 2  x d x
      
Ceq C1 C2 C3 0A 4 0 A  0 A
1 d d  3d
   x   x 
0 A  2 4  40 A
4 A
 Ceq  0
3d
Note that in this case, value of equivalent capacitance is independent of x. It means that if we move
dielectric inside capacitor then it's capacitance will not change. We can state this important result as
"capacitance does not change on moving dielectric inside capacitor".

Quiz-12
Consider a spherical capacitor. Initially, there is vacuum between the plates of capacitor. Now
suppose we insert a dielectric of constant K in between the plates. Calculate new capacitance of
this capacitor.
Sol. This concept is similar to that we have studied in case of parallel plate capacitor.

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 Capacitor

Initially, when there is vacuum in the capacitor, capacitance is given as –

40 ab
C
b  a
When we insert dielectric capacitance is -
4 0ab
C'  K = CK
b  a
Illustration 32
In a spherical capacitor two different dielectrics of K = 2 and K = 3 are inserted, as shown in the
figure. We have to calculate equivalent capacitance of the system.

We can see that this capacitor is combination of two spherical capacitors which are connected in
series.

4 0  a  c  40 a c
C1  K  2
c  a  ca
Similarly,
40  c  b  40 c b
C2  K  3
b c bc
CC
Ceq  1 2
C1  C2
On substituting values of C1 and C2, we will get our answer.
40ab
Ceq  Check
b  a
4.16 Variable Dielectric Constant
Till now we studied dielectrics having constant value of K. Now, we will study special type of
dielectrics having variable value of K.
Here, we can study two cases,

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Mr. Neetin Agrawal

Case I – Dielectric constant varies vertically

A dielectric is inserted between the plates of capacitor. Value of dielectric varies by relation K = 2y
+1. We have to calculate capacitance of this capacitor.

Assume that length and breadth of a plate of capacitor and dielectric are 5m and 4m respectively.
We can see that value of dielectric is changing with value of y. When we increase value of y, value of
K also increases.
At y = 0, i.e. at the lowest point, K = 1
At y = 1, K = 3
At y = 5, i.e. at the highest point, K = 11

Here, we can see that value of K is increasing from 1 to 11 with increase in height. To better
understand these types of problems, let’s see another small problem. In the given below diagram four
different dielectrics are inserted between plates of capacitor, each having different value of K. We can
see that this circuit is combination of four different capacitors, say C1, C2 , C3 and C4 connected in
parallel.

 Ceq = C1 + C2 + C3 + C4.
This simple situation is same as our main problem. In both the cases, K varies vertically but here K
varies in a discreet manner. In the main problem, as the variation of K is continuously, we need to use
integration.

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 Capacitor

In the given figure, we have taken an elemental capacitor as shown. It means we have infinite such
capacitors connected in parallel combination.
Capacitance of this small element will be dC –
0dA  dA
So, dC   K  0  2y  1
d 4
Now we will find out value of this small area dA of capacitor. Breadth of plate of capacitor is given
4m and length of this small element of plate is dy.
So, dA = 4dy
Small capacitance of this small element will be
0  4dy  2y  1
dC 
4
4 0
 C  2y  1 dy
4
Range of integration will be from y = 0 to y = 5.
5
 C   0   2y  1 dy
0
5
 2y 2 
 0   y  = 0 [25 + 5] = 300
 2 0
So, we have to use integration to calculate capacitance of system where K is not uniform.

Case II – Dielectric varies horizontally

Suppose we have a dielectric whose dielectric constant can be given as K = 2x+1. Contrary to the
previous case, dielectric is varying horizontally.

To better understand these types of problems, let’s see another small problem. In the given diagram
three different dielectrics are inserted between plates of capacitor, each having different value of K.

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Mr. Neetin Agrawal

This circuit is a combination of three capacitor C1, C2 and C3 connected in series.

1 1 1 1
   
Ceq C1 C2 C3
In this situation and our problem, dielectric is varying horizontally. But in this case dielectric is
varying in a discreet manner and in our problem dielectric is varying continuously. So again we will
solve our problem using integration.
Suppose, in this situation we have infinite elemental dielectrics placed parallel to each other. In means
we have infinite capacitors connected in series combination.

0 A   5  4  2x  1 20 0  2x  1
dC  K  0 
dx dx dx
Such small elemental capacitors are connected in series. We can sum them using integration.
1 1 dx
  
Ceq dC 20 0  2x  1
As the distance between plates is 4m, limit of integration will be from x = 0 to x = 4
4
1 
4
1 dx 1 1
     log  2x  1   log 9
20  0 0 2x  1 20 0  2  0 40 0
40 0
 Ceq 
log 9
4.17 Circuits containing capacitor with dielectric-
Now we will see some circuits in which capacitors with dielectrics are connected.
Illustration 33
Initially, two capacitors C1 and C2 with capacitance 2F each are connected in series with a 10V
battery. A dielectric (K = 2) is inserted in capacitor C1.

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 Capacitor

Find-
(i) Charge on both the capacitors.
Sol. When we insert dielectric in capacitor then it’s capacitance also changes. The new capacitance of
capacitor C1 will be –
C1' = KC1 = 2 × 2
=4F

As capacitors C1' and C2 are connected in series, so charge on both of them will be same (say q).

To calculate the charge q, we can use loop analysis.

q q
10   0
4 2
40
 q  C  13.33C
3
(ii) Charge flown through battery on putting dielectric.
Sol. Calculate charge on capacitors when dielectric was not inserted.

Suppose, charge on capacitors C1 and C2 is q1. To calculate value of q1we can use loop analysis.
q1 q1
 10   0
2 2
 q1 = 10 C
We can see that initially charge on capacitors was 10C and when dielectric was inserted then charge
on capacitors became 13.33C. It means charge flown through battery on putting dielectric was 13.33 C
–10 C = 3.33 C.

Quiz-13
Consider two cases. In the first case, a capacitor with capacitance C is given. Charge on this
capacitor is Q. In the second case, a dielectric with dielectric constant K is inserted in the
capacitor.

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Mr. Neetin Agrawal

We have to find out the change in the following quantities.

(i) Capacitance(C)
Sol. We have already seen that when we insert dielectric between capacitor, then new capacitance is equal
to ‘K’ times of initial capacitance.
C ' = KC
(ii) Charge (Q)
Sol. If initially charge on capacitor was Q, then after inserting dielectric, charge will still remain Q. The
reason behind this is, we are not disturbing charges we are just inserting a dielectric in between the
plates.
(iii) Potential (V)
Sol. If initially potential across capacitor is V then it can be calculated as
Q
V
C
On inserting dielectric, new potential (V ') will be –
Q V
V'  
KC K
1
It means change in potential across capacitor on inserting dielectric is equal to times of initial
K
potential difference across capacitor.
(iv) Energy
1 Q2
Sol. Initial Energy =
2 C
1 Q 2 1 Q2
Final Energy = 
2 C ' 2 KC
Energy initial 
 Energy (final) =
K
(v) Electric field

Sol. Einitially =
0

Efinal = [We have already seen that]
0 K

Quiz-14
In the previous case, if we connect the capacitor with battery then find out the changes in the
following quantities.

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 Capacitor

(i) Capacitance(C)
Sol. C ' = KC
(ii) Potential (V)
Sol. Potential difference across capacitor will not change and will remain V as battery of EMF V is
connected across the capacitor.
(iii) Charge (Q)
Sol. Initially, charge on capacitor was Q.
 Q = CV
Finally, charge on capacitor is –
 Q ' = (KC) V = KCV
Final charge = K(Initial charge) = KQ
Note: This is very important point.
When battery is not connected across the capacitor then charge on capacitor remains same but
potential changes.
When battery is connected across the capacitor then potential across capacitor remains same but
charge changes.
(iv) Energy
1
Sol. Energy (initial) =CV 2
2
1
Energy (final) =  KC  V
2

2
Energy (final ) = K (Energy(initial))
Note: In previous case energy was reduced K times, in this case energy has increased K times.
(v) Electric field
 Q
Sol. E (initial) = 
0 0 A
'
E (final) =
0 K
Q K
Here, ' 
A
Q K  Q
 E (final)  
 0 KA  0 A
So, we can see that E (initial) = E (final).

4.18 Inserting/ Removing dielectric from capacitor

To understand this topic, we’ll break it into small parts.
Part I – Fringing effect

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Mr. Neetin Agrawal

Till now we have seen that between two plates of parallel plate capacitor, electric field lines are drawn
like this –

But this is not accurate. Actually, these field lines would be accurate when these parallel plates are
infinitely large. But in case of capacitor, these plates are of finite length. Electric field between then
should be drawn as shown in the figure.

This bending of field lines at top and bottom of capacitor is called fringing effect. Although we
usually ignore this fringing effect but here in this part we will analyze it in detail.
Let’s see an interesting phenomena related to this concept. Suppose, a dielectric is inserted inside the
capacitor. Now, we pull out a small portion of dielectric out of the capacitor as shown in the figure.

Will this dielectric experience any force due to capacitor? If yes then in which direction?
Let’s draw field lines due to capacitor at the bottom.

This dielectric will experience some force due to this electric field. We can see from the diagram that
at right face of dielectric, there are some positive induced charges. Similarly, at left face of dielectric
there are some negative induced charges. Positive charge on right face will experience force along the
electric field lines and negative charge on left face will experience force in opposite direction to that
of electric field lines as drawn in the figure.

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 Capacitor

So, net force experienced by the dielectric due to these two forces will be in upward direction i.e.
inside the capacitor.
Similarly, if we would have pulled out small position of capacitor from top then capacitor would have
again pulled it inside.
So, we can conclude that a capacitor pulls the dielectric inside.
Illustration 34

Here Fmax is the force applied by man in pulling dielectric out of the capacitor. Calculate work
done by man in pulling this dielectric out of this capacitor completely.
Sol. Initially, dielectric was completely inside capacitor. We can calculate energy of this capacitor.
1 Q 2 1 10 
2

Energyinitial =  = 2.5 J
2 C 2  20 
When dielectric is taken out of the capacitor, it’s capacitance will change.
C'=KC
C'
 C=
K
20
 C  5F
4
Now, we will calculate energy of capacitor when dielectric is taken out completely.
1 Q 2 1 10 
2

Energy final    10 J
2 C 2 5
We can see that initially energy was 2.5 J and finally it became 10J. It means energy of capacitance
has increased. This increase in energy is actually the work done by man.
 Work done by man = Energy
= 10 – 2.5 = 7.5J
Illustration 35
In the following circuit calculate work done by man in pulling out the dielectric completely.

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Mr. Neetin Agrawal

Sol. First, we will check that work done by man is positive or negative. As, displacement and force both
are in same direction, so work done will be positive in this case.
Let’s calculate initial energy of capacitor.
1 1
Energyinitial  C 'V 2   20 10  = 1000 J
2

2 2
Now, we will calculate final energy of the capacitor.

1
Energyfinal  CV 2
2
C ' 20
Here, C    5F
K 4
1
 510  = 250 J
2
 Energy final =
2
So, work done by man = (Energy)
= (Energy) final – (Energy) initial
= 250 – 1000
= – 750 J
Work done by man is coming out to be negative but we analyzed that work done by man should be
positive. It means we have done something wrong.
Actually, in the formula of work done i.e.
Work done = (Energy)
we also have to consider work done by battery. In previous problem there was no battery so this
formula was applicable but here we cannot use that.
The correct formula will be –
Wman + Wbattery = (Energy)capacitor ...(1)
As, Wbattery = q V
Here, q is the charge flown through the battery.
First, we have to find value of q. Initially, when there was dielectric in capacitor then charge on it
was–
q initial = C'V = 20 × 10 = 200 C
Finally, when dielectric was removed, charge on capacitor was –
q final = CV

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 Capacitor

 20 
   10   50 C
 4
So, charge flown through battery is –
= qfinal – qinitial
= 50 – 200
= – 150 C
So, Wbattery = (– 150) (10) = – 1500 J
Now, we can easily calculate W man from equation (1) –
Wman + (– 1500) = 250 – 1000
 Wman = –750 + 1500 = 750 J
Key Points:-
 Wman = (Energy)capacitor [when battery not connected]
 Wman + Wbattery = (Energy)capacitor [when battery is connected]
Part - II - Force of capacitor on dielectric.
Case – 1: When battery is not connected across the capacitor.
We have just studied that capacitor pulls the dielectric inside. Now, we will calculate the force applied
by the capacitor in pulling the dielectric inside.
Consider a capacitor with square plates of length l, distance between plates is d. suppose a dielectric is
partially outside the capacitor. Length of dielectric inside the capacitor is x.

As this dielectric is partially outside the capacitor it means capacitor will exert force on it to pull it in.
To calculate this force first we will find out capacitance of this system.
At length x of plate of capacitor there is a dielectric and at length (l – x), there is no dielectric. We can
imagine this system as combination of two capacitors, both connected in parallel.

C = C1 + C2
A1 A
 0  0 2 K
d d

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Mr. Neetin Agrawal

Here, A1 = l × (l – x)
A2 = l × x
0 
 C l  l  x    l  x  K   l 0  l  x  xK 
d  d
So, we can see that value of capacitance depends on x, it means value of capacitance changes when x
increases or decreases.
dC
Let’s find out . We will require this quantity later in this derivation.
dx
dC d  0    K  1
 l l  x  xK  l 0 ... (1)
dx dx  d  d
Now, imagine that man is slowly pulling this dielectric out of this capacitor. If we are saying that man
is pulling out this dielectric slowly it means he is pulling it out with force slightly greater than that of
Fcap. Suppose man has pulled out dielectric by a small distance dx. To pull out dielectric, man must
have done some small amount of work say dW man.
If man has done dW man work then energy of man must have reduced and this energy is now stored in
the capacitor. So we can write that–
Work done by man = increase in energy of capacitor.
dW man = d(Energy)
 Fman dx = d (Energy)
But here Fman ≈ – Fcap. [Approximately equal but opposite in direction.]
 – Fcap dx = d (Energy)
d(Energy)
 Fcap 
dx
We have studied three formulas to calculate E. Here we will substitute –
1 Q2
Energy 
2 C
Note :- Reason behind using this formula for E is: as capacitor is not connected with battery, Q
will be constant whereas V may vary. So, to simplify calculations, we will use formula which
contains Q and not V.
d  1 Q2  Q2 d  1  Q2 dC
  Fcap     
dx  2 C  2 dx  C  2C 2 dx
1 2 dC  Q
 Fcap V  as V  
2 dx  C
dC
We can substitute value of from equation (1).
dx
1  l
 Fcap  V 2 0  K  1
2 d
Remember, this formula is applicable only for capacitor whose plates are square.
Case-2: Battery connected across capacitor.
Consider situation exactly similar to previous one but here we have connected a battery of EMF, V
across capacitor.

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 Capacitor

Again, we will follow the same procedure.

As this dielectric is partially outside the capacitor, it means, capacitor will exert force F on it to pull it
in.
To calculate this force, first we will find out capacitance of this system.
As before, capacitance for this capacitor will be –
0
C l l  x  xK 
d
dC l 0
   K  1 ... (1)
dx d
As battery will also do work in this case,
 dW man + dW battery= d(Energy)
 Fmandx = d (Energy) – (dQ) V
[dQ is small amount of charge flown through the battery]
d(Energy) V  dQ 
 Fman  
dx dx
1
Here, we will substitute Energy  CV . Now we are using this formula of energy because in this
2

2
case V is constant and Q is variable.
d 1  dQ
 Fman   CV2   V
dx  2  dx
d 1  d  CV 
 Fman   CV 2   V
dx  2  dx
2
V dC dC
 Fman   V2
2 dx dx
V 2  dC 
 Fman  
2  dx 
V 2  dC 
  Fcap 
2  dx 

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Mr. Neetin Agrawal

dC
From equation (1) substituting value of
dx
1 2 0 l
  Fcap  V  K  1
2 d
Note that no matter if battery is connected to the capacitor or not, we get the same formula in both the
cases.
Till now we have studied resistive circuits and capacitive circuits. Now we will study combination of
both i.e. Resistive-Capacitive circuits (R-C circuits).
Some Important R-C Circuits -
4.19 Charging Circuits –
This is a very common type of R-C Circuit. In this circuit, one resistance and one capacitor are
connected in series with a battery.

We will analyse this circuit physically. For that we will use nodal analysis.

If we assume node A at zero potential then potential of remaining nodes will be as shown in the
figure.
Node C is connected to the capacitor which is initially uncharged. It means potential difference across
capacitors is zero. So, potential at C will also be zero initially.
Potential difference across resistor is –
VDC = VD – VC
= 10 – 0 = 10 V
So, at time t = 0 current through resistor is –
VDC 10
  5A
R 2
As node D is at higher potential, so current will flow from node D to node C.
The same current will flow through the capacitor, so it will start to gain some charge.
After some time (say t = t0), suppose this capacitor gets charge q.

As capacitor is now charged so there will be some potential difference across it. It means potential at
C is not zero anymore. Assume potential at C to be V. As the time will pass, value of charge (q) on

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 Capacitor

capacitor will also increase. As q increases, V also increases. As V increases, potential difference
across R decreases. Thus current in the circuit decreases.
This is an important conclusion that the circuit will have a decaying current. Now, we will analyse the
circuit mathematically.

At any time t, assume that current in circuit is i and charge on capacitor is q. Apply loop analysis in
this circuit.
q
EiR  0 ... (1)
C
Here, i and q are variables.
dq
We know that, i 
dt
 dq  q
 E  R   0
 dt  C
q  dq 
 E    R
C  dt 
dq CE  q
 
dt RC
dq dt
 
CE  q RC
dq dt
  CE  q   RC
At t = 0, charge on capacitor was zero,
at any time t, charge on capacitor will be q (say)
So, limit of t will be 0  t
and limit of q will be 0  q
q t
dq dt
 0 CE  q  0 RC
1
 n  CE  q   o  t
q t

RC o
CE  q t
 n 
CE RC
 q  t
 n 1  
 CE  RC
t
q 
 1  e RC
CE

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Mr. Neetin Agrawal

 
t

 q = CE  1  e RC 
 
We can plot q versus t graph for this equation.

We can see that,

at t = 0, q = 0
at t = , q = CE

Still we have to calculate the value of i.

dq
As, i 
dt
d  
t

 i   CE  1  e RC  
dt   
E  RCt
 i= e
R
We can plot current – time graph –

E
At, t = 0, i 
R
At, t = , i.e. after very long time, i = 0
We can see that in the formulas of q and i there is a common term ‘RC’. This term is called time
constant and represented by . But why are we calling product of resistance and capacitance as time
constant?
In previous class you must have studied in chapter of unit and dimensions that dimension of power
raised over exponent (e) is one.
t
It means dimension of is one.
RC
If dimension of numerator is [T] then dimension of denominator should also be [T].
As dimension of RC is [T] and its value is constant, so it is called time constant.
Illustration 36
Consider the following circuit.

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 Capacitor

(a) Find i at t = 1s
E  RCt
Sol. As, i  e
R
t
5  2 10 5  1
 i  e     e 20 = 2.37 A
2 2
(b) Find time when q is half of final value.
Sol. Final value of q is value of q at t = 
t 
 
 q final = CE( 1 – e RC ) = CE (1– e RC )
 q final = CE
q final CE
We have to find t when q  
2 2
CE  
t

So,  CE  1  e RC 
2  
1  
t

   1  e  2 10 
2  

t
 1
 e 20 
2
t 1
   log
20 2
  t = 6.02 s
4.20 Discharging of Circuit –
Consider the following circuit.

Let’s analyze this circuit. Initially, as the circuit is charged, therefore on connecting it with resistor
some current will flow through this circuit. Suppose at time t, current in circuit is i.

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Mr. Neetin Agrawal

We can assuming direction of current anti-clockwise. We can write equation of loop.

q
 i R  0 ... (1)
C
Again in this equation we can write value of i as
dq
i
dt
But this equation is not correct. As value of charge is decreasing with time, so
dq
i
dt
Substituting this value of i in equation (1) –
 dq  q
    R   0
 dt  C
dq q
 R
dt C
dq dt
 
q RC
dq dt
  q    RC
Let’s see limit of this integration. At t = 0, charge is q0 and at t = t charge is unknown so we will
write it as q.
q t
dq dt
 
q0 q
 
o RC
t

 n q qq0    
t

 RC  o
 q  t
 n    
 q0  RC
t
 q = q0 e RC ... (2)
Now, we will find out value of current at time t.
dq
As, i
dt
Substitute value of q from equation (2) –
d 
t

i  0
q e RC

dt  

t
q0
 i= e RC
RC
Graph for q versus t and i versus t will be –

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 Capacitor

Illustration 37
In the given circuit, switch is in position 1 for long time. Find current through capacitor 2 sec
after the switch is put in position 2.

Sol. We can see that initially when switch was in position 1 for long time, capacitor was charged
completely. When the switch was changed from position 1 to 2, capacitor started to discharge.
Let’s redraw circuit when switch was in position 1.

As switch has been in position 1, for long time it means we have to take time t = .
So, charge on capacitor will be –
 
t

q  CE 1  e RC 
 
 


  2 10   1  e RC   20 C
 
Now, when we change position of switch from 1 to 2, then circuit will look like this -

This is discharging circuit. We have to find current through this circuit, 2 sec after the position of
switch has been changed.
So, here t = 2s

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Mr. Neetin Agrawal

q 0   RCt 
Using, i e 
RC  
20    2  2  
2 1

i e  5 e 2 A
 2  2   

Illustration 38
Find heat produced in the circuit from time t = 0 to t = .

Sol. This is a charging circuit so initially some current will flow in it. Due to this current some heat will be
produced in resistor R.
For any resistor, heat produced per unit time is called power.
P = i2 R
dH 2
 i R
dt
 dH = i2 R dt
 H   i 2 R dt
Current (i) for this circuit is –
E  RCt
i e
R
2

 E  RCt 
 H  e  R dt
o R 
On solving this integration we will see that R gets cancelled out and final result on substituting values
is 250 J.
We can also solve this problem by using concept of energy.
First we will calculate charge on this capacitor at t = 
 
t

q = CE 1  e RC

 
 


= (5) (10) 1  e RC
 = 50 C
 
Now we can calculate energy of capacitor at t = 
1 q 2 1  50 
2

Energy t =  =    250 J
2 C 2 5
Now we will calculate work done by battery,
As, Wbattery = q E
Initially, capacitors were uncharged, so charge was zero, at t =  charged on capacitor become 50 C.
 Wbattery = 50 (10) = 500 J.

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 Capacitor

It means work done by battery was 500 J out of which 250 J was stored in capacitor and remaining
250 J was converted into heat.
Heat = Wbattery – Energy of capacitor
= 500 – 250 = 250 J
We can observe two important points here.
1. We can see that in both the methods to calculate heat in resistance, value of resistor was not required.
We can say that heat produced in this circuit from t = 0 to t =  does not depends on R.
2. Out of total work done by battery, half is stored in capacitor and half heats up the resistor.
Illustration 39
In the following circuit, calculate heat produced from t = 0 to t = 1s.

Sol. We will use method of integration here

As, P = i2 R
dH 2
 i R
dt
1
 H   i 2 R dt
0
2
E  t 
1
   e RC  R dt
0R 
2
 10  
1 2t
    e RC R dt
0
R
 
2

On integrating we get 250 1  e 5R

 
Notice that this time heat produced is dependent on R where as in previous problem we saw that
heat produced in resistor is independent of R. Actually in previous case we calculated heat from time
t = 0 to t =  but when we calculate heat produced in any finite amount of time then answer depends
on R.
We can write this as “Heat produced does not depend on R for t = 0 to t = . For any other time
internal heat produced depends on R.”
4.21 Initial and Steady State
Consider a simple charging circuit.

Current through this circuit will be –

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Mr. Neetin Agrawal

E  RCt
i e
R
At, t=0
0
E  RC E
i e 
R R
When we analyze circuit at t = 0 then it is called initial state analysis.
At t=

E  RC
i e 0
R
When we analyze circuit at t =  then it is called steady state analysis.
At any time other than t = 0 and t = , say t = t0 analysis of this circuit is called transient state
analysis.
Till now we have seen two types of R-C circuits, charging and discharging. In both these circuits we
analyzed initial steady and transit state. But in more complicated R-C circuits having many resistors
and capacitors, it is very difficult to do transient analysis. But still we can analyze complicated circuit
at initial and steady state.
We will now see how to analyze complicated R-C circuits at initial and steady state.
4.21.1 Initial State -
We will learn to analyze circuit at initial state with the help of a few examples.
Illustration 40
Find current through all the resistors and capacitor at t = 0.

Sol. As no information is given about charges on capacitors so we take them as uncharged.

q
As charge on these capacitors is zero so from relation V  we can say that V across these
C
capacitors is also zero.

It means VA = VB and VA’ = VB’.

We have studied previously that if two points have same potential then we can connect them. So, we
can connect point A to B and A’ to B’ and remove capacitors.
On redrawing we get –

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 Capacitor

At t = 0, we have this situation. Although this situation will not stay the same for much time because
as current will pass through capacitors, they will get charged and V across them will no longer be
zero.
So this circuit is applicable only at t = 0.
We can calculate current through all the resistance easily as the circuit have reduced to a simple
resistive circuit now. With the help of loop analysis or nodal analysis we can find current in the
circuit.
Illustration 41
In the given circuit, capacitor C1 initially has charge of 4C. Whereas another capacitor C2 is
initially uncharged. Calculate current through all the resistors and capacitors at t = 0.

Sol. Potential difference across capacitor C1 will be

q 4
VC1    2V
C 2
Potential difference across capacitor C2 will be
q 0
VC2   0
C 2
Now let’s see how to redraw this circuit.

Potential difference across capacitor C2 is zero it means VA’ = VB’ so we can join them and remove
capacitor.
Potential difference across capacitor C1 is 2V. It means, in this case, we cannot connect point A and
B. Let’s connect a battery of 2V between point A and B and remove capacitor.

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Mr. Neetin Agrawal

As positive plate of capacitor is at higher potential so we have replaced left plate of capacitor with
higher potential of battery.
This circuit is applicable at t = 0 only and beyond that this circuit will change. Now this being a
resistive circuit, we can easily find current through the resistors using regular loop or nodal analysis.
Key Points:-
For initial state
 If uncharged capacitor: remove capacitor and put wire.
q
 If charged capacitor: remove capacitor and connect battery with EMF =
C
4.21.2 Steady State
We will learn to analyze circuit at steady state with the help of a few examples.
Illustration 42
Find current through all resistors and capacitors at t = .

Sol. We have seen that at t = , current becomes zero through capacitors.

So, if current through capacitor is zero it means we can remove it. On redrawing –

As all these resistors are not part of any closed loop therefore current through all the resistors will be
zero.
Key Point:-
For steady state, remove capacitors from circuit.
Illustration 43

(i) Find current through all the resistors and capacitors of circuits at t = .
Sol. First we will redraw this circuit. At steady state i = 0 through capacitor so,

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 Capacitor

This is a simple resistive circuit. Current through this circuit is –

10 10
i   3.33A
2 1 3
So, current through 2 and 1 resistor is 3.33A and current through 2F and 3F capacitors is zero.
(ii) Find potential across 3 F capacitor at t = 
Sol. When we draw effective circuit at t =  we removed capacitors as no current passes through them. But
physically we don’t remove it. Just for better understanding we say that capacitor is removed. In this
case we will draw this capacitor as we have to calculate potential difference across it.

Capacitor and 1 resistor both are connected in parallel between nodes A and B. Potential difference
across 3F capacitor will be same as potential difference across 1 resistor.
V3F = V1 = i R
= (3.33) (1) = 3.33 V
(iii) Find charge on capacitor of 3F at t = .
Sol. Q = CV = (3) (3.33) = 9.99 C
4.22 Internal resistance of capacitor
We have seen that circuit elements like battery galvanometer, ammeter and voltmeter have some
internal resistance. Similarly, capacitors also have some internal resistor.
Consider, a capacitor whose area of plate is A and distance between plates is d. A dielectric is inserted
between the plates whose resistivity () and dielectric constant (K) are known.
We know that dielectric is basically an insulator then why are we talking about value of ? Actually,
there is nothing like perfect insulator. Some small amount of charge always flows through the
dielectric.

This dielectric must be having some resistance which can be calculated as –

 d
r  [As  in equal to distance between plates]
A A
We can draw this resistor as –

Here, internal resistance (r) of capacitor is shown connected to capacitor in parallel because potential
difference across capacitor is same as that across the resistor. If we would have connected them in
series then there would have been different potentials across r and C.

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Mr. Neetin Agrawal

Illustration 44
In the following circuit find charge on capacitor at t = 10 s.

Sol. If this dielectric is perfect insulator then no charge will flow through it, so charge on capacitor will not
change. But there is no such thing such as perfect insulator in reality, so some current will flow
through the dielectric. It means after 10 seconds charge on plate will reduce and will not remain 10C.
Let’s make equivalent circuit of this capacitor.

0 AK
Value of C will be C 
d
d
Value of r will be r 
A
We have already seen that this is a discharging circuit. So, value of charge on capacitor after 10
second will be –
t  d    AK 
 10   0 
q  Qe RC
 10  e  A  d 

10

0 K
 10 e
Illustration 45
In the following circuit find current through the circuit in steady sate.

For dielectric  = 100 m, d = 1m and A = 2m2

Sol. First redraw this circuit.

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 Capacitor

Here, r will be –
d 100  2 
r   50
A  4
In steady state we have seen that we remove capacitor.

So, current through this circuit can now be easily calculated as –

10 1
i  A
 50  10  6

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 Exercise of Capacitance
Multiple Choice Types
Only One Option Correct
Q.1 A capacitor of capacity C1 is charged upto potential V Volt and then connected in parallel to an
uncharged capacitor of capacity C2.The final potential difference across each capacitor is –

C2V C1V  C2   C2 
(A) (B) (C)  1  V (D)  1  V
C1  C 2 C1  C 2  C1   C1 
Q.2 What is the area of the plates of a 3F parallel plate capacitor, if the separation between the plates is
5mm?
(A) 1.694 × 109 m2 (B) 4.529 × 109 m2 (C) 9.281 × 109 m2 (D) 12.981×109 m2
Q.3 An air parallel plate capacitor has capacity C. When the area and distance between the plates is
C1
doubled when the capacitance is C1, then is –
C
(A) 1 (B) 2 (C) 3 (D) 4
Q.4 Consider the combination of capacitor in the diagram. The energy stored in the 5F capacitor is 200
mJ. What is the energy stored in the 4F capacitor?

(A) 16 × 102 mJ (B) 160 mJ (C) 1600 mJ (D) 16 mJ

Q.5 What fraction of the energy drawn from the charging battery is stored in a capacitor?
(A) 75 % (B) 100 % (C) 25 % (D) 50 %
Q.6 Two identical capacitors are connected in parallel across a potential difference V. After they are fully
charged the battery is removed and the positive of first capacitor is connected to negative of second
and negative of first is connected to positive of other. The loss in energy will be –
1 CV 2
(A) CV2 (B) CV2 (C) (D) zero
2 4
Q.7 A capacitor is charged until its stored energy is 3J and the charging battery is removed. Now another
uncharged capacitor is connected across it and it is found that charge distributes equally. The final
value of total energy stored in both capacitors is –
(A) 1.5 J (B) 3 J (C) 2.5 J (D) 2 J
Q.8 In the adjoining figure given below, charge on 10F capacitor is –

(A) 2 × 10–3 C (B) 16 × 10–4 C (C) 4 × 10–3 C (D) 8 × 10–4 C

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 Capacitor

Q.9 Capacitor C1 (10 F) and C2 (20 F) are connected in series across a 3kV battery as shown. Find
charge on capacitor C1–

(A) 45000 C (B) 20000 C (C) 15000 C (D) 10000 C

Q.10 In the network shown, we have three identical capacitors. Each of them can withstand a
maximum 100V potential difference. What maximum voltage can be applied across A and B. Given C
= 1F.

(A) 150 Volt (B) 120 Volt (C) 180 Volt (D) 200 Volt
Q.11 The potential difference between points a and b –

(A) 5 Volt (B) 9 Volt (C) 10 Volt (D) 13 Volt

Q.12 Three uncharged capacitors of capacitance C1, C2, C3 are connected as shown in figure to one
another and to point A, B and C at potentials V1, V2 and V3.Then the potential at O will be –

VA C1  VB C 2  VC C 3 VA  VB  VC
(A) (B)
C1  C 2  C 3 C1  C 2  C 3
VA  VB  VC  VA VB VC
(C) (D)
C1  C 2  C 3  C1C 2 C 3
Q.13 In the given circuit, all the capacitors are initially uncharged. After closing the switch S1 for a long
time suddenly S2 is also closed and kept closed for a long time. Total heat produced after closing S2
will be –

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Mr. Neetin Agrawal

(A) 4 CE2 (B) 3CE2 (C) 2CE2 (D) 0

Q.14 Seven capacitors each of capacitance 2f are to be connected in a configuration to obtain an effective
capacitance of (10/11)F. Which of the combination(s), shown in the figure below, will achieve the
desired result?

(A) (B)

(C) (D)
Q.15 Calculate the equivalent capacitance of the combination between P and Q.

2 4
(A) 2 F (B) 4 F (C) F (D) F
3 3
Q.16 The equivalent capacitance between points A and B –

(A) C (B) 2 C (C) 3 C (D) 4 C

Q.17 Equivalent capacitance in the circuit is –

(A) 1.0 F (B) 2.0 F (C) 1.5 F (D) 3.0 F

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 Capacitor

Q.18 The equivalent capacitance between x & y is –

5 7 8
(A) F (B) F (C) F (D) 1F
6 6 3
Q.19 The equivalent capacitance of the combination of the capacitors is –

(A) 3.2 F (B) 7.8 F (C) 3.9 F (D) 2.16 F

Q.20 In the figure shown the equivalent capacitance between ' A ' and ' B ' is:
(A) 3.75 F (B) 2 F (C) 21 F (D) 16 F

Q.21 An infinite ladder of capacitors each of 1F is made as shown in the figure. The capacitance between
A and B (in F) is –

(A) 1 (B) 1.3 (C) 1.6 (D) Zero

Q.22 Two metallic plates of a parallel plate capacitor are given charges of 8 C and –6 C
respectively. Find the charge on all four faces?

(A) 8, 6, –8,–6 (B) 1, 7, –7, 1 (C) 1, –7, 7, 2 (D) 4, 6, –8, 7

Q.23 Figure below shows four plates each of area A and separated from one another by a distance d. What
is the capacitance between P and Q –

0 A 2 0 A 3 0 A 4 0 A
(A) (B) (C) (D)
d d d d

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Mr. Neetin Agrawal

Q.24 Find the equivalent capacitance between points P & Q when capacitance of capacitors is C. (Area of
plate = A, plate separation = d)

5 0A 7 0 A 4 0 A 5 0A
(A) (B) (C) (D)
d 3d 3d 3d
Q.25 Two capacitors are joined in series as shown in figure. The area of each plate is A. The equivalent of
the combination is –

0 A 0 A 1 1 1 1
(A) (B) (C)  0 A   (D) 0 A   
d1  d 2 a b a b   d1 d 2 
Q.26 Five identical plates of equal area A are placed parallel to and at equal distance d from each other as
shown in figure. The effective capacity of the system between the terminals A and B is –

3 0 A 4 0 A 5 0A 4 0 A
(A) (B) (C) (D)
5d 3d 3d 5d
Q.27 A capacitor stores 50µC charge when connected across a battery. When the gap between the plates is
filled with a dielectric, a charge of 100µC flows through the battery. The dielectric constant of the
material is –
(A) 2.5 (B) 2 (C) 4 (D) 3
Q.28 If the distance between parallel plates of a capacitor is half and dielectric constant is doubled then the
capacitance is –
(A) Decreases two times (B) increases two times
(C) Increases four times (D) remains the same
Q.29 A capacitor of 10F is connected to a source of 50V and then disconnected. When the space between
the plates is filled with Teflon of dielectric constant 2.5. The new potential difference is –
(A) 20V (B) 20.8V (C) 23.8V (D) 25V
Q.30 A capacitor of capacitance 1F is filled with two dielectrics of dielectric constants 4 and 6. What is
the equivalent capacitance?

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 Capacitor

(A) 10F (B) 5F (C) 4F (D) None of these

More than One Correct
Q.31 A parallel plate air capacitor is connected to a battery. If plates of the capacitor are pulled further
apart, then which of the following statements are correct –
(A) Strength of electric field inside the capacitor remains unchanged, if battery is disconnected before
pulling the plate.
(B) During the process, work is done by an external force applied to pull the plates whether battery is
disconnected or it remains connected.
(C) Potential energy in the capacitor decreases if the battery remains connected during pulling plates
apart.
(D) None of the above
Q.32 Three identical, parallel conducting plates A, B and C are placed as shown. Switches S1 and S2 are
open and can connect A and C to earth. When +Q charge is given to B. Then –

(A) If S1 is closed with S2 open, a charge of amount Q will pass through S1

(B) If S2 is closed with S1 open, a charge of amount Q will pass through S2
(C) If S1 and S2 are closed together, a charge of amount Q/3 will pass through S1 and a charge of
amount 2Q/3 will pass through S2
(D) All of the above statements are incorrect
Q.33 Given two capacitors, C1 = 0.1 F and C2 = 0.25 F, and a 12 V battery, they are connected in series.
Which of the following is true?
(A) Q1= Q2
(B) The potential difference across C1 is 8.4V
(C) The potential difference across C2 is 3.42V
(D) None of these
Q.34 Two identical capacitors are connected in series as shown in the figure. A dielectric slab ( > 1) is
placed between the plates of the capacitor B and the battery remains connected. Which of the
following statement(s) is/are correct following the insertion of the dielectric?

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Mr. Neetin Agrawal

(A) The charge supplied by the battery increases.

(B) The capacitance of the system increases.
(C) The electric field in the capacitor B increases.
(D) The electrostatic potential energy decreases.
Comprehension
Comprehension # Q.35 to Q.36
Find out the following if A is connected with C and B is connected with D.

Q.35 How much charge has flown in the circuit?

(A) 12C (B) 12.1C (C) 13C (D) 12.5C
Q.36 How much heat is produced in the circuit?
(A) 65 J (B) 60 J (C) 61 J (D) 62 J
Comprehension # Q.37 to Q.39
Consider the circuit shown below

Q.37 The effective capacitance CP of the portion marked P is –

9 11 8 13
(A) F (B) F (C) F (D) F
12 12 9 15
Q.38 The effective capacitance CQ of the portion marked Q is –
3 5 9 8
(A) F (B) F (C) F (D) F
5 8 11 3
Q.39 If the equivalent capacitance between A and B is 1 F, the value of capacitance C is –
32 23 16 17
(A) F (B) F (C) F (D) F
23 32 33 35

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 Capacitor

Comprehension # Q.40 to Q.42

Two capacitors of capacitance C1 = 6 F and C2 = 3F are connected in series across a cell of emf 18
Volt.
Q.40 Find the equivalent capacitance?
(A) 2F (B) 3F (C) 2.5F (D) 3.5F
Q.41 The potential difference across each capacitor –
(A) 12V, 12 V (B) 6 V, 12 V (C) 7 V, 13 V (D) 6 V, 6 V
Q.42 The charge on each capacitor –
(A) 6C, 18C (B) 30 C, 36 C (C) 36C, 36C(D) 18 C, 30 C
Comprehension # Q.43 to Q.45
A and B are two capacitors having air as the dielectric medium between the plates. Both the capacitors
have same separation between their plates but area of plates for capacitor A is double that of capacitor
B. Without removing the battery a dielectric of constant (K = 6) is uniformly filled between the
plates of capacitor B completely. As a result the energy stored in the two capacitors changes by
1.2×10–4 J.

Q.43 Capacitance of capacitor A is –

(A) 8 F (B) 6 F (C) 4 F (D) 2 F
Q.44 Energy stored in capacitor B before dielectric is added is –

(A) 64 J (B) 64 J (C) 16 J (D) 16 J

Q.45 Energy stored in capacitor A after dielectric slab is added in capacitor B is –
(A) 162 J (B) 162 J (C) 18 J (D) 18 J
Assertion & Reasoning
Statement
(A) Statement-I is True, Statement-II is True; Statement-II is a correct explanation for
Statement-I
(B) Statement-I is Ture, Statement-II is True, Statement-II is not a correct explanation for
Statement-I
(C) Statement-I is True, Statement-II is False
(D) Statement-I is False, Statement-II
is True.
Q.46 STATEMENT-I:
A parallel plate capacitor is connected across battery through a key. A dielectric slab of constant K is
introduced between the plates. The energy which is stored becomes K times.
STATEMENT-II:
The charge on the plate remains constant.

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Mr. Neetin Agrawal

Q.47 STATEMENT-I:
When a capacitor is charged by a battery, both the plates receive charge equal in magnitude, no matter
sizes of plates are identical or not.
STATEMENT-II:
The charge distribution on the plates of capacitor is in accordance with charge conservation principle.
Q.48 STATEMENT-I:
If three capacitors of capacitance C1 < C2 < C3 are connected in parallel then their equivalent
capacitance Cparallel > Cseries
STATEMENT-II:
1 1 1 1
  
C parallel C1 C 2 C3
Q.49 STATEMENT-I:
If the distance between parallel plates of a capacitors is halved and dielectric constant is made three
times, then the capacitor becomes 6 times.
STATEMENT-II:
Capacity of a capacitor does not depend upon the nature of material of the capacitor plates.
Q.50 STATEMENT-I:
A charged plane parallel plate capacitor has half inter planar region (I) filled with dielectric slab. The
other half region II has air. Then, the magnitude of net electric field in region I is less than that in
region II.

STATEMENT-II:
In a dielectric medium induced (or polarized) charges tend to reduce the electric field.

Matrix Type
Q.51 Five capacitors and two batteries are connected as shown in the figure.

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 Capacitor

Initially the switch S is open and all the capacitors are uncharged. When the switch is closed and after
the capacitors get completely charged, then match the following.
Column I Column II
(A) Potential difference between (P) 22 V
points b and f
(B) Potential difference between (Q)-10 V
Points b and a
(C) Potential difference between (R) 3V
b and e
(D) Potential difference between (S) 12 V
Points e and f
Q.52 Match the column –
Column I Column II

(A) (P) Ceq between a & b is 2C

(B) (Q) Ceq between a & b is C

(C) (R) Ceq between a & b is 3C

Subjective Type
Q.53 A parallel plate air capacitor is made using two square plates each of side 0.2 m, spaced 1cm apart. It
is connected to a 50 V battery. (0 = 8.85 × 10–12 C2 N–1 m–2)
(a) What is the capacitance?
(b) What is the charge on each plate?
(c) What is the energy stored in the capacitor?
(d) What is the electric field between the plates?
(e) if the battery is disconnected and then the plates are pulled a part to a separation of 2 cm, what are
the answers to the above parts ?

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Mr. Neetin Agrawal

Q.54 In the given circuit, find out the charge on each capacitor. (Initially they are uncharged)

Q.55 Nine identical capacitors, each of capacitance C = 15µF are connected as shown in figure. Calculate
equivalent capacitance between terminals 1 and 4.

Q.56 A capacitor of capacity C0 is connected across a battery of emf V. How much work
Must be done in order to double the plate separation
(a) With the battery connected, and
(b) With the battery disconnected?
Q.57 In adjacent figure, find equivalent capacitance between A and B.

Q.58 Obtain the equivalent capacitance of the network in figure. For a 300V supply, determine the charge
and voltage across each capacitor.

Q.59 Six 1F capacitors are so arranged that their equivalent capacitance is 0.75 F. If a potential
difference of 600V is applied to the combination. What charge will appear on each capacitor?
Q.60 Three initially uncharged capacitors are connected in series as shown in circuit with a battery of emf
30V. Find out the following:-

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 Capacitor

(i) Charge flow through the battery, (ii) Potential energy in 3F capacitor.
(iii) Total energy through capacitors (iv) Heat produced in the circuit
Q.61 Find the equivalent capacitance and total energy stored in the system of capacitors given in the
network.

Q.62 The emf of the cell in the circuit is 12 Volt and the capacitors C1= 1F, C2 = 3F, C3= 2F and C4=
4F.

Calculate the charge on each capacitor and the total charge drawn from the cell when
(a) The switch S is closed.
(b) The switch S is open.
Q.63 In the circuit shown in the figure, if each capacitor is of capacitance 10µF, find the equivalent
capacitance between points A and B in µF.

Q.64 In the circuit shown the capacitors are C1=15 F, C2=10 F and C3= 25 F. Find
(i) The equivalent capacitance of the circuit,
(ii) The charge on each capacitor and
(iii) The potential difference across each capacitor.

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Mr. Neetin Agrawal

Q.65 Two capacitors of capacitance 1F and 2F are charged to potential difference 20V and 15V as shown
in figure. Now terminal B and C are connected together terminal A with positive of battery and D
with negative terminal of battery then find out final charges on both the capacitor.

Q.66 (a) Find the equivalent capacitance of the combination shown in the figure. Given C1 = 6µF, C2 =
4F and C3 = 8µF
(b) If a battery of emf 12V is connected between a and b, determine the charge on each capacitor and
the potential difference across each.

Q.67 Four identical metal plates are located in air at equal distance d from one another. The area of each
plate is equal to S. Find the capacitance of the system between points A and B if the plates are
interconnected as shown.

(a)

(b)
Q.68 The distance between the plates of a charged parallel plate capacitor disconnected from the battery is d
= 5m and the intensity of the electric field E = 300 V/m. A dielectric 1m thick is inserted into the
capacitor parallel to its plates. Calculate the potential difference between the plates of the capacitor
before and after the dielectric is inserted when dielectric constant is 1.

Q.69 Find the capacitance of the system in which dielectric is filled as shown in the figure.

Q.70 Two dielectric slabs of dielectric constant K1 and K2 have been filled in between the plates of a
capacitor as shown in figure. What will be the capacitance of the capacitor?
(A  Plate area)

385
 ANSWER KEY
Multiple Choice Types
Only One Option Correct
1. [B] 2. [A] 3. [A] 4. [B]
5. [D] 6. [B] 7. [A] 8. [A]
9. [B] 10. [A] 11. [D] 12. [A]
13. [D] 14. [A] 15. [D] 16. [B]
17. [A] 18. [C] 19. [A] 20. [B]
21. [C] 22. [B] 23. [B] 24. [D]
25. [B] 26. [C] 27. [D] 28. [C]
29. [A] 30. [A]
More than One Correct
31. [A], [B], [C] 32. [A], [B], [C] 33. [A], [B], [C] 34. [A], [B]
Comprehension
35. [A] 36. [B] 37. [C] 38. [D]
39. [A] 40. [A] 41. [B] 42. [C]
43. [C] 44. [A] 45. [A]
Assertion & Reasoning
46. [C] 47. [A] 48. [C] 49. [B]
50. [D]
Matrix Type
51. [A][S];[B][R];[C] [P];[D][Q] 52. [A] [Q] ; [B] [R] ; [C] [P]
Subjective Type
53. (a) C0 = 3.54 × 10–5 F

(b) Q0 = 1.77 × 10–3 C

(c) Energy0= 4.425 × 10–8 J

(d) E0 = 5000 V/m
A 0
(e) C  1.7710-5 F; Q = Q0 = 1.7710–3 C; Energy = 8.8510–8 J;
2d 0
E = 5000 V/m
54. Q2F =52 C; Q1F= 6 C; Q2F= 58 C
Q 11C
55. Ceq= = =11µF
V 15
1
56. (a) Case I – when the battery is connected. The work which must be done = C0 V2
4

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Mr. Neetin Agrawal

1
(b) Case II – When the battery is disconnected. The work done on the system = C0 V2
2
57. CAB = 2 µF
58. Potential difference across C1: V1 = 100 Volt
Potential difference across C23: V23= 100 Volt
Potential difference across C4: V4= 200 Volt
59. Q1 = 150C and Q2 = 300C
60. (i) Q = 30 C
(ii) E3 = 150J
(iii) Etotal = 450 J
(iv) H= 450J.
61. Ceq= 1F = 10–6 F
E = 8 × 10–6 J = 8J
62. (a) When switch S is closed –
Q = 25.2 C, Q1 = 8.4 C, Q3 = 16.8 C, Q2 = 10.8 C and Q4 = 14.4 C
(b) When switch S is open –
Q= 25 C, Q1= Q2= 9C, Q3 = Q4=16C
63. 13µF.
64. (i) Ceq = 12.5 F (ii) Q1 = 75 C and Q2 = 50 C
(iii) V1  5V ; V2  5V ; V3  5V
50 80
65. Q 1= C; Q2= C
3 3
66. (a) Ceq = 4F
(b) V1 = 8 V, Q1 = 48 C
V2 = 4 V, Q2 = 16 C
V3 = 4 V, Q3 = 32 C
2 0 A
67. (a) CAB 
3d
3 0 A
(b) C AB 
2d
68. Before dielectric was inserted – V = 1500 Volt
After dielectric inserted - V1 = 1200 Volt
ε 0 A(K1K 2 )
69. C
 d1K 2  d 2 K1 
A 0  K 1  K 2 
70. C=
d  2 

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 Solved Examples

Additional Important Examples For IIT JEE

Electrostatics - 1
Q.1 The figure shows a system of two charges. P(2, 2)
y
A point charge q1 = 20 nC is at (−1,0) (m)
while q2 = −10 nC is at (+1,0). Find the
resultant field intensity at a point P with
coordinates (2, 2).

Sol: 1. The field vector E 1 points away from the x
 + - (m)
q1 O q2
charge q1 while the vector E 2 points
1m 1m
toward the charge q2.

2. The distances r1 and r2 are

r1 = √(2 + 1)2 + 22 = √13 = 3.6𝑚
r2 = √12 + 22 = √5 = 2.2𝑚
E1

y P 1
(m) 2

E2
r1
2m
r2

x
+ - (m)
q1 O q2
1m 1m 1m

The magnitude of the fields are

kq1 (9×109 )(20×10−9 )

E1 =
r21
= (3.6)2
= 13.8NC−1

kq2 (9×109 )(10×10−9 )

E2 =
r22
= (2.2)2
= 18NC−1

3. The components of the resultant field are

Ex = E1 cos 1 − E2 cos 2
Ey = E1 sin 1 − E2 sin 2

3 1
where cos 1 = ; cos 2 = 2.2
3.6

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Mr. Neetin Agrawal

2 2
and sin 1 = ; sin 2 =
3.6 2.2

3 1
Thus, Ex = (13.8) 3.6 − 18 (2.2) = 3.3 NC−1

2 2
Ey = (13.8) 3.6 − 18 (2.2) = −8.7 NC−1


Finally, E = 3.3 iˆ − 8.7 ĵ NC−1

Q.2 Find the field intensity at a distance R from a  +

finite line of charge of length L and linear charge
density  C/m, as shown in the figure. +
+
Sol: Consider a small element of length dx at a distance x, + R 
P
as shown in the figure. The magnitude of the L + 
contribution to the field at point P from this element +
is +
kλdx +
dE = (i)
r2
+
To carry out the integration we express the variables +
in terms of the angle ,
R
From the figure, r = R sec  Line of charge distribution.
and x = R tan 
on differentiating, dx = R sec2  d

y
Using these expression (i) may be modified as
dE
kλ(R sec2 θdθ) kλdθ
dE = =
(R sec θ)2 R R 
 x
The components of dE are
x
dEx = dE cos ; dEy = dE sin  r

On integrating dx

kλ+α kλ
Ex = ∫ cos θ dθ = [sin θ]α−β
R −β R

kλ
=
R
(sin α + sin β)

kλ+α −kλ kλ
Ey = ∫ sin θ dθ = [cos θ]+α
−β = (cos  − cos )
R −β R R

For an infinite line of charge,  = /2 and  = /2

2kλ
Therefore, Ex = and Ey = 0
R

389
 Solved Examples

 ⃗ = 2kλ î
E R

Notice that the field due to a line charge distribution decreases as 1/R and it never reduces to 1/R2,
(behavior of a point charge).

Q.3 Find the field intensity at a distance y from the centre along the central axis of a circular
disc of radius R and surface charge density (C/m2).

Sol: Due to circular symmetry of the disc, a ring of radius x P

and width dx is chosen. All points of the ring are
equidistant from the point P.
y
Consider a component of the field parallel to the plane
of the disc. Any contribution of this component from
some point on the ring has an equal and opposite +
+ +
+ +
contribution from the diametrically opposite part of the + + + +
R +
+ 
ring. ++ + + + + +
+ + + +
+
Thus, due to symmetry, there is no component of the
field parallel to the plane of the disc A disc of radius R carries a uniformly
distributed charge 
i.e. Ex = 0

The y−component of the field is

kdq y
dEy = dE cos  =
r2 r

where dq =  dA = (2x dx)

and r2 = x2 + y2 y

kσ(2πxdx)y
dE
 dEy =
(x2 +y2 )3/2
P
On integrating x
R 2xdx
Ey = ky ∫0 2 2 3/2 
(x +y )
r
y
or Ey = 2k[1 − ] (i) y
(R2 +y2 )1/2
R
Note
• When y >> R, using binomial theorem. x
dx
−1/2
y R2 R2
(y2 +R2 )1/2
= (1 + y2 ) ≈ 1 − 2y2
A ring of radius x and thickness dx is assumed to the
electric field at the point P.
Thus, the expression reduces to

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Mr. Neetin Agrawal

πkσR2
Ey =
y2
kq
or Ey = since q = (R2)
y2
Which represents the electric field due to a point charge

• As R → , the disc behaves like an infinite sheet and the expression (i) reduces to

E = 2k = /2o

Q.4 A charge of 4  10-8 C is distributed uniformly on the surface of a sphere of radius 1 cm. It is
covered by a concentric, hollow conducting sphere of radius 5 cm.
(a) Find the electric field at a point 2 cm away from the center.
(b) A charge of 6  10-8 C is placed on the hollow sphere. Find the charge on the outer surface of
the hollow sphere.

Sol:

(a) (b)

(a) Let us consider figure(a). Suppose we have to find field at the point P. Draw a concentric
spherical through P. All the points on this surface are equivalent and by symmetry, the field at all
these points will be equal in magnitude and radial in direction.

 
The flux through this surface =  E.dS =  EdS = E  dS = 4x 2 E
where x = 2 cm = 2  10-2 m.

From Gauss's law, this flux is equal to the charge q contained inside the surface divided by o. Thus,
4x2E = q/o
𝑞 4×10−8 C
or 𝐸 = 4𝜋𝜀 2
= (9 × 109 𝑁𝑚2 /𝐶 2 ) × 4×10−4 m2 = 9  105 N/C
𝑜𝑥

(b) See figure (b). Take a Gaussian surface through the material of the hollow sphere. As the
electric field in a conducting material is zero, the flux  E.dS through this enclosed must be zero.
Hence, the charge on the inner surface of the hollow sphere is -4  10-8 C. But the total charge given
to this hollow sphere is 6  10-8 C. Hence, the charge on the outer surface will be 10  10-8 C.

Q.5 Four-point charges are located at the corners of a rectangle, as shown in figure. Find the net
force acting on the charge q1.

391
 Solved Examples

q3 = −8 nC − + q2 = 4 nC

y
3 cm

q4 = −12 nC − + q1 = 8 nC
4 cm

Sol:

q3 − + q2

3 cm

F13


q4 − F14 + q1

4 cm F12

  
(1) The force F12 (between q1 and q2) is repulsive, while the forces F13 (between q1 and q3) and F14

(between q1 and q4) are attractive.

  
(2) The magnitude of the forces F12 , F13 and F14 are

F12 =
kq 1 q 2
=
(9  )(
10 9 8  10 - 9 ) (4  10 ) = 32  10 N
-9
-5
2
r12 (3  10 -2 2
)
F13 =
kq 1 q 3
=
(9  10 9
) (8  10 -9
) (8  10 ) = 23  10 N
-9
-5
2
r13 (5  10 -2 2
)
F14 =
kq 1 q 4
=
(9  10 9
) (8  10 -9
) (12  10 ) = 54  10 N
-9
-5
2
r14 (4  10 -2 2
)

(3) F12 = (-32  10−5) ĵ
  4 3 
F13 = (F13 cos ) î + (F13 sin ) ĵ = − (23)  ˆi + (23)  ˆj  10 - 5
  
5   
5

= [−18.4 î + 13.8 ĵ ]  10−5


F14 = (-54  10−5) î

(4) The net force on q1 is

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Mr. Neetin Agrawal

   
F1 = F12 + F13 + F14

= [−72.4 î − 18.2 ĵ ]  10−5 N

Q.6 Five-point charges, each +q are placed on five vertices of a regular hexagon of side L. What is
the magnitude of the force on a point charge –q placed at the centre of the hexagon?

Sol: Had there been sixth charge +q at the remaining vertex of hexagon, the net force due to all the six
charges on –q at O would be zero. The forces due to individual charges will balance each other. That
is,
FR = 0 E L D
q
  L q
Now if f is the force due to sixth charge and F L

q Q
due to remaining five charges, we must have F C
-q q
    
FR = F + f = 0 i.e., F = −f L L
q
2 A L B
1 qq 1 q 
or F = =
40 L2 4  L 

Q.7 Determine the field at a point distant r from a uniformly charged infinite plane with surface
charge density .

Sol: By symmetry, we conclude that E can only 
be normal to the charged plane. Also, at points + + +
A and B, symmetric with respect to the plane,  + +
 + 
E should have same magnitude but opposite E E
+ +
+ S
directions. A
+
B
+ +
Hence, a right cylinder is chosen as +
+ +
Gaussian surface. + Gassian
+ + surface

The flux through the lateral surface is zero because E⊥ = 0. If S is the area of each end face, the total
flux is  = ES + ES = 2ES.
Then according to Gauss’s Law,

qin S
2ES = =
0 0


 E=
20

Q.8 A long string with a linear charge density of  per unit length passes through an imaginary cube of
edge a. The maximum flux of the electric field through the cube will be

393
 Solved Examples

(a) a/0 (b) √𝟐𝛌𝐚/𝛆𝟎

(c) 6a/0 (d) √𝟑𝛌𝐚/𝛆𝟎

Sol: As per Gauss’ law, the total flux through a closed surface equals the net charge enclosed by the
surface divided by 0,
q
 = in

If the string is kept parallel to one edge, as shown in the length of string inside the cube will be a. So,

qin = a

q in a
and  = = …(1)
 
which is answer (a).

a a a
(A) (B) (C)

In case the string is kept parallel to the diagonal of a face, as shown in Fig. (B), the length of string
inside will be
a2 + a2 = 2 a
Therefore, the flux will be
q in 2 a
= = …(2)
 
which is answer (b).

However, if the string is kept along a diagonal of the cube, as shown in Fig. (C), the length of the
string inside becomes
a2 + a2 + a2 = 3 a
This is the maximum length that can fit in the cube. Hence,
q in 3 a
= = …(3)
 
which is answer (d).
Obviously, out of (1), (2) and (3), the flux in (3) is maximum. Hence answer (d) is correct.

Q.9 A charged ball B hangs from a silk thread S, which makes an angle  with a large charged
conducting sheet P, as shown in the figure. The surface charge density  of the sheet is
proportional to

394
Mr. Neetin Agrawal

+
+
+
P +
+ 
+ S
+
+
+
B
(a) sin  (b) tan 
(c) cos  (d) cot 
Sol:
T

q

mg

q
T sin  =
o
T cos  = mg
q
tan  =
 o mg
   tan 
 (b) is correct.

Q.10 Two-point charges +8q and -2q are located at x = 0 and x = L respectively. The location of a
point on the x axis at which the net electric field due to these two-point charges is zero is
(a) 8L (b) 4L
(c) 2L (d) L/4
Sol:
K (2q ) K (8q )
=
d2
(L + d )2
 L + d = 2d
 d= L
Distance from origin = (L + L) = 2L
 (c) is correct.

Q.11 Two positive charges, q each, are distance d apart. A third charge Q is placed on the line joining
these two charges in such a manner that all the charges are in equilibrium. Find the value,
location and sign of this charge?

395
 Solved Examples

Sol:
d1 d2
C
A B
q Q q

The charge Q will be in equilibrium if the forces exerted on it by the charges at A and B are equal and
opposite, i.e.,
FCA = FCB
Q.q Q.q
or k. 1 =k 2
d1 d2
or d 12 = d 22 or d1 = d2

It means that the charge Q should be located equidistant from the two given charges at A and B.
Now, consider equilibrium of charge q at A. The force FAB is repulsive (see figure).

A FAC C
B
FAB q Q q

Therefore, to keep the charge q at A in equilibrium, the force FAC must be attractive. Thus, charge Q at
C has to be negative, and
k q.q k q.Q q
FAB = FAC or =  Q =
d2 ( d/2)2 4

−q
Thus, Q =
4

Q.12 Find the resultant field intensity at P, if three charged rods each having charge q and length a
are arranged to form the three sides of a square as shown in Fig.(A).
B 1 A
++++++++++
+
+ E3
+
2 + E2
+ O P
+
+ E1
+
++++++++++
C 3 D

Sol: We know that, the field intensity E due to a charged rod of length L at a point distant R on its
perpendicular bisector is given as

396
Mr. Neetin Agrawal

k L
E=
R (L 2 ) + R
2 2

Here, R = L/2 = a/2. So,

kλ a kλ( 2 2 )
E= =
( a /2) ( a /2) + ( a /2) 2 a

(with q = a)

2 2 kq
E=
a2
Now, in given configuration of rods, the intensity at P due to rods AB and CD cancels each other. The
resultant intensity at P will be equal to that of rod BC only. Thus,
      
ER = E1 + E 2 + E3 = E 2 [as E 1 = −E 3 ]
2 2 kq
ER =
a2

Q.13 A thin spherical conducting shell of radius a carrying a charge q is concentric with another thin
metallic spherical shell of radius b (> a). Calculate the electric field at radial distance r, when

(a) r < a (b) a < r < b, and (c) r > b.

What will be the change in the field in above cases, if the outer shell (i) is given a charge Q, (ii) is
earthed.

Sol: For a charged conductor,

1 q
Ein = 0 and Eout =
4  r 2
(a) If r < a, the point A is internal to both the shells.
 EA = 0 + 0 = 0

(b) If a < r < b, the point B is external to shell of radius a and internal to shell of radius b.
1 q 1 q
 EB = 2
+0=
4 rB 4 rB2

(c) If r > b, the point C is external to both the shells. Due to induction −q and +q charges will be
induced on the inner and outer surfaces of spherical shell of radius b.
1 [q − q + q ] 1 q
 EC = 2
=
4 rC 4 rC2

This all is shown in Fig. (A)

397
 Solved Examples

+q Q+q −q
+q
+q +q
a b

•A •A •A
•B •B •B
• • •
−q C −q C C

Q = positive Q = −q
Fig. (A) Fig. (B) Fig. (C)

When outer sphere (i) is charged, or (ii) is earthed:

Case (a): The result is the same.
Case (b): The result is the same.
Case (c):

(i) If the outer sphere is given a charge Q

1 Q 1 (q + Q )
 EC = EC + =
4 rC2 4 rC2
This is shown in Fig. (B)

(ii) If the outer sphere is earthed, the charge on the outer surface leaks to earth.
1 (q − q )
 EC = =0
40 rC2
That is the field outside is zero. In this situation field exists only in the space between the
shells as shown in Fig. (C).

Q.14 A point charge q is situated at a distance d from one end of a thin non-conducting rod of length
L having a charge Q (uniformly distributed along its length) as shown in figure. Find the
magnitude of electric force between the two.

A B
P q

d L

Sol: Electrical field due to a charged rod at a distance d is

P

d L
Q 1
E=
4 0 d(d + L )
Hence force on the charge is
qQ
F=
4 0 d(d + L )

398
Mr. Neetin Agrawal

Q.15 A charge +10-9 C is located at the origin in free space and another charge Q at (2,0,0). If the
x - component of the electric field at (3, 1, 1) is zero, calculate the value of Q. Is the y-component
zero at (3, 1, 1)?

Sol: The situation is shown in fig.

Y
P(3,1,1)

R1
R2
O
-9 X
10 C Q(2,0,0)

Z
Let a1 and a 2 be the unit vectors along the directions of R1 and R2 respectively. If iˆ , jˆ and kˆ be
the unit vectors along X, Y and Z axes respectively, then
R = ( 3 − 0 ) iˆ + (1 − 0 ) jˆ + (1 − 0 ) kˆ
1

R2 = ( 3 − 2 ) iˆ + (1 − 0 ) jˆ + (1 − 0 ) kˆ
The magnitudes of R1 and R2 are
R1 = 11 and R2 = 3
3iˆ + jˆ + kˆ iˆ + jˆ + kˆ
Now a1 = and a2 =
11 3
Q
 E = a
4 0 R 2

=
(
 −9 ˆ ˆ ˆ Q iˆ + jˆ + kˆ
Q 10 3i + j + k
+
) ( ) 
4 0  (11)
3/2
(3)
3/2

 
As x component of field at (3,1,1) is zero, we have
10 −9  3 −Q
=
(11) (3)
3/2 3/2

( 3)
3/2
 3  10 −9
 Q =−
(11)
3/2

= − 0.43 10−9C , Ey is not zero at (3, 1, 1).

Q.16 Two-point charges +Q and –Q are placed at

(−𝑹, 𝟎, 𝟎) and (𝑹, 𝟎, 𝟎) respectively. Find the
flux due to their combined field through the
circle:
+ –
𝐲 𝟐 + 𝐳 𝟐 = 𝐑𝟐

(a) First add up the fields due to each charge and integrate to find the flux.
(b) The result is equal to the flux through the area due to the individual charge. Why?
(c) Is this true for any position of the charges? Why?

399
 Solved Examples

Sol: (a) Consider a circular ring of radius x and radial thickness dx and evaluate
the flux through this element:
1 Q R
d= . . 2xdx  2
4 0 x 2 + R 2 ( x 2 + R 2 )1/2

where the factor of 2 takes into account the component of the field due
negative charge.
R
4 QR x dx
 = 
4 0 (x )
3/2
2
x =0 + R2

QR 1  1 
= 1 − 
0 R  2
Q  1 
= 1 −  …(i)
0  2
(b) This is the sum of the contributions due to the individual charges.
This can be explained as follows:
By the superposition principle, at any point,
E = E 1 + E 2 , where E 1 , E 2 are the fields due to individual sources

  E .ds =  E 1.ds +  E 2 .ds …(ii)

where the integration is carried out over any oriented surface.

(c) The expression derived above (ii) does not make any reference to the location of the two
charges.
Hence, it is independent of the existence symmetry or otherwise in the Problem

Q.17 Charges q and –2q are placed at the two ends of the face diagonal of a cube and another point
charge 3q is placed at the centre of the cube. Find the total electrostatic flux through S due to
the combined effect of all the charges.
Sol: If only q were present, the electrostatic flux passing through S would be
11 q  1 q
 . =
3  8 0  24 0
Similarly, the flux due to –2q is
1  1 −2q  1 −2q
 . =
3  8 0  24 0

1  3q  q
The flux due to 3q through the bottom force is   or,
6  0  20
 the net flux due to both charges is
11q
24 0

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Mr. Neetin Agrawal

Q.18 Six charges are placed at the vertices of a + –

Regular hexagon as shown in the figure. The
electric field on the line passing through point
O and perpendicular to the plane of the figure + –
at a distance of 𝐱(>> 𝐚) from O is :
Qa 2Qa
(a) (b)
0 x 3 0 x 3 + –
3Qa
(c) (d) zero
0 x 3
Sol: This is basically a problem of finding the electric field due to the three dipoles. The dipole moment of
each dipole is
P = Q (2 a ) + –
Electric field due to each dipole will be
Kp o
E = 60
x3
+ –
60o
E net = E = 2E cos 60
= 2E
+ –
1 2Qa
= 2 
4 0 x 3

Qa
=
0 x 3
The direction of electric field due to each dipole is as shown above in the figure.
 (a) Ans.

Q.19 Two identical positive charges are fixed on the y-axis at equal distances from the origin O. A
particle with a negative charge starts on the x-axis at a large distance from O, moves along
the x-axis, passes through O and moves far away from O. its acceleration a is taken positive
along its direction of motion. The particle’s acceleration a is plotted against its x-co-
ordinate. Which of the graph (fig.) best represents the plot?

(a) (b)

401
 Solved Examples

(c) (d)
Sol: In fig. Let the particle be towards left of O. The net force on the particle will be towards O and hence
it is accelerated with acceleration a
F = 2F0 cos 
1 qQ x +
=2  
4 0
 x2+ 2
 x2+ 2

0 (
2 +
)

1 2qQx 
= 
(
4 0 x 2 + 2 3/2 ) 
0
This expression shows that for large x, F is zero and for x = 0 ,
F = 0 , so the acceleration increases to maximum for a particular
+
value of x and then fall to zero at O.
To the right of O , the force is towards left while the motion is towards right. Thus, the direction of a
is opposite the particle’s motion which is taken as negative. First it increases and afterwards decreases.
 (d) Ans.

Q.20 A metallic shell has a point charge q kept inside its cavity. Which one of the following diagrams
correctly represents the electric lines of force?

(a)
(b)

(c)
(d)
Sol: Electric field is perpendicular to equipotential surfaces and is zero everywhere inside the metal.

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Mr. Neetin Agrawal

 (c) Ans.
Q.21 Two-point charges 𝐐𝟏 and 𝐐𝟐 are 3 m apart and their combined charge is 20 C .
(a) If one repels other with a force of 0.075 N. What are two charges?
(b) If one attracts the other with force of 0.525 N. What are the magnitudes of the charges?
Sol: (a) Now combined charge of Q 1 and Q 2 is

Q 1 + Q 2 = 20 C …(i)

Since force is repulsive

1 Q 1Q 2 Q Q 
0.075 = = 9  109  1 22 
4  r  ( 3) 
2

 Q 1Q 2 = 75  10−12C 2 = 75 C2

Substituting value of Q 2 from (1)

Q 1 ( 20 − Q 1 ) = 75

Q 12 − 20Q 1 + 75 = 0

 Q 1 = 15 , 5

So the Q s are 5 C and 15 C or 15 C and 5 C.

(b) Force is attractive, so one charge is negative, so force equation is
Q 1Q 2
−0.525 = 9  109
9

Q 1Q 2 = −525 C2

Q 1 ( 20 − Q 1 ) = −525

Q 12 − 20Q 1 − 525 = 0
From here Q s are 35 C and −15 C or –35 C and 15 C

Q.22 A semi infinite rod lies along x-axis with one end at origin. It carries a uniform linear charge
density. Starting from coulomb’s law, Find 𝑬𝒙 and 𝑬𝒚 for a point on the y-axis where 𝒚 = 𝒃.
Also calculate the net field at this point.
dE
Sol: From figure, electric field due to small length element dx at dEy

observation point at distance r

dx dEx
dE = 
4  0 r 2 r
b
and dE y = dE cos 
x 
and dE x = dE sin 
dx
Put x = b tan 
dx = b sec2 d 

403
 Solved Examples

b
Also r = = b sec 
cos 
 b sec 2 d  
dE y =   cos 
 4  0b sec  
2 2

 2 
4  0b 0
Then Ey = cos  d  = directed upward
4  0b


 2 
4  0b 0
Similarly, Ex = sin  d  = to left.
4  0b

2
E net = E x2 + E y2 = at 45 with the horizontal.
4 0b

Q.23 A charge 𝐪 is placed at centre of a cube. What is flux of electric field through one of the cube
faces? What is the flux through one of the opposite faces if the charge is placed at a corner of the
cube? As the charge is placed at the centre of the cube, flux through each face of the cube is
𝐪
same and is equal to .
𝟓∈𝟎

Sol: As at a corner 8 cubes can be placed symmetrically, flux

q q
linked with each cube will be . A
8 0
Now for the faces passing through the edge where charge is
placed, electric field E at a face will be parallel to area of L

face and so flux for these three faces will be zero. So, flux B

q
linked with remaining three faces will be . Now as the
8 0
remaining three faces are identical, so flux linked with each
of the three faces passing through B will be
1  q  1 q
=  =
3  8 0  24  0

Q.24 A particle ‘A’ having a charge of 2  10-6C and a mass of 100g is fixed at the bottom of a smooth
inclined plane of inclination 30. Where should another particle B, having same charge and
mass be placed on the incline so that it may remain in equilibrium?

Sol: First of all, draw the F.B.D. of the masses. N

Fe
For equilibrium F = 0
N = mg cos30 . . . (1) B
Fe = mg sin30 . . . (2) x

mg sin30
kq 2 mg
From (2) = mg cos30
x2 2
2kq 2 A
 x= = 27cm. 30
mg

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Mr. Neetin Agrawal

Q.25 Two particles A and B having charges 8 x10-6 C and –2 x10-6C respectively are held fixed with a
separation of 20 cm. Where should a third charged particle be placed so that it does not
experience a net electric force?

Sol: As the net electric force on C should be equal to zero, the force due to A and B must be opposite in
direction. Hence, the particle should be placed on the line AB. As A and B have charges of opposite
signs, C cannot be between A and B.

Also, A has larger magnitude of charge than B. Hence, C should be placed closer to B than A. The situation
is shown in figure. Suppose BC=x and the charge on C is Q.

 1 (8.0  10−6 ) Q y
FCA = î → →
4π 0 (0.2 + x )2 A B FCB C FCA
x
 − 1 (2.0  10 −6 )Q 20 cm x
and FCB = î
4 0 x2
   1  (8.0  10 −6 ) Q (2.0  10 −6 ) Q 
FC = FCA + FCB =  − i
4 0  (0.2 + x )2 x2 

But | FC |= 0
1  (8.0  10 −6 ) Q (2.0  10 −6 ) Q 
Hence  − =0
4 0  (0.2 + x )
2
x2 
Which gives x = 0.2 m

Q.26 Find electric field intensity due to long uniformly charged wire. (charge per unit length is )

Sol: Elemental charge dq =  dl. 

dq
Field at point P is dE = K .
(R +  2 )
2 d
X

dq
dE x =
(R + 2 ) cos 

2 Y

dEX
R d  R P
=  Ex =
4 0
(R ) 4  0R
3 dE
2
+ 2 2 dEY

dq
Also dE y = sin 
(R +  2 )
2

On integration

EY =
4  0 R

405
 Solved Examples


 E = E 2X + E 2Y =
2 2  0 R
EX
tan  =   = 45
EY

Q.27 A long string with a charge of  per unit length passes through an imaginary cube of edge a.
The maximum flux of the electric field through the cube will be
a 2 a
(A) (B)
o o
6a 2 3a
(C) (D)
o o

Sol: The maximum length of the string which can fit into the cube is 3 a, equal to its body diagonal.
3 a
The total charge inside the cube is 3 a , and hence the total flux through the cube is .
o
 (D)

Q.28 Supposing that the earth has a surface charge density of 1 electron/m2; calculate electric field
just outside earth's surface. The electronic charge is −1.610−19C and earth's radius is 6.4106m.
(0 = 8.910−12C2/N-m2)
(A) − 1.810−8 N/C (B) + 1.810−8 N/C
(C) − 1.810 N/C
−9
(D) + 1.810−9 N/C

Sol: (A) (ii) Again, the electric field E just outside the earth's surface is same is if the entire charge q were
concentrated at this cetnre. Thus
1 q 1 4R 2  
E= = =
4 0 R 2
4 0 R 2 o
Substituting the given value:

E=
( )
− 1.6  10 −19 C / m 2
8.9  10 −12 C 2 / N − m 2
= − 1.810−8 N/C
The minus sign indicates that E is radially inward.

Q.29 A circular wire of radius R carries a total charge Q distributed uniformly over its
circumference. A small length of the wire subtending angle  at the centre is cut off. Find the
electric field at the centre due to the remaining portion.
Q Q  
(A) = sin ( ) (B) = sin 
4  0 R
2 2
4  0 R
2 2
2
Q   Q  
(C) = sin  (D) = sin 
4  0 R
2 2
4 4  0 R
2 2
8

406
Mr. Neetin Agrawal

k 
Sol: (B) Electric field due to an arc at its centre is 2 sin  ,
R 2
1
Where k = , 
40
 = angle subtended by the wire at the centre,
 = Linear density of charge.
Let E be the electric field due to remaining portion.
Since intensity at the centre due to the circular wire is zero.
Applying principle of superposition.

k  
2 sin n̂ + E = 0
R 2
 1 Q  
E = .2 sin  
.
4 0 R 2R 2
Q  
= sin  
4  0 R
2 2
2

Q.30 What is the potential difference at the centre C

(A) Zero (B)

Kq +q -q
a 2
2 Kq
a
(C) (D) none of these C
a
-q +q
Sol: (A) We know that potential is a scalar quantity
1 q
V=
40 r
Where r is the distance between charge and point where potential has to be found.
 total potential at center C
1 1
= (q1 + q2 + q3 + q4).
40 r
1
= (+ q – q + q – q)
40r

=0

Q.31 An isolated sphere of radius R contains a uniform volume distribution of positive charge. Which
of the curve on the graph below correctly illustrates the dependence of the magnitude of the
electric field of the sphere as a function of the distance r from its centre
(A) A (B) B
(C) C (D) D

ρ KQTOTAL
Sol: (C) E = r for inside point and E = for outside point and it will be represented by
3∈0 r2

407
 Solved Examples

Q.32 In front of an earthed conductor a point charge + q is placed a shown in figure:

+q

(A) On the surface of conductor, the net charge is always negative.

(B) On the surface of conductor at some points charges are negative and at some points charges
may be positive distributed non uniformly
(C) Inside the conductor electric field due to point charge is non zero
(D) None of these

Sol: (A, B, C) Charge is distributed over the surface of conductor in such a way that net field due to this
charge and outside charge q is zero inside. Field due to only q is non-zero.

Q.33 Statement 1: A uniformly charged disc has a pin hole at its centre. The electric field at the centre
of the disc is zero.
Statement 2: Disc can be supposed to be made up of many rings. Also, electric field at the centre
of uniformly charged ring is zero.

(A) Statement-1 is true, Statement-2 is true; Statement-2 is a correct explanation for statement-1
(B) Statement-1 is true, Statement-2 is true; Statement-2 is NOT a correct explanation for statement-1
(C) Statement-1 is true, Statement-2 is false
(D) Statement-1 is false, Statement-2 is true.

Sol: (A) The electric field due to disc is superposition of electric field due to its constituent ring as given in
statement-2. Statement-1 is True, Statement-2 is True; Statement-2 is a correct explanation for
Statement-1.

Q.34 An insulating solid sphere of radius 'R' is charged in a non-uniform manner such that volume
A
charge density  = , where A is a positive constant and r the distance from centre. Electric
r
field strength at any inside point at distance r1 is -
𝟏 𝟒𝛑𝐀 𝟏 𝐀
(A) (B)
𝟒𝛑𝛆𝟎 𝐫𝟏 𝟒𝛑𝛆𝟎 𝐫𝟏
𝐀 𝐀
(C) (D)
𝛑𝛆𝟎 𝟐𝛆𝟎

Sol. [D]
P is any inside point at distance r1 from O. we take a spherical surface of radius r1 as Gaussian –
surface of radius r1 as Gaussian-surface.
 → q in
 E. ds =
s
0

O r P
1

408
Mr. Neetin Agrawal

 →
By symmetry, E at all points on the surface is same and angle between E and ds is zero everywhere.
 → q in q

 E. ds = Es =
s
0
or E 4r21 = in .....(i)
0
qin: The sphere can be regarded as consisting of a large number of spherical shells. Consider a shell of
inner and outer radii r and r +dr. Its volume will be dV = 4r2 dr. Charge in the shell,
A
dq = dV = 4r2dr
r
Total charge enclosed by Gaussian-surface,
r1
r12
 
qin = dq = rdr = 4A =
0
2
r1
r12

qin = 4pA rdr = 4A
0
2

r12
From Eq. (1) E4 r12 = 4A / 0
2
A
E=
2 0

Q.35 The figure shows a charge q placed inside a cavity in an uncharged conductor. Now if an
external electric field is switched on then:

C
q

(A) only induced charge on outer surface will redistribute.

(B) only induced charge on inner surface will redistribute
(C) Both induced charge on outer and inner surface will redistribute.
(D) force on charge q placed inside the cavity will change

Sol. [A]
The distribution of charge on the outer surface, depends only on the charges outside, and it distributes
itself such that the net electric field inside the outer surface due to the charge on outer surface and all the
outer charges is zero. Similarly the distribution of charge on the inner surface, depends only on the
charges inside the inner surface, and it distributes itself such that the net, electric field outside the inner
surface due to the charge on inner surface and all the inner charges is zero.

Also, the force on charge inside the cavity is due to the charge on the inner surface. Hence answer is
option (A).

Q.36 The grid (each square of 1m × 1m), represents a region in space containing a uniform electric
field. If potentials at point O, A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H are respectively 0, –1, –2, 1, 2, 0, –1, 1 and 0
volts. find the electric field intensity.

409
 Solved Examples

D G H
C E F
A x
O B
1m
(A) ( î + ˆj )V/m (B) ( î – ˆj )V/m

(C) (– î + ˆj )V/m (D) (– î – ˆj )V/m

Sol. [B]
OEH is an equipotential surface, the uniform E.F. must be perpendicular to it pointing from higher to
lower potential as shown.
y

v=1 D G H v=0
9m C v=–1
E F
A x
O B

î – ĵ  
Hence E = 
 2 


(v E – vB ) 0 – (–2)
E= = = 2
EB 2
→ → (î – ĵ)
 E = E. E = 2 = î – ĵ
2

Q.37 A uniformly charged and infinitely long line having a linear charge density '' is placed at a
normal distance y from a point O. Consider a sphere of radius R with O as centre and R > y.
Electric flux through the surface of the sphere is-
𝟐𝛌𝐑
(A) zero (B)
𝛆𝟎
𝟐𝛌√𝐑𝟐 −𝐲 𝟐 𝛌√𝐑𝟐 +𝐲 𝟐
(C) (D)
𝛆𝟎 𝛆𝟎

Sol. [C]
q in
Electric flux  E.dS = 
S 0
qin is the charge enclosed by the Gaussian-surface which, in the present

case, is the surface of given sphere. As shown, length AB of the line lies inside the sphere.

410
Mr. Neetin Agrawal

O' y
O
A R

(y < R)
In OO'A R2 = y2 + (O'A)2
 O'A = R 2 − y2

and AB = 2 R 2 − y 2

Charge on length AB = 2 R 2 − y 2 × 

2 R 2 − y 2
 electric flux = 
S
E.dS =
0

Q.38 A small charged ball is hovering in the state of equilibrium at a height h over a large horizontal
uniformly charged dielectric plate. What would be the instantaneous acceleration of the ball if a
disc of radius r = 0.001 h is removed from the plate directly underneath the ball –
2 2
g r g h
(A)   (B)  
2 h 2 r
2
g  r 2 g h
(C)   (D)  
4 h 4 r
Sol. [A]
Equilibrium mg = Qe

qE
q
mg
h

.q

Now,  × r2 charged disc is removed as r is very less, we can treat disc as a point charge
Q q
 Unbalanced acceleration = 2
×
40 h m
Q =  × r2
mg
q=
E

411
 Solved Examples

Putting in acceleration expression

2
g r
a=  
2 h

Q.39 Two point charges q and –q are at positions (0, 0, d) and (0, 0, –d) respectively. What is the
electric field at (a, 0, 0)?
𝟐𝐪𝐝 𝐪𝐝
̂
𝐤 ̂
(A) 𝟐 𝟐 𝟑/𝟐
(B) 𝟐 𝟐 𝟑/𝟐 𝐤 𝟒𝛑𝛆𝟎 (𝐝 +𝐚 )
𝟒𝛑𝛆𝟎 (𝐝 +𝐚 )
−𝟐𝐪𝐝 −𝐪𝐝
(C) ̂
𝐤 (D) ̂
𝐤
𝟒𝛑𝛆𝟎 (𝐝𝟐 +𝐚𝟐 )𝟑/𝟐 𝟒𝛑𝛆𝟎 (𝐝𝟐 +𝐚𝟐 )𝟑/𝟐

Sol. [C]
Z
q A (0, 0, d)
d r (a, 0, 0)

At P there are two fields x
 p
EB
kq d
(1) Due to A = EA = 2
r –q B(0, 0, –d) EA
kq
(2) Due to B = EB = 2
r Enet
r = (a2 + d2)1/2 at angle 180 – 2 
1
Enet = 2EA cos (180 – ) = 2EAcos(90 – )
2
2kq d
= 2EA sin = 2
r (r )
2kqd
= in – z direction.
(a + d 2 ) 3 / 2
2

𝐐
Q.40 Let 𝐏(𝐫) = 𝐫 be the charge density distribution for a solid sphere of radius R and total
𝛑𝐑𝟒
charge Q. For a point ‘p’ inside the sphere at distance r1 from the centre of the sphere, the
magnitude of electric field is -
𝐐
(A) 0 (B)
𝟒𝛑∈𝟎 𝐫𝟏𝟐
𝐐𝐫𝟏𝟐 𝐐𝐫𝟏𝟐
(C) (D)
𝟒𝛑∈𝟎 𝐑𝟒 𝟑𝛑∈𝟎 𝐑𝟒

Sol. [C]
Q
P(r) = r
R 4
+ + +
+
+ +r + +
+ ++1 + +
++ + +
+ + + +
+++ +

From Gauss law

412
Mr. Neetin Agrawal

q en  VdV
 E.ds = 0
=
0
r1
Qr 4r 2 dr
= 
O
R 4
/ 0

Q r4
E.4r12 = 4
4 1
R 4
0
Qr12
E=
40 R 4

Q.41 A charge Q is placed at each of the opposite corners of a square. A charge q is placed at each
of the other two corners. If the net electrical force on Q is zero, then Q/ q equals –
(A) −𝟐√𝟐 (B) – 1
𝟏
(C) 1 (D) −
√𝟐

Sol. [A]
–q B a A Q

2a a

C D
Q –q
Since net force on charge Q is zero (Placed at corner A).
KQ 2  kQq 
+  2  =0
( 2a ) 2  a2 
kQ 2 – 2k Q q
 2
=
2a a2
Q
 = –2 2
q
So, option (1) is correct.

Q.42 Calculate the net force acting on the charge present at the origin -

q –q(a,a)

45º
q1 q
𝐤𝐪𝐪𝟏 𝐤𝐪𝐪𝟏 𝐤𝐪𝐪𝟏
(A) × √𝟐 (B) +
𝐚𝟐 √𝟐𝐚𝟐 𝟐𝐚𝟐
𝐤𝐪𝐪𝟏 𝟏 𝐤𝐪𝐪𝟏 𝟏
(C)
𝐚𝟐
(√𝟐 − 𝟐) (D)
𝐚𝟐
(𝟐 − √𝟐)

Sol. [C]

413
 Solved Examples

(0,a) q –q(a,a)

F'

F
q1 q
F" (a,0)

F
F" = 2F
2 kqq1
F" =
a2
kq1q kq1q
F' = =
( 2a ) 2
2a 2
 FNet = F" – F'
kqq1  1
=  2− 
a2  2

Q.43 Calculate the net force acting on q0 -

q
a a
q

a a
a q0
q q
a a
q
𝐤𝐪𝐪𝟎 𝐤𝐪𝐪𝟎
(A) (B) 𝟐
√𝟐𝐚𝟐 (𝐚/𝟐)
𝐤𝐪𝐪
(C) zero (D) 𝐚𝟐 𝟎
Sol. [D]
(1) q

F
(2) q
F
q0

q F q
(3) F (5)
q
(4)
Force due to (1), (2), (4) & (5) will cancel each other. Only force due to charge (3) will not get
kqq 0
cancelled, hence FNet = .
a2

414
 Mr. Neetin Agrawal

Electrostatics -2
Q.44 An uncharged metallic sphere of radius r is placed into an external uniform field, as a result of
which an induced charge appears on the sphere with surface density  = o cos, where o is a
positive constant and  is a polar angle. Find the magnitude of the resultant electric force acting
on like charges.
Sol: According to equation the force acting F
− − + +
on the area element d𝑆 is − +
− +
 dS − +
1 − d +
dF = E dS = (i)
2 2 o −  +
− +
From symmetry it follows that the resultant force F −
− +
is directed along the x−axis, and hence it can be − +
−
represented as the integral of the projections of − ++
− + + +
elementary forces (i) onto the x−axis.

dFx = dF cos
dS = (2 R sin) Rd = 2 R2 sin d
 R 2  o2
dF = dS = cos2 sin d ( = o cos )
2 o o
 o2 R 2
 dFx = dF cos = cos3 sin d
o
On integrating
/2
/2
 o2 R 2 3  o2 R 2 − cos 4 
Fx =
o
 cos  sin  d =  4
0 o 0

 o2 R 2
or Fx =
4 o
Q.45 Determine the electric potential and electric intensity A
at a distance r and at an angel  from the axis of the
dipole. r

Sol: The dipole moment can be resolved along and 

E⊥
 E||
perpendicular to the point A as shown. p
A
kp cos 
Thus V|| = 
r2 p cos 
V⊥= 0
kp cos 
Hence Vnet = V|| = 
r2 p sin 
Similarly,

415
 Solved Examples

2kp cos  kp sin 

E|| = , E⊥ =
3
r r3
The resultant electric field is
kp
E= E ⊥2 + E||2 = 3
3 cos 2  + 1
r
Q.46 The electric potential V at any point (x, y, z) in space is given by V = 6x2 volt, where all the
distances are measured in metre. The electric field at the point (1 m, 0, 2 m) is
(a) 12 î V/m (b) –12 î V/m
(c) 24 V/m (d) 𝟏𝟐√𝟓 V/m

Sol: The potential V is a scalar function, whereas the field E is a vector function. The three components of

E are given as
V 
Ex = − = − (6 x 2 ) = −12 x
x x
V 
Ey = − = − (6 x 2 ) = 0
y y
V 
Ez = − = − (6 x 2 ) = 0
z z

 E = −12 x i + 0 + 0 = −12 x ˆi
ˆ
at the given point, x = 1,

 E = -12 iˆ
Hence, answer (b) is correct.

Q.47 Three charges Q, +q and +q are placed at the vertices of a right- Q

angled isosceles triangle as shown. The net electrostatic energy of

the configuration is zero if Q is equal to

−𝐪 −𝟐𝐪
(a) (b) +q +q
𝟏+√𝟐 𝟐+√𝟐
(c) –2q (d) +q 

Sol:
kq2 kqQ kqQ
U=
a
+ a
+ =0
√2a
 (b)

Q.48 Two equal point charges are fixed at x = −a and x = +a on the x-axis. Another point charge Q is
placed at the origin. The change in the electrical potential energy of Q, when it is displaced by a
small distance x along the x axis, is approximately proportional to
(a) x (b) x2
(c) x 3 (d) 1/x

416
Mr. Neetin Agrawal

Sol: q q
(−a, 0) O (a, 0)
2KQq
Ui = a
KQq KQq 2KQqa
Uf = a+x
+ a−x = (a2−x2)
a 1 x2
U = Uf − Ui = 2KQq [a2−x2 − a] = 2KQqa [a(a2−x2)]
2𝐾𝑄𝑞𝑎𝑥 2
= (since 𝑎2 − 𝑥 2 ≈ 𝑎2 )
𝑎3
 (b)

Q.49 An electric dipole is placed at the origin and is directed along x-axis. At a point P, far away from
the dipole, the electric field is parallel to the y-axis. Then the angle  made by OP with the x-
axis is given by
𝟏
(a) tan  = (b) tan  = 1
√𝟐
(c) tan  = √𝟐 (d) tan  = 2

Sol: From the figure shown y

3
E⊥  kp sin   r tan  E
tan = = 3  =
E||  r  2 kp cos  2 E⊥ E||


x
Since  +  = 90o, therefore,
tan
tan = cot  =
2
or tan2= 2  tan = 2

Hence (c) is correct. p

Q.50 A conducting sphere of radius R, carrying charge Q, lies inside an uncharged conducting shell of
radius 2R. If they are joined by a metal wire,

(a) Q/3 charge will flow from the sphere to the shell
(b) 2Q/3 charge will flow from the sphere to the shell
(c) Q charge will flow from the sphere to the shell
Q2
(d) k amount of heat will be produced
4R

Sol: Often, a student wrongly applies the correct statement when two conducting bodies are joined by a
metal wire, their potential must become the same,
Q1 Q2 Q1 Q2
V = = or = (1)
C1 C 2 4  R 4 0 (2R )
Hence, Q2 = 2Q1. It shows that 2Q/3 charge flows from the sphere to the shell. Thus, answer (b) is
correct. But this application is wrong. This mathematic statement equation (1) is true only when the
two spheres are far apart from each other.

417
 Solved Examples

It is the basic property of the charge, that if resides on the outer surface of a conducting body. When
the inside sphere is joined with the outer shell, it becomes one body and the whole charge must reside
on the outer most surface. Therefore, whole charge Q will flow from the sphere to the shell. Hence,
answer (c) is correct.
Again, to calculate the amount of heat produced, we first calculate the initial and final energy,
Q2 Q2
Ei = and Ef =
2C1 2C 2
Q2  1 1 
 Heat produced = Ei − E f =  − 
2  4 R 4( 2 R) 
kQ2  1  kQ2
=  1 − =
2R 2  4R
Hence, answer (d) is also correct.

Q.51 A non-conducting solid sphere of radius R is charged uniformly throughout its volume. At what
distance from its surface is the electrostatic potential half of the potential at the centre?
(a) R (b) 4R/ 3
(c) R/ 3 (d) R/ 2

Sol: If charge Q is uniformly distributed throughout the volume of the sphere, the potential at any point
inside it is given as
Q
Vin = k (3R 2 − r 2 ) …(1)
2R 3
where r is the distance of the point from its centre. For any point outside the sphere,
kQ
Vout = …(2)
r
For the centre, r = 0,
3Q
Vc = k …(3)
2R
At the given point, the required potential is
V 3Q
V= c =k …(4)
2 4R
kQ
Since the potential at the surface is , therefore, the given point cannot lies inside the sphere.
R
Let the point lie outside the sphere, at a distance r from the centre.
Then as per Eq. (2)
Q
V = Vout = k
r
From Eq. (4), we have
Q 3Q
k =k
r 4R
4
 r= R
3
Note that this does not mean that answer (b) is correct. We have to determine the distance of the point
from the surface of the sphere, which is

418
Mr. Neetin Agrawal

4 R
d=r–R= R−R =
3 3
Hence, answer (c) is correct.

Q.52 The electric potential V at any point (x, y, z) in space is given by V = 6x2 volt, where all the
distances are measured in metre. The electric field at the point (1 m, 0, 2 m) is
(a) 12 î V/m (b) –12 î V/m
(c) 24 V/m (d) 12 5 V/m

Sol: The potential V is a scalar function, whereas the field E is a vector function. The three

components of E are given as
V 
Ex = − = − (6x 2 ) = −12x
x x
V 
Ey = − = − (6x 2 ) = 0
y y
V 
Ez = − = − (6x 2 ) = 0
z z

 E = −12x i + 0 + 0 = −12x iˆ
ˆ
at the given point, x = 1,

 E = -12 iˆ
Hence, answer (b) is correct.

Q.53 A uniform electric field pointing in positive x-direction exists in a region. Let A be the origin, B
be the point on the x-axis at x = +1 cm and C be the point on the y-axis at y = +1 cm. Then the
potentials at the points A, B and C satisfy:
(a) VA < VB (b) VA > VB
(c) VA < VC (d) VA > VC
Sol: Potential decreases in the direction of electric field.
 (b)

Q.54 Two thin wire rings each having a radius R are placed at a distance d apart with their axes
coinciding. The charges on the two rings are +q and -q. The potential difference between the
centers of the two rings is
𝐐 𝟏 𝟏
(a) zero (b) [ −
𝟒𝛑𝛆𝐨 𝐑
]
√𝐑𝟐 +𝐝𝟐
𝐐𝐑 𝐐 𝟏 𝟏
(c)
𝟒𝛑𝛆𝐨 𝐝𝟐
(d) [ −
𝟐𝛑𝛆𝐨 𝐑
]
√𝐑𝟐 +𝐝𝟐

Sol:
KQ KQ
VA = − √R2 (1)
R +d2
KQ KQ
VB = − + √R2 (2)
R +d2
Q 1 1
V A − VB = 2πε [R − √R2 ]
o +d2
 (d) is correct.

419
 Solved Examples

Q.55 Three concentric spherical metallic shells A, B and C of radii a, b and c (a < b < c) have surface
charge densities , –  and  respectively. If the shells A and C are at same potential, then the
correct relation between a, b and c is -
(A) a + c = b (B) b + c = a
(C) a – b = c (D) a + b = c

Sol: [D]
C +
–
B
+ 
A a
c b

Potential of shell A is,

1  4  a 2  − 4  b 2  + 4 c 2  
VA =  
4o  a b c 
 

= (a – b + c)
0
Potential of shell C is,
1  4 a 2  − 4  b 2  + 4  c 2  
VC =  
4 0  c c c 
 
  a 2 b2 
=  − + c
0  c c 
 
As VA = VC
   a 2 − b2 
 (a – b + c) =  + c
0 0  c c 
 

or a–b=
(a − b) (a + b) or a + b = c
c
Q.56 A positive point charge is placed at P in front of an earthed metal sheet S. Q & R are two points
between P & S as shown in figure. If the electric field strength at Q & R are respectively EQ & ER
P.
.Q
.R
.S

and potential at Q & R are respectively VQ & VR . Then-

(A) EQ > ER (B) EQ < ER
(C) VQ > VR (D) VQ < VR

420
Mr. Neetin Agrawal

Sol: [C]

As we are are moving away from P toward sheet S spacing between electric lines of force is
increasing.

 ER < EQ In direction of electric field potential decreases.  VR < VQ

Q.57 A hollow charged metal sphere has radius r. If the potential difference between its surface and a
point at a distance 3r from the centre is V, then electric field intensity at distance 3 r from the
centre is -
V V
(A) (B)
3r 4r
V V
(C) (D)
6r 2r

Sol: [C]
KQ KQ
VA – VB = –
r 3r
KQ 2 2 KQ
= ,V=
3r 3 r
KQ KQ 3 rV
E= = 2 =
(3r ) 2 9r 2 9r 2
V
E=
6r

Q.58 In an insulating medium (K = 1) volumetric charge density varies with y-coordinates according
to the law  = a.y. A particle of mass m having positive charge q is at point A(0, y0) and

projected with velocity v = v 0 î as shown in figure. At y = 0 electric field is zero. Neglect the
gravity and frictional resistance, the slope of trajectory of the particle as a function of y (E is only
along y-axis) is -

421
 Solved Examples

A
(0, y0)
x
𝐪𝐚 𝐪𝐚
(A)√ (𝐲 𝟑 – 𝐲𝟎𝟑 ) (B) √ (𝐲 𝟑 – 𝐲𝟎𝟑 )
𝐦𝛆𝟎 𝐯𝟎𝟐 𝟑𝐦𝛆𝟎 𝐯𝟎𝟐

𝐪𝐚(𝐲 𝟑 –𝐲𝟎𝟑 ) 𝐪𝐚(𝐲 𝟑 –𝐲𝟎𝟑 )

(C)√ (D) √
𝟓𝐦𝛆𝟎 𝐯𝟎𝟐 𝟐𝐦𝛆𝟎 𝐯𝟎𝟐

Sol: [B]
y

A E+dE

dy

E
A
x

Gauss law,
Ady
(E + dE) A – EA =
0
dy ay dy
dE = =
0 0
E y
a

0
dEy =
0  ydy
0
2
ay
Ey =
2 0
E is not present along x-axis
qE qay 2
a= =
m 2 m 0
dv qay 2
v =
dy 2 m 0
Integrating
y
qa
  y dy
2
vdv =
2 m 0
y0

v = calculated
vy v
Slope = =
vx v0

422
Mr. Neetin Agrawal

Q.60 What is the radius of the imaginary concentric sphere that divides the electrostatic field of a
metal sphere of a radius 20 cm & a charge of 8 C in two regions of identical energy -
(A) 30 cm (B) 40 cm
(C) 60 cm (D) 80 cm

Sol: [B] Energy between shell 1 & 2 = energy behind shell 2.

energy between
r =b 2
1  KQ 
shell 1 & 2 =  2
0 
2 
r 
 4r 2 dr
r =a
2
1
a

b
0 K 2Q2  1  K 2Q 2  1 1 
=  4  −  = 0 a − b
2  r a 2  
r = 2
1  KQ 
Energy beyond shell 2 =  0
2  r 2 
× 4r2dr
r =b
1 1
= 0 K 2Q2 × 4 b
2  
1 1 1 
 0 K 2Q2 × 4  − 
2 a b
1 1
= 0 K 2Q2 × 4 b
2  
1 2
=
a b
b = 2a
a = 20 cm
b = 40 cm

Q.61 Two charges q1 and q2 are placed 30 cm apart, as shown in the figure. A third charge q3 is
moved along the arc of a circle of radius 40 cm from C to D. The change in the potential energy
𝐪𝟑
of the system is k, where k is -
𝟒𝛑∈𝟎
q3
C

40cm
q1 q2
A 30cm B D
(A) 8q1 (B) 6q1 (C) 8q2 (D) 6q2

Sol: [C]

423
 Solved Examples

kq1q 3 kq1q 2 kq 2 q 3
U1 = + +
0.4 0.3 0.5
kq1q 2 kq 2 q 3 kq1q 3
U2 = + +
0.3 0.1 0.4
 q3 
 U = 8 kq2 q3 = 8q2    k = 8q2

 40 

Q.62 The variation of potential with distance R from fixed point is shown in figure. The electric field
at R = 5m is -
5
Potential in V →

3
2
1

0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Distance R in m →
(A) 2.5 V/m (B) –2.5 V/m
(C) 2/5 V/m (D) – 2/5 V/m

Sol: [A]
0−5
Slope = = −2.5  E = – (slope) = + 2.5 V/m
6−4

Q.63 In the given fig. the charge appears on the sphere is –

q
r

𝐪𝐝
(A) q (B)
𝐫
𝐪𝐫
(C) – (D) zero
𝐝
q1

Sol: [C]
q

The net potential on the surface of earthed conductor is zero.

424
Mr. Neetin Agrawal

q1 q
V= + =0
40 r 40d
q1 q
=–
40 r 40d
qr
 q1 = –
d

Q.64 Two particles having positive charges + Q and + 2Q are fixed at equal distance x from centre of
a conducting sphere having zero net charge and radius r as shown. Initially the switch S is open.
After the switch S is closed, the net charge flowing out of sphere is –

+Q x r x +2Q

Qr 2Qr
(A) (B)
x x
3Qr 6Qr
(C) (D)
x x

Sol: [C] Initially the potential at centre of sphere is

1 Q 1 2Q 1 3Q
VC = + =
40 x 40 x 40 x
After the sphere grounded, potential at centre becomes zero. Let the net charge on sphere finally be q.
1 q 1 3Q 3Qr
 + = 0 or q =
40 r 40 x x
3Qr
The charge flowing out of sphere is
x

Q.65 Figure shows three circular arcs, each of radius R and total charge as indicated. The net electric
potential at the centre of curvature is -
Q

45º
30º
–2Q

R
+3Q

Q Q
(A) (B)
20 R 40 R
2Q Q
(C) (D)
0 R 0 R

425
 Solved Examples

Sol: [A]
V = V1 + V2 + V3
1 Q 1  − 2Q  1  3Q 
= . + +
40 R 40  R  40  R 
1  2Q 
= .
40  R 

Q.66 Two points P and Q are maintained at the potentials of 10V and –4V, respectively. The work
done in moving 100 electrons from P to Q is?
(A) – 9.60 × 10–17 J (B) 9.60 × 10–17 J
–16
(C) – 2.24 × 10 J (D) 2.24 × 10–16 J

Sol: [D] W = q (V)

= q (Vf – Vi)
= – 100 × 1.6 × 10–19 (– 4 – 10)
= 1.6 × 14 × 10–17
= 2.24 × 10–4 J

Q.67 Two identical charges of value Q each are placed at (–a, 0) and (a, 0). The co-ordinates of the
points where net electric field is zero and maximum are respectively -
(A) (0, 0), (0, 0)
(B) (0, a/ 2 ), (0, 0)
(C) (0, 0), (0, a/ 2 )
(D) (a/ 2 , 0), (0, a/ 2 )

Sol: [C]

E E
 
(0,y)
 
E E
Q Q
(–a,0) (0,0) (a,0)
Net electric field will be zero at origin.
At any co-ordinate (0, y) ENet = 2E cos 2/2
kQy
=
(a 2 + y 2 ) 3 / 2
dE
For maximum electric field =0
dy
Solving y = ± a/ 2

Q.68 Two particles of masses m and 2m and charges 2q and 2q are placed in a uniform electric field E
and allowed to move for the same time. The ratio of kinetic energies will be -
(A) 2 : 1 (B) 8 : 1
(C) 4 : 1 (D) 1 : 4

426
Mr. Neetin Agrawal

Sol: [A]

F = 2qE
2q,m
E
2q, 2m F = qE

KE A 1 / 2 m A v 2A
=
KE B 1 / 2 m B v 2B
vA = uA + aAt
2qE
vA = t
m
2qE
vB = t
2m

KE A 1 m(2qEt ) 2
 = 2 m
KE B 1 2m(2qEt ) 2
2 2m

Q.69 Two uniformly long charged wires with linear densities  and 3 are placed along X and Y axis
respectively. Determined the slope of electric field at any point on the line y = √𝟑x.

√𝟑
(A) 3√𝟑 (B)
𝟑√𝟐

𝟏
(C) (D) √𝟑
𝟑√𝟑

Sol: [C]
y

3 (x, 3 x)

x

→ 3 
E = î + ˆj
2 0 x 2 0 x 3
Ey 1 1
Slope = = ÷3=
Ex 3 3 3

Q.70 Four charges + q each are located at the vertices of square ABCD of side a as shown in figure.
Find the electric field E at the midpoint of side BC -
B
A +q
+q
P•
+q
D +q C

427
 Solved Examples

𝟒 𝐚𝟐 𝟒 𝐪𝟐
(A) (B)
𝟓√𝟓𝛑∈𝟎 𝐪𝟐 𝟓√𝟓𝛑∈𝟎 𝐚𝟐
(C) 0 (D) none of the above

Sol: [B] E = E1 +E2 + E3 + E4

The component of E2 and E3 along the line will cancel each other then
E = E 1 + E4
The component perpendicular to BC will added up
2
a a 5
AP = AB2 + BP2 = a 2 +   =
2
  2

a 5 AB CD 2
DP = cos  = = =
2 AP DP 5
A B
 E2

E1
 E

E4

 E3
D C
 EP = E1 cos + E4 cos
1 q 2 4 q2
=2× . . =
4 0  
2
5 5 5 0 a 2
a 5 
 2 
 

Q.71 Two concentric conducting spheres of radii r1 and r2 (r1 < r2) carry electric charges of + Q and–
Q respectively. The region between the sphere is filled with two insulating layers of dielectric
constant 1 and 2 and width d1 and d2 respectively. Variation of potential and electric field with
radial distance from O is given. Select the correct one. (assume Vat r2 = 0)
d2
d1

O r1
+Q r2

–Q

V E

(A) (B)
r1 r1+d1 r2 r r1 r1+d1 r2 r

V E

(C) (D)
r1 r1+d1 r2 r r1 r1+d1 r2 r
Sol: (C)

428
Mr. Neetin Agrawal

d2
d1

r1

r2

Electric field
r < r1, E = 0
Q
r1 < r < r1 + d, E =
40 r 2 1
Q
r1 + d < r < r2, E =
40  2 r 2
r > r2, E = 0
 (B) and (D) is wrong
Potential can be found out by integrating
r


i.e. V = − E.dr = 0


Q.72 An electric charge 10–3 C is placed at origin (0, 0). Two points A and B are situated at (√𝟐¸√𝟐)
and (2, 0) respectively. The potential difference between the points A and B will be –
(A) 9 volts (B) zero
(C) 2 volts (D) 4.5 volts

A( 2 , 2)
r

q r B
Sol: [B] (2, 0)
kq kq kq
VA = = =
r 2
( 2) + ( 2) 2 2

kq kq kq
VB = = =
r 2
(2) + (0) 2 2

 VA – VB = 0

Q.73 An electric dipole is placed at an angle of 30º to a non-uniform electric field. The dipole
experiences -
(A) a torque as well as a translational force
(B) a torque only
(C) a translational force only in the direction of field
(D) a translational force only in a direction normal to the direction of the field

Sol: [A]

429
 Solved Examples

+q F1 = qE1

–q
F = – qE2

→
Q.74 In no Charges are placed on the vértices of a square as shown. Let E be the electric field and V
the potential at the centre. If the charges on A and B are interchanged with those on D and C
respectively, then –
q q
A B

D C
n-uniform field both force and torque is non zero. –q –q
→
(A) E remains unchanged, V changes
→
(B) Both E and V changes
→
(C) E and V remains unchanged
→
(D) E changes, V remains unchanged

Sol: [D]
q q
r r
O
E E
E r r E
–q
2E –q
ER 2E

kq kq kq kq
V0 = + – – =0
r r r r
kq
ER = 2 (2E) cos 45 = 2 2 2 – ˆj
r
After interchanging
2E ER
2E
–q –q
E
E
r EEr
r O r
q q
kq kq kq kq
V0 = + – – =0
r r r r

430
Mr. Neetin Agrawal

kq ˆ
ER = 2 2 j
r2
Hence Electric field will change.

𝟐𝟎
Q.75 The potential at a point x due to some charge is given by equation V(x) = volts. Then
(𝐱 𝟐 −𝟒)
electric field at x =4 is given by -

𝟓
(A) volt/m and in the –ve x direction
𝟑

𝟓
(B) volt/ m and in the +ve x direction
𝟑

𝟏𝟎
(C) volt/m and in the –ve x direction
𝟗

𝟏𝟎
(D) volt/m and in the +ve x direction
𝟗

Sol: [D]

V   20  20  2x
Ex = – î = –   î = î
x x  x 2 − 4  ( x 2 − 4) 2

40x 40  4 10
Ex = î = = in + x direction
( x 2 − 4) 2 144 9

Q.76 Two thin rings each of radius R are placed at a distance 'd’ apart. The charges on the rings are
+q and –q. The potential difference between their centers will be –

+q –q
+ –
+ R – R
+ d –
+ –
+ –

qR
(A)
40 d 2

q 1 1 
(B)  − 
20  R R 2 + d 2 

(C) zero

q 1 1 
(D)  − 
40  R R + d2
2 

431
 Solved Examples

Sol. [B]

+q –q

R R
A d B

kq kq
VA = –
R R + d2
2

−kq kq
VB = +
R R + d2
2
− + −

2kq 2kq
 VA – VB = –
R R 2 + d2

q 1 1 
 VA – VB =  − 
20  R R 2 + d 2 

Q.77 Calcualte the minimum value 'v' with which q should be projected so that it just reaches the
centre of the ring –

Q
+
+ R
+ q v
q, m
+ R
+
+

𝐤𝐐𝐪
(A) v = √ (𝟐 − √𝟐)
𝐦𝐑

𝐤𝐐𝐪
(B) v = √ (√𝟐 − 𝟐)
𝐦𝐑

𝐤𝐐𝐪
(C) v = √
𝐦𝐑

𝐤𝐐𝐪
(D) v = √ (𝟏 − √𝟐)
√𝟐𝐦𝐑

Sol: [A]

432
Mr. Neetin Agrawal

Q
+
+ R
+ v
q, m
+ R
+
+

U i + Ki = U f + Kf

kQq 1 kQq
+ mv2 = +O
2R 2 R

1 kQq  1 
mv2 = 1 − 
2 R  2

2kQq  1 
v= 1 − 
mR  2

kQq
v= (2 − 2 )
mR

Q.78 A point charge is surrounded by eight identical charges at a distance r as shown in figure. How
much work is done by the force of electrostatic repulsion when the point charge at the centre is
removed to infinity –

q
q • q
• •
r
q• q
•q

q• •q
•
q

𝟖𝐪𝟐
(A) zero (B)
𝟒𝛑𝛆𝟎 𝐫

𝟖𝐪 𝟔𝟒𝐪𝟐
(C) (D)
𝟒𝛑𝛆𝟎 𝐫 𝟒𝛑𝛆𝟎 𝐫

Sol: [B]

Work done = – U = Ui – Uf

8kq 2
= –O
r

8q 2
=
40 r

433
 Solved Examples

Q.79 An electric dipole has the magnitude of its charge as q and its dipole moment is p. It is placed in
a uniform electric field E. If its dipole moment is along the direction of the field, the force on it
and its potential energy are respectively -
(A) 2qE and minimum (B) qE and pE
(C) zero and minimum (D) qE and maximum

Sol: [C]

P
E

In uniform electric field, Fnet = 0 and

U = – PE cos  = – PE cos 0º

= – PE (minimum)

Q.80 A small conducting sphere of radius r is lying concentrically inside a bigger hollow conducting
sphere of radius R. The bigger and smaller sphere are charged with Q and q(Q > q) and are
insulated from each other. The potential difference between the sphere will be -
1 q q  1  q Q
(A)  –  (B)  – 
40  r R  40  R r 

1 q Q 1 Q q
(C)  –  (D)  + 
40  r R  40  R r 

Sol: [A]

Q
R
q
r

kq kQ
VA = +
r R

kq kQ
VB = +
R R

kq kq
 VA – VB = –
r R

→
Q.81 Figure shows three points A, B and C in a region of uniform electric field E . The line AB is
perpendicular, and BC is parallel to the field lines. Then which of the following holds good?

434
Mr. Neetin Agrawal

B C

(Where VA, VB and Vc represent the electric potential at the points A, B and C respectively)

(A) VA = VB = VC (B) VA = VB > VC

(C) VA = VB < VC (D) VA > VB = VC

Sol: [B]

Along electric field, potential decreases and perpendicular to field, potentials are same.

 VA = VB > VC

Q.82 Eight charges, each of the magnitude q are placed at the vertices of a cube placed in vacuum.
Electric potential at the centre of the cube due to this system of charges is - (0 is permittivity of
vacuum and a is length of each side of the cube)
𝟐𝐪 𝟒𝐪
(A) (B)
𝛑𝛆𝟎 𝐚 √𝟑𝛑𝛆𝟎 𝐚
√𝟑𝐪
(C) zero (D)
𝛑𝛆𝟎 𝐚
Sol: [B]

k (8q ) 16kq
Vcentre = =
a 3 a 3
2

4q
=
0 a 3

Q.83 A short dipole is placed along x-axis with centre at origin. The electric field at a point P, which is
→ →
at a distance r from origin such that 𝐎𝐏 = 𝐫 makes an angle of 45º with x-axis, is directed along
a direction making -

(A) tan–1(0.5) with x-axis

(B) /4 + tan–1(0.5) with x-axis

(C) /4 + tan–1(0.5) with y-axis

(D) tan–1(0.5) with y-axis

Sol: [B]

Angle of resultant with x-axis will be  + .

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 Solved Examples

ER
E⊥
 Eaxis

r P

–q O +q
P

 tan  
Angle = tan–1  + 
 2 

 tan 45 
= tan–1  +
 2 

= tan–1 (0.5) + /4

Q.84 An infinite conducting sheet of charge has surface charge density 𝛔. The distance between two
points is r. The potential difference (VA – VB) between these points is –


+
+
+ A B
+ r
+
+

𝛔𝐫 𝛔𝐫 𝛔 𝛔
(A) (B) (C) (D)
𝟐𝛆𝟎 𝛆𝟎 𝛆𝟎 𝐫 𝟐𝛆𝟎 𝐫

Sol: [A]

b
r

VA – VB = E.dr = E (b – a) =
a
2 0

Q.85 Two identical positive charges are placed on the y-axis at y = – a and y = + a. The variation of V
(potential) along x-axis is shown by graph –

V V

(A) x (B) x

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Mr. Neetin Agrawal

V V

(C) x (D) x

Sol: [A]

y
Q (0, a)

A
x
O 2kQ
V0 = a
x
Q (0, –a)

Potential at centre is

2kQ
V0 =
a

Potential at axis

2kQ
VA =
a2 + x2

At x =  V = 0

 Graph will be O at x = ±  and will be maximum at x = 0

Q.86 When a charge of 3 C is placed in a uniform electric field, it experiences a force of 3 × 103 N.
Within this field, potential difference between two points separated by a distance of 0.01 m is -

(A) 10 V (B) 102 V (C) 103 V (D) 3 × 103 V

Sol: [A]

3000 dV
E= = 103, E = , dV = 10 V
3 dr

Q.87 When two uncharged metal balls, each of radius 0.09 mm, collide, two electrons are transferred
between them. The potential difference between them would be -

(A) 16µV (B) 16 pV

(C) 32µV (D) 64µV

Sol: [D]

437
 Solved Examples

K
Potential of sphere = ± (Ze)
R

4Ke
 V = = 64 µV
R

Q.88 Two equal point charges are fixed at x = –a and x = + a on the x-axis. Another point charge Q is
placed at the origin. The change in the electrical potential energy of Q, when it is displaced by a
small distance x along the x-axis, is approximately proportional to -

(A) x (B) x2

(C) x3 (D) 1/x

Sol: [B]

A O B 2Kqq '
a
 Ui =
q q' a q a

Kqq ' Kqq '

if charge is displaced Uf = +
a+x a–x

(2x 2 )
U = Uf – Ui = Kqq'
a (a 2 − x 2 )

if x2 < < a2  U  x2

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Mr. Neetin Agrawal

Current Electricity
Q.89 The current in a wire varies with time according to the relation i = a + bt2, where current i is in
ampere and time t is in second; a = 4A, b = 2 As-2.

(a) How many coulombs pass a cross-section of the wire in the time interval between t = 5 s
and t = 10 s?
(b) What constant current could transport the same charge in same time interval?

Sol:

 (4 + 2t ) dt
10 10
2
(a) q = i dt =
5 5
10
2 3 2
= 4t + t = 4(10 − 5) + (1000 − 125) = 603.33 C
3 5 3
q 603.33
(b) Ie = = = 120.67 A
t 10 − 5

Q.90 The area of cross-section, length and density of a piece of a metal of atomic mass 60 gm/mole are
10-6 m2, 1 m and 5103 kg/m3 respectively. Find the number of free electrons per unit volume if
every atom contributes one free electron. Also find the drift velocity of electrons in the metal
when a current of 16 A passes through it. Given that Avogadro’s number NA = 61023/mole and
charge on an electron e = 1.610-19 C.

Sol:
According to Avogadro’s hypothesis,
N m N m N d m
= so n = = NA = A (as d = )
NA M V VM M V

 n=
(
6  1023  5  103 ) = 510 28 /m3
(60  10 ) −3

Now as each atom contributes one electron, the number of electrons per unit volume is also the same.

I 16
J= = = 16106 A/m2
S 10 −6
J 16  106
 vd = = = 2  10-3 m/s
( )(
ne 5  1028  1.6  10 −19 )
Q.91 Three resistances are connected to form the sides of a triangle ABC. What is the effective
resistance between A and B, if RAB = 40 , RBC = 60  and RAC = 100  ?

439
 Solved Examples

Sol: It is evident that RAC and RBC are in series. RAB is in parallel to C
this series combination.
RACB = 100 + 60 = 160  RAC RBC
160  40
 Req = RACB RAB = = 32 
160 + 40 A B
RAB
I I

Q. 92 An electric current of 5 A is divided in three branches forming a parallel combination. The

lengths of the wires in the three branches are in the ratio 2 : 3 : 4 and their diameters are in the
ratio 3 : 4 : 5. Find the currents in each branch if the wires are of the same material?

Sol: Let the lengths of the wires be 2L, 3L and 4L and their radii be 3r, 4r and 5r respectively. Then
2L 3L 4L
R1 =  , R2 =  , R3 = 
(3r )2 (4r )2 (5r )2
2 3 4
 R1 : R2 : R3 = : :
9 16 25
The currents must be in the inverse ratio
9 16 25
 I1 : I2 : I3 = : : = 54 : 64 : 75
2 3 4
54  5
 I1 = = 1.40 A
193
64  5
I2 = = 1.66 A
193
75  5
I3 = = 1.94 A
193

Q.93 In the circuit shown, find the applied voltage and the voltage across 5- resistor.
3 4
I
4.5 V

5

Sol: The voltage across 3- resistor is given as 4.5 V. Therefore, the current through this resistor is
4 .5
I= = 1.5 A
3
Since all the resistors are in series, the same current flows through all of them.
The total circuit resistance = (3 + 4 + 5)  = 12 
 The applied circuit voltage = 1.5  12 = 18 V
The pd across 5  resistor = 1.5  5 = 7.5 V

440
Mr. Neetin Agrawal

5 C 5
Q.94 Find the equivalent resistance across AB of
the circuit given.
10  25  20  5

A B

Sol: As a first step, the circuit may be redrawn as follows:

5  C 5 
10  5 
25  20 
A B
The left block is equivalent to 15 ohm and 25 ohm in parallel, and its resistance is given as
25  15
R1 = = 9.375 
25 + 15
The right block is equivalent to 10 ohm and 20 ohm in parallel, and its resistance is given as
10  20 200
R2 = = = 6.667 
10 + 20 30
The circuit now reduces to two resistors in series, as given below:
9.375  6.667 
A R1 C R2 B
Hence, the total resistance, R = R1 + R2 = 9.375 + 6.667 = 16.042 ohms

Q.95 Find the resistance of the following circuit, between points A and D.

2  3  6  I
A D

Sol: Let us redraw the circuit naming the junctions.

E
2  B 3  6  I
A C D

F
If in a circuit, any two or more points have the same potential, we can bring them together without
changing the currents through the resistances.
In the figure, A and C are points of same potential because the resistance of AEC is zero. For the same
reason, points B and D are also at the same potential. If we bring points A and C together and points B

441
 Solved Examples

and D together, we find that the three resistors are connected in parallel. To understand this, let us do
this process step by step as shown in figures.
C 6  D C 6  D
C 6  D

E 3  F 3  3 
E F
E F
2 
A B B A B
2  A 2 
Therefore, the equivalent resistance of the circuit is given by

1 1 1 1 3+2+1 6 1
= + + = = =
R 2 3 6 6 6 1

or R = 1 ohm

Q.96 2 m resistance wire of area of cross-section 0.5 mm2 has a resistance of 2.2 ohm. Calculate
(a) the specific resistance of the material of the wire,
(b) the length of the same wire which when connected in parallel with 2 m wire will give a
resistance of 2 ohm.

Sol:
L  RS
(a) As R =    ;  =
S  L
2.2  0.5  10 −6
 = = 5.510-7  m
2
(b) If R is the required resistance, then

R  2.2
=2
R + 2.2

or 2.2 R = 2R + 4.4  R = 22 

As length of wire per unit resistance is (2/2.2) m/, the length of wire having resistance 22  will be
22(2/2.2) = 20 m

Q.97 What is the equivalent resistance between points A and B in the networks shown in Fig.(A) and
(B) if each resistance is R?

R2 R1
A O
B
R3 R1 R2 R4 A B
R4 R3

(A) (B)

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Mr. Neetin Agrawal

Sol: (A) In this network, one end of all the four resistances is connected to A, while the other to B. The
potential difference across each resistance is same and is equal to the voltage applied between A and
B. So, the given four resistances are in parallel (as shown in Fig. (A)) and hence
1 1 1 1 1
= + + +
R ea R 1 R 2 R 3 R 4

But as here R1 = R2 = R3 = R4 = R, Req = R/4

R2 R1

R3 R2 O R4 A B
A B
R4 R3

R1

(A) (B)
(B) In this network, one end of each R1, R2 and R3 are connected to point O, while the other to B.
Therefore R1, R2 and R3 are in parallel resulting in a single resistance (R/3). This combination is in
series with resistance R4 between points O and A as shown in Fig. (B).
1 4
Req = R+R = R
3 3

Q.98 Calculate effective resistance between points A and C for the networks shown.

R
A B

R R
R R
R O R

D C
R

Sol: The two sides of the line BOD, are symmetrical. Thus, if the points A and C are connected to a source
of emf, points B, O and D of the network will have same potential. Therefore, no current flows
through RBO and RDO. These resistances can be ignored. The network then reduces to that shown in
figure.
R
A B

R
R R
O
R

D C
R

Thus, between points A and C, we now have three branches in parallel, each having resistance of 2R.
2R
 Req =
3

443
 Solved Examples

Alternately, since the points B, O and D are at same potential, we can treat them shorted.

A R
R R R
B
R R B,O R
R O  A C
R R D R
D
R C

R R 2R
 Req = + =
3 3 3

Q.99 Calculate the effective resistance between points A and C, by applying symmetry principle.
B

R R R
R R
D
A C
R

Sol: Break the branch AC into two resistors in series, each R/2, and consider the dotted line passing
through B, D and E. The network on the two sides of this line is symmetrical. Hence, one can short-
circuit the points B, D and E, and calculate (Req)AE.

R R R R R
R R  R R
D
B D
A C A C
R/2 E R/2 R/2 E R/2

Now, we find that resistances R, R and R/2 are in parallel across A and E. The parallel combination of
R and R gives R/2. This R/2 in parallel with R/2 gives R/4. Hence,
R
(Req)AE =
4

R R
 (Req)AC = 2(Req)AE = 2  =
4 2

Q.100 Twelve equal wires of resistances R each are joined up to form the edges of a cube, as shown in
figure. The cube is connected into a circuit across the diagonal AG. Find the equivalent
resistance of the network.

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Mr. Neetin Agrawal

D C

A
B
H G

E F

Sol: Let us search the points of identical potential. Since the three edges of the cube from A, viz., AB, AD
and AE are identical in all respects in the circuit, the points B, D and E are at the same potential.
Similarly, for the point G, the sides GC, GH and GF are symmetrical, and the points C, H and F are at
the same potential.
Next, to simplify the circuit, we bring together the points, B, D and E, and also C, H and F.

A D C G
B H
E F

Now, it becomes obvious that

the resistance between A and D = R/3

the resistance between D and C = R/6

the resistance between C and G = R/3

Thus, the circuit is equivalent to three resistances of value. R/3, R/6 and R/3, in series, and
hence the net resistance between A and G is

R R R 5R
RAG = + + =
3 6 3 6

Q.101 (a) Find effective resistance between points A and B of an infinite chain or resistors joined as
shown in Fig. (A).
(b) For what value of R0 in the circuit shown in Fig. (B) will the net effective resistance is
independent of the number of cells in the chain?

A R1 C R1 R1 C R1 R1 R1

R2 R2 R2 To infinity R2 R2 Ro

B D D

Fig. (A) Fig. (B)

445
 Solved Examples

Sol: (a) Suppose the effective resistance between A and B is Req. Since the network consists of infinite
sections, if we exclude one section from the chain, the remaining network would still have infinite
cells. The effective resistance between CD would also be Req. In other words, the given infinite chain
is equivalent to resistance R1 in series with parallel combination of R2 and Req.
A R1 C

Req R2 Req

B D

R2 Req
 Req = R1 + [ R2 ||Req ] = R1 +
( R2 + Req )

or Req2 − R1 Req − R1 R2 = 0 Req =

1
2

R1  ( R12 + 4 R1 R2 ) 
And as resistance can not be negative, we have

Req =
1
2

R1 1 + 1 + 4( R2 / R1 ) 

However, if R1 = R2 = R; Req =
1
2
 
R 1 + 5 = 1.6 R

(b) Suppose there are n sections between points A and B and the network is terminated by R0 with
equivalent resistance Req. Now, if we add one more to the network between the C and D, the
equivalent resistance of the network Req will be independent of number of cells if the resistance
between points C and D still remains R0.
C R1

R2 R0

R 2 R0
 R1 + = R0
( R 2 + R0 )

or R0 =
1
2

1 + 1 + 4( R2 / R1 ) 
If R1 = R2 = R,

R0 =
1
2
 
R 1 + 5 = 1.6 R

446
Mr. Neetin Agrawal

Q.102 Calculate the currents through each resistance in the given circuit. Also calculate the potential
difference between points a and b.
5 a 10 

10 V
6V 8V
4

Sol: Let the current through R1 be x and through R3 be y, as shown.

Applying KCL at junction a, the current through R2 will be (x – y).
5 10 
a (x – y)
+ − x y + −
R1 R2
E3 10 V
I + II E2
E1 6V 4 8V
R3
−
b

According to the assumed direction of currents, we mark the polarity of voltage drops across different
resistances.
Writing KVL for loop I : xR1 + E3 + yR3 – E1 = 0
or 5x + 10 + 4y – 6 = 0
or 5x + 4y = -4 (i)
Writing KVL for loop II :
(x – y) R2 + E2 – yR3 – E3 = 0
or (x – y)10 + 8 – 4y – 10 = 0
or 10x – 14 y = 2 (ii)
Solving equations (i) and (ii) gives
24 5
x= − A and y= − A
55 11
1
and x–y= A
55
The signs indicate that the directions of x and y were assumed incorrectly, whereas the assumed
direction of current x – y through R2 was correct.

Potential difference between a and b,

Vab = Potential of a with respect to b
= V a – Vb
= Potential rise when we go from b to a
−5 90
= yR3 + E3 =  4 + 10 = V
11 11

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 Solved Examples

Q.103 Two dissimilar cells of emfs E1 and E2 and internal resistances r1 and r2 respectively are
connected in parallel across a load resistance R, as shown. Find the emf and internal resistance
of the equivalent cell of this combination.

E1 r1

E2 r2
R

Load

Sol: Let I1 and I2 be the currents supplied by the two cells.

Let the current through load resistance R be I.

According to KCL at junction L,

I = I1 + I2 (1)

I1 E1 r1
A B Eeq
req
L O
E2 r2
I2

I C D
R R
M N
(A) (B)

For loop ALMNOBA, writing KVL equation,

E1 − IR
IR + I1r1 – E1 = 0 or I1 = (2)
r1
Similarly, for loop CLMNODC, the KVL equation,
E − IR
IR + I2r2 – E2 = 0 or I2 = 2 (3)
r2
Substituting the value of I1 and I2 from equation (2) and (3) into (1),
E E  1 1
I =  1 + 2  − IR + 
 r1 r2   r1 r2 
  1 1   E E 
i.e., I 1 + R +  =  1 + 2 
  r1 r2   r1 r2 

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Mr. Neetin Agrawal

−1 −1
  1 1    E E  1 1 
or I R +  +   =  1 + 2   +  (4)
  r1 r2    r1 r2   r1 r2 
Now if Eeq and req are the equivalent emf and internal resistance of a single cell as shown in Fig.(B),
by loop rule
IR – Ireq + Eeq = 0 or I(R + req) = Eeq (5)
So, comparing equations (4) and (5), we find that
−1 −1
1 1  E E  1 1 
req =  +  and Eeq =  1 + 2   +  (6)
 r1 r2   r1 r2   r1 r2 
r1r2 E1 r2 + E 2 r1
 req = and Eeq = (7)
r1 + r2 r1 + r2

Q.104 4 batteries each of 2 volts emf supplying a current of 2 amperes are available. Show by a circuit
diagram how these can be arranged to supply 4 amperes of current at 4 volts.

Sol: To get 4 V, two cells must be connected in series, and to get 4 amperes two cells must be
connected in parallel. Following two arrangements of cells are possible, which can supply 4 A at
4 V.
2V 2V 2V 2V
2A 2A 2A 2A 2A

4A
2A 2A 2A 2A
4A 4A
2A 2V 2V 2V 2V
4V 4V

(A) (B)

Q.105 The potential difference across a battery is 8.5 V when there is a current of 3 A in the battery
from the negative to the positive terminals. When the current is 2 A in the reverse direction, the
pd becomes 11 V. What is the emf and the internal resistance of the battery?

Sol: Let A, B represent the terminals of the cell. + − r

+ A I B
VAB = E – IR −
8.5 = E – 3R (i)
VAB = E + IR A + − r I B
11 = E + 2R (ii) + −
Solving (i) and (ii), we get,
E = 10 V and r = 0.5 

Q.106 A battery of emf 1.4 V and internal resistance 2  is connected to a resistor of 100 . In order to
measure the current through the resistance and the potential difference across its ends, an
ammeter is connected in series with it and a voltmeter is connected across its ends. The
resistance of the ammeter is 4/3  and that of the voltmeter is 200 . What are the readings of
the two instruments? What would be their reading if they were ideal instruments?

449
 Solved Examples

Sol: Let RA and RV be the resistances of the ammeter and voltmeter respectively. Then the total n
resistance across the emf E is

RRV 100 200 4

Req = + RA + r = + +2
R + RV 100 + 200 3

210 E
=  I + – r
3
1.4 V 2
Therefore, the current R Io
A
100  RA
E 1.4 V
Io = = = 0.02 A
R eq ( 210 / 3) RV

This is the current through ammeter. Hence, the reading of

ammeter is 0.02 A.

Reading of voltmeter = pd across its terminals

 RR  100 200
= I o 
V
 = 0.02 
 = 1.33 V
R + R   100 + 200 
 V 

If the ammeter and the voltmeter were ideal, RA = 0 and RV = . Then,

E 1.4
The reading of ammeter = = = 0.0137 A
r + R 2 + 100

1.4
The reading of voltmeter = I o R =  100 = 1.37 V
102

Q.107 A battery of emf 4 V is connected across a 10 m long potentiometer wire having a resistance per
unit length 1.6  m–1. A cell of emf 2.4 V is connected so that its negative terminal is connected
to the low potential end of the potentiometer wire and the other end is connected through a
galvanometer to a sliding contact along the wire. It is found that the no-deflection point occurs
against the balancing length of 8 m. Calculate the internal resistance of the 4 V battery.

E r

L
L–x
A B
x
G E1
Cell
2.4 V

Sol: emf of cell = (potential gradient)  (balancing length)

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Mr. Neetin Agrawal

VAB
E1 = x
L

VAB
or 2.4 = 8  VAB = 3 V
10

Consider the loop containing E. Applying potential divider concept,

RAB
VAB = E
RAB + r

1.6  10
 3=4
1.6  10 + r

 r = 16/3 

Q.108 An electrical circuit is shown in the figure. Calculate the potential difference across the resistor
of 400 ohm, as will be measured by the voltmeter of resistance 400 ohm, either by applying
Kirchhoff’s rules or otherwise.

400 

100  100  200 

100 

10 V

Sol: The equivalent resistance of the voltmeter and the B

100  200 
400- resistor in parallel is 200. The circuit is a
balanced Wheatstone bridge. A C

No current will flow through the 100 -resistor 100  200 

D
connected between B and D.
10 V

Q.109 In the network shown, each resistance is equivalent to R. The equivalent resistance between
points A and B is

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 Solved Examples

(a) R/3 C

(b) 2R/3

(c) R A B
O
(d) 4R/3

Sol: If a potential is applied across A and B, due to symmetry, the points C, O and D will have same
potentials. We can therefore join all these points without affecting current in any branch. The network
then reduces to

O O
A B B
A C,D
C,D

Therefore, the equivalent resistance is

R R 2R
Req = + =
3 3 3

Hence, answer (b) is correct

Q.110 In the given figure, current I enter the network at A and leaves at B. Then,

(a) no current flows between C and D

(b) current 3I/5 flows from D to C 20  C 5

(c) C and D are at the same potential A B

I
(d) the equivalent resistance between A and B
5 D 20 
is 8 

Sol: Since points C and D are joined, they must be at the same potential. Hence, answer (C) is correct.

Using symmetry, we can distribute the current in different branches as shown. Now,

20  C 5
I1 (I – I1)
A (I – I1) (I – 2I1) B
I I1

5 D 20 

VA − VD = VA − VC

452
Mr. Neetin Agrawal

or 5 (I – I1) = 20(I1)

or I1 = I/5

 Current flowing from D to C is

2 I 3I
= I – 2I1 = I – =
5 5

Hence answer (b) is correct.

Now, since C and D are joined, the network reduces to

20  C 5
4 C 4
A B A D B
5 D 20 

Thus, the equivalent resistance

RAB = 8 

Hence, answer (d) is correct.

Q.111 Three voltmeters A, B and C, having resistances R, 1.5R and 3R, respectively, are connected as
shown. When some potential difference is applied between X and Y, the voltmeter readings are
VA, VB and VC respectively. Then,

(a) VA  VB = VC A
B
X Y
(b) VA = VB  VC C
(c) VB  VA = VC

(d) VA = VB = VC

Sol: The division of current I into the two parallel branches will be as shown,

 VA = IR

 2I 
VB =   1.5 R = IR
 3 

I
VC =   3R = IR
3

 VA = VB = V C

Hence, (d) is correct.

453
 Solved Examples

Q.112 In the circuit shown, the cell is ideal with emf = 15V, and each resistance is 6. The potential
difference across the capacitor is

B 3 F
(a) 15 V (b) 12 V

(c) 9 V (d) zero R

R R
R
A D
+ –
15 V

Sol: When the capacitor is fully charged, it draws no current. Therefore, the capacitor branch can be
removed from the circuit,

So that the net resistance across the battery B

becomes
0.5 A 6 6
1A 1.5 A
6  12 A D
Rnet = +6 6 C
6 + 12 6
1.5 V
+ –
= 4 + 6 = 10 
15 V
V 15
 I= = = 1.5 A
Rnet 10

At junction A, the current of 1.5 A divides into two parallel branches in the inverse ratio of their
resistances. The voltage drop from B to D is

VBD = 0.56 + 1.56 = 3 + 9 = 12 V

Since there is no current through the resistance in series with capacitor, the voltage across capacitor
will be same as VBD.

Hence, answer (b) is correct

Q.113 Two cells of unequal emfs, E1 and E2 and internal resistances r1 and r2 are joined in parallel as
shown.

(a) the p.d. across both the cells will be equal A

(b) one cell will continuously supply energy to the other

+ +
(c) the p.d. across one cell will be greater than its emf E1, r1 E2, r2

E1 r2 + E2 r1
(d) VAB =
r1 + r2 B

Sol: Suppose E1 > E2, then the current in the circuit,

454
Mr. Neetin Agrawal

E1 − E2
I=
r1 + r2

VAB = E2 + Ir2  VAB > E2

Hence, answer (c) is correct.

Answer (a) is correct because the two cells are in parallel. The current I enters positive terminal of cell
2, hence it is continuously absorbing energy. This energy is supplied by cell 1. Hence, answer (b) is
correct.

Now,

(E1 − E2 ) E r + E2 r2 + E1 r2 − E2 r2 E1 r2 + E2 r1
VAB = E2 + Ir2 = E2 + r2 = 2 1 =
(r1 + r2 ) r1 + r2 r1 + r2

Hence, answer (d) is correct.

Q.114 The figure shows a potentiometer circuit, in which E1 is the emf of the driving cell and E2 is the
emf of the cell which is to be determined. AB is the potentiometer wire, G is the galvanometer
and J is the sliding contact. Which of the following are the essential conditions for obtaining a
balance?

(a) the resistance of G must be less than the

resistance of wire AB

(b) the positive terminals of both E1 and E2 must

be connected to point A E1

(c) either the positive terminals or the negative A B

J
terminals of both E1 and E2 must be connected
to point A E2
G
(d) E1 must be greater than E2

Sol: When balanced, no current flows through G. Hence, the resistance of G is immaterial for balance.
Therefore, answer (a) is not correct.

Since the potential VAJ is to be balanced with the emf E1 so either the positive terminals or the
negative terminals of both E1 and E2 may be connected to A. Thus, answer (c) is correct.

Since VAJ < VAB, the emf E2 < E1.

Hence, answer (d) is correct.

Q.115 The given network is a part of a bigger network. Determine the value of current flowing in
resistor R6.

455
 Solved Examples

I1 = 3A
10 
(a) 9 A (b) 8 A 5 R1 20 
I2 = 5A R2 R3 I3 = 1A
(c) 7 A (d) 1 A 7 9
R4 R6 R5
20 
I

Sol: The current I in R6 can be calculated by applying Kirchhoff’s current law. However, here it is not
necessary to first find the currents through individual resistances, R2, R3, R4 and R5. Instead, we can
treat the whole network inside the dotted box as a single junction. To this junction, currents I1 and I2
are entering and currents I3 and I are leaving. Hence, according to KCL,

I1 + I2 – I3 – I = 0

or I = I1 + I2 – I3

=3+5–1

=7A

Hence, answer (c) is correct.

Q.116 Electric field inside a conductor carrying current is

(a) zero

(b) constant

(c) directly proportional to the length of the conductor

(d) none of these

Sol: Electric field inside a conductor carrying current is equal to the potential gradient which is applied
emf / length of the conductor.

So (b) is correct.

Q.117 N cells each of emf e and internal resistance r, are connected as shown in figure. The potential
difference between points A and B dividing the circuit into n and N – n cells is

A
(a) e (b) 0

(c) ne (d) (N – n)
B

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Mr. Neetin Agrawal

Sol: The circuit can be redrawn as shown in figure.

ne, nr

B A

(N-n)e, (N-n)r

By the circuit equation

ne + (N − n )e e
i= =
nr + (N − n )r r

VBA = ir − e = nre / r − (ne) = ne − ne = 0

 (b)

Q.118 A heater coil is cut into two equal parts and only one part is now used in the heater. The heat
generated will now be

(a) One fourth (b) halved

(c) Doubled (d) four times

V2
Sol: H= t
R

1
H
R

Since R is halved, H will be doubled.

 (c) is correct.

Q.119 Two voltmeters, one of copper and another of silver, are joined in parallel. When a total charge
q flows through the voltmeters, equal amount of metals are deposited. If the electrochemical
equivalents of copper and silver are z1 and z2 respectively the charge which flows through the
silver voltameter is

𝒛𝟏 𝒛𝟐
(a) 𝒒 (b) 𝒒
𝒛𝟐 𝒛𝟏
𝒒 𝒒
(c) 𝒛 (d) 𝒛
𝟏+ 𝟏 𝟏+ 𝟐
𝒛𝟐 𝒛𝟏

Sol: Mass deposited = z1q1 = z2q2

457
 Solved Examples

q1 z 2
=
q 2 z1

q1 + q 2 z1 + z 2
 =
q2 z1

q
 q2 =
z
1+ 2
z1

 (d) is correct.

Q.120 In the circuit, the galvanometer G shows zero deflection. If the batteries A and B have negligible
internal resistance, the value of the resistor R will be

500 
G

2V
A
12 V R
B

(a) 500  (b) 1000 

(c) 200  (d) 100 

Sol: Current in left half circuit,

12
I= (1)
500 + R

Galvanometer will show no deflection if

IR = 2 (2)

From (1) and (2),

R = 100

 (d) is correct.

Q.121 Two sources of equal emf are connected to an external resistance R. The internal resistances of
the two sources are R1 and R2 (R2 > R1). If the potential difference across the source having
internal resistance R2 is zero, then

458
Mr. Neetin Agrawal

R1 R2 R1 R2
(a) R = (b) R =
R1 + R2 R2 − R1

(c) R = R2
(R1 + R2 ) (d) R = R2 − R1
(R2 − R1 )
2E
Sol: I=
R + R1 + R2

According to given condition

E = IR2

2 ER 2
 E=
R1 + R2 + R

 R = R2 − R1

 (d) is correct.

Q.122 Two sources of equal emf are connected to an external resistance R. The internal resistances of
the two sources are R1 and R2 (R2 > R1). If the potential difference across the source having
internal resistance R2 is zero, then

R1 R2 R1 R2
(a) R = (b) R =
R1 + R2 R2 − R1

(R1 + R2 )
(c) R = R2 (d) R = R2 − R1
(R2 − R1 )
2E
Sol: I=
R + R1 + R2

According to given condition

E = IR2

2 ER 2
 E=
R1 + R2 + R

 R = R2 − R1

 (d) is correct.

459
 Solved Examples

Q.123 A conductor has a square cross-section, 2.0 mm on a side, and is 12 m long. The resistance
between its ends is 0.072 .
(a) What is the resistivity of the material?
(b) If the magnitude of the electric field in the conductor is 0.12 V/m, what is the total current?
(c) If the material has 81028 free electrons per cubic metre, find the average drift velocity
under the condition of part (b).

Sol: S = (210-3)2 = 410-6 m2, L = 12 m, R = 0.072 

RS 0.072  4  10−6
(a)  = = = 2.410-8  m
L 12
V
(b) Given E = = 0.12
L
 V = EL = 0.12  12 = 1.44 V
V 1.44
 I= = = 20 A
R 0.072
(c) The drift velocity is
I 20
vd = = = 3.910-4 m/s
enS 1.6  10−19  8  1028  4  10−6

Q.124 In the circuit shown, the emf of the cell is 1.8 V and its internal resistance is (2/3) . Calculate:

(a) the current in 3  resistor R1 = 3 

(b) the power consumed by the circuit from the 8 4

battery
2 6
Sol: The group of 8  and 2  (in parallel) in series
with the group of 4  and 6  (in parallel), we have R3 = 6 
E r

8 2 46 I1 R1 = 3 
R2 = +
8+2 4+6
R2 = 4 
= 1.6 + 2.4 = 4 
R3 = 6 
With this simplification the given circuit reduces to
as show in figure. I E (2/3) 
A B
So, the total resistance of the circuit, 1.8 V r

4 2
Req = R + r = + =2
3 3

460
Mr. Neetin Agrawal

E 1.8
I = = = 0.9 A
R eq 2

Therefore, as the battery is discharging, its terminal voltage is

2
V = VA – VB = E – Ir = 1.8 – 0.9  = 1.2 V
3

Thus, a voltage of 1.2 V is applied across the parallel combination of 3 , 4  and 6 . The current in
3  resistor is

V 1.2
I1 = = = 0.4 A
R1 3

(b) As the current supplied by the battery is 0.9 A and its terminal voltage is 1.2 V, the power given by
the battery, or the power consumed by the circuit is

P = VI = 1.2  0.9 = 10.8 W

Q.125 In the given arrangement, three resistances R1, R2 and R3 connected in series are put across a
galvanometer of resistance G = 25 , and full-scale deflection

of 10 mA. The meter behaves as an ammeter of three G

different ranges. The range is 0 - 10 A, if the terminals O R1 R2 R3
and P are taken; range is 0 - 1 A between O and Q; range
is 0 - 0.1 A between O and R. Calculate the resistances R1,
0.1 A
R2 and R3. O P10 A Q 1 A R

Sol: Between O and R (Range = 0 - 0.1 A): Ig

G
The current through G is 10 mA when I = 0.1 A.
R1 R2 R3
By current division concept, I
O R 0.1 A
( R1 + R2 + R3 )
Ig = I
( R1 + R2 + R3 + G)

( R1 + R2 + R3 )
or 10  10− 3 = 0.1 
( R1 + R2 + R3 ) + 25

 R1 + R2 + R3 = 25/9  …(i)

Between O and Q (Range = 0 – 1 A) : Ig

G
Now (R1 + R2) is in parallel across (G + R3), By current R1 R2 R3
division,
I
O Q 0.1 A

461
 Solved Examples

 R1 + R2 
Ig = I  

 R1 + R2 + R3 + G 

 R1 + R2 
or 10  10− 3 = 1   
 [from Eqn. (i)]
 ( 25 /9) + 25 

 25  1 5
 R1 + R2 =  + 25  =  …(ii)
 9  100 18

From Eqn. (i) and (ii), we have

R3 = 25/9 – 5/18 = 2.5 

Between O and P (Range = 0 - 10 A) : Ig

G
Now R1 is in parallel across (G + R3 + R2), R1 R2 R3

 R1  I
Ig = I  
 O P 0.1 A
 R1 + R2 + R3 + G 

 R1 
or 10  10− 3 = 1   
 [from Eqn. (i)]
 ( 25/9) + 25 

1  25  1
 R1 =  + 25 =   …(iii)
1000 9  36

From Eqn. (ii) and (iii), we get

R1 = 0.0278 

R2 = 0.25 

Q.126 In the circuit, a voltmeter reads 30 volts when it is connected across the 400- resistance. What
would be the reading of the same voltmeter when connected across the 300-ohm resistance?

Sol: Let the effective resistance of the voltmeter and R1 (= 400 ) in parallel be R1 . Then, potential
divider concept gives

R1
30 = 60 
( R1 + 300)

or R1 = 300 

But, if r is the resistance of voltmeter,

462
Mr. Neetin Agrawal

400  r 400r
R1 = or = 300 or r = 1200 
( 400 + r ) ( 400 + r )

Now, when this voltmeter is connected across R2 (= 300 ), the effective resistance

R2  r 300  1200
R2 = = = 240 
( R2 + r ) ( 300 + 1200)

Therefore, the potential difference across R 2 or the voltmeter reading is

R2 240
V2 = V=  60 = 22.5 V
( R2 + R1 ) ( 240 + 400)

Q.127 Find the equivalent resistance between A and B.

30  4
B
6
10 
A 8
5

10 

Sol: The 30  resistor and 6  resistor are in parallel. Also, the 5  is in parallel with 10  resistor.
Hence, the given network is equivalent to the one shown here.

5 4
B
A
10 8
10  
3

This is a balanced Wheatstone bridge, as

5 10
=
4 8

10
Therefore, the detector arm of  resistance can be ignored.
3

9  18
 Req = (5 + 4)||(10 + 8) = (9)||(18) = =6
9 + 18

Q.128 Five equal resistances, each of the value R, are connected to form a network as shown. Calculate
the equivalent resistance of the network between the points

(a) B and D, (b) A and C, and (c) A and B.

463
 Solved Examples

B B
R1 = R R2 = R
R R

G=R
A R C  A C
O O
R R R4 = R
R3 = R
D D

(A) (B)

Sol: (a) For point B and D, resistance (R1 + R3) G and (R2 + R4) are in parallel.

1 1 1 1 1
 = + + or ( Req )BD = R
( Req )BD 2 R 2 R R 2

(b) For points A and C, the given network is a balanced Wheatstone bridge as (R1/R2) = (R3/R4).

So ignoring G,

1 1 1
= + or (Req )AC = R
( Req )AC 2 R 2 R

(c) For points A and B, starting from opposite side of AB, (R2 + R4) in parallel with G gives

2R  R 2
RBCD = = R
( 2 R  R) 3

This RBCD in series with R gives

2 5
RBDO = R+R = R
3 3

And this RBDO in parallel with R1 gives the equivalent resistance between AB,

( 5 / 3 )R  R 5
( Req )AB = or (Req )AB = R
( 5 / 3 )R  R 8

Q.129 Calculate the equivalent resistance between points A and C in the given network.

2 E
D

2 2
2 2
A C
2 B
2

Sol: Let us break the branch DE into series combination of two resistances, 1  each. Consider the dotted
line passing through points F and B. On two sides of this line, the network is symmetric. The points F
and B will be at same potential, and hence can be shorted together, without affecting the network.

464
Mr. Neetin Agrawal

D 1 1 E D E
F 1 1
2 
2 2 2 2 2
2 2
A C A C
2 B 2 B,F

Obviously, (Req)AC = 2 (Req)AB. So, let us determine (Req)AB. The resistance of 1  and 2  are in
2 2
parallel, giving  . This is in series with 2 , giving 2 + = 8/3 . This 8/3  is parallel with 2 ,
3 3
giving

2  8 / 3 16 / 3 16 8
(Req)AB = = = = 
2 + 8 / 3 14 / 3 14 7

8 16
(Req)AC = 2(Req)AB = 2  = 
7 7

Q.130 What is the value of shunt which passes 10% of the main current through a galvanometer of 99
ohms.

Sol: As the shunt is a small resistance S in parallel with a galvanometer

(of resistance G),

IgG (I – Ig)
(Io – Ig) S = Ig* Gor S=
( I − Ig )
S
Here, G = 99  and G
I Ig
Ig = (10/100) Io = 0.17

0.1I o  99 0.1
S = =  99 = 11 
( I − 0.1 I o ) 0.9

Q.131 If a shunt of value (1/n) times the galvanometer resistance is applied to a moving coil
galvanometer, by what factor will its current sensitivity change?

Sol: If  and  are the deflection in the original galvanometer and shunted galvanometer, by a current I, we
have

 
CS = and CS  =
I I

465
 Solved Examples

(I – Ig)
S
I  
G G
I Ig

The deflection in a galvanometer is proportional to the current passing through the galvanometer.

 Ig
=
 I

 1  Ig  Ig   
 CS = =   = CS as Ι = CS 
I II  I

And for the shunted galvanometer with S = (G/n),

G I
( I − Ig ) = IgG or Ig =
n ( 1 + n)

CS
 CS =
( 1 + n)

Thus, the current sensitivity reduces by (n + 1) time.

Q.132 When a galvanometer is shunted with a 4 resistance, the deflection is reduced to one-fifth. If the
galvanometer is further shunted with a 2 wire. the further reduction (find the ratio of decrease in
current to the previous current) in the deflection will be (the main current remains the same)

(A) (8/13) of the deflection when shunted with 4  only

(B) (5/13) of the deflection when shunted with 4  only

(C) (3/4) of the deflection when shunted with 4  only

(D) (3/13) of the deflection when shunted with 4  only

Sol. [A]

Case I

I  I
Rg × = I −  × 4
5  5

 Rg = 16 

Case II

466
Mr. Neetin Agrawal

I I1 Rg = 16
G

4

2

4 2
16 I1 = (I–I1)  I1 = I/13
6

So decrease in current to previous current

I / 5 − I / 13 8
= =
I/5 13

Q. 133 In an experiment according to set up, when E1 = 12 volt and internal resistance zero, E = 2 volt.
The galvanometer reads zero, then X would be-

500 
A G B
E1 X E
D C

(A) 200 (B) 500

(C) 100 (D) 10

Sol. [C]

Voltage across X is 2V

 E1 
So   X = 2
 500 + X 

 12 
   X = 2
 500 + X 

 12 X = 1000 + 2X

 10X = 1000 X = 100

Q.134 In the given circuit, the voltmeter reading is 4.5 V. Assuming that the voltmeter is ideal, current
through 12 resistance is -

467
 Solved Examples

V
9
10
3
12 2
6 15

20
I I

(A) 1 A (B) 0.5 A

(C) 0.25 A (D) 0.1 A

Sol. [B]

The voltmeter is ideal, its resistance Rv →  Fig. shows the current distribution in the circuit.
Voltmeter will not draw any current.

I1' 9
I1' 10
I1'
I '2 I '2
I1 A 3
I1 I1'' I '2' I '2' I1 2
I1 I1
''

6 12
O I '2'' I '2''
I1 I1
20 15
I I–I1 I–I1 I

Potential difference across 9  resistance = 4.5 V (given) Hence, current in 9 resistance

4 .5 V
= = 0.5 A (I = )
9 R

i.e., I1' = 0.5 A

The same current ( I1' ) passes through 3. Obviously, 9  and 3  are in series and their equivalent,
i.e., 12 is in parallel with 6  between A and B. Dividing the current in the inverse ratio of
resistances between A and B,

I1' 6 1
= =
I1'' 12 2

I1'' = 2 I1' = 2 × 0.5 = 1 A

and I1 = I1' + I1'' = 0.5 + 1 = 1.5 A

468
Mr. Neetin Agrawal

at junction C, I1 divides into three parts. Since the resistances 10, 12, 15  are in parallel between
C and D, current will distribute in the inverse ratio of resistances.

1 1 1
 I '2 : I '2' : I '2'' = : :
10 12 15

=6:5:4

5
I '2 = × 1.5 = 0.5 amp
15

So I '2 = 6k, I '2' = 5k, I '2'' = 4k

(k being a constant of proportionality)

and I1 = I '2 + I '2' + I '2'' = 15k

but I1 = 1.5 A

 15 k = 1.5

or k = 0.1

so I '2' = 5k = 0.5 A

Thus, current through 12 resistance is 0.5 A

469
 Solved Examples

Capacitor
Q.135 A parallel plate capacitor has plates of area
A separated by a distance d. A metal block
of thickness h is inserted midway between d h
the plates, as shown in the figure (45). Find
the capacitance of the system.

Sol: The system can be idealized as shown in the

fig. (46). It is a system of two capacitors in
series. The capacitance of each capacitor is
given by d −h
C
2
 o A 2 o A
C= =
d −h d −h
2 d −h
C
The equivalent capacitance is 2

C o A
Ceq = =
2 d −h

1
Q.136 The Fig. shown a system of parallel 2 a
conductors. Each plate is of equal area A
and equally separated by d. Find the 3 b
equivalent capacitance of the system 4
between a and b.
A system of parallel plate conductors

Sol: By joining the points of same potential, the arrangement of conductors may be reduced as shown in
the fig. (47 b).
If the capacitance between two a
successive plates is given by 2
 A 1 2
C=
d 4 3
then, the equivalent capacitance of the 3
b
system is given by

3C 3   A
Ceq = =
2 2 d

470
Mr. Neetin Agrawal

Q.137 A dielectric slab of thickness h and dielectric + + + + + + qo

constant  is inserted into a parallel plate
capacitor with plates of area A, separated by a Eo
q
distance d, as shown in the figure. The capacitor
is charged to a value qo and the battery is
d + − +− E + −  h

disconnected before inserting the slab. Eo

(a) Find the capacitance of the capacitor qo
− − − − − −
(b) Find the magnitude of the induced charges q

Sol: (a) The electric field strength in air is

 q
Eo = = o
o o A
The electric field in the dielectric is

Eo
E=

The total potential difference between the two plates is

 h  qo  h
V = Eo (d − h) + Eh = Eo d − h +  =  d −h+ 
   A  

qo  A
Thus, C= =
A h
( d − h) +

(b) Applying Gauss law for the surface
shown in the figure, we have + + + + + + qo

  q net Eo
 E.dS =  q
 + − +− E + −  h

qo − q Eo
 EA =
 − − − − − −
qo

qo q
or E= − (i)
 A  A

Eo q
Since E= = o (ii)
 k  A
Using (i) and (ii)

qo q q
= o −
 A   A   A

471
 Solved Examples

 1
or q = qo 1 − 
 

Q.138 Consider the situation shown in the figure. The capacitor

A has a charge q on it whereas B is uncharged. The q
charge appearing on the capacitor B a long time after +
the switch is closed is +
+
(a) zero (b) q/2
+ S
(c) q (d) 2q +
+
Sol: As the negative charge on the plate of capacitor A is bound,
A B
it will not move upon closing the switch.
 (a)
Q.139 Two identical capacitors, have the same capacitance C. One of them is charged to potential V1
and the other to V2. The negative ends of the capacitors are connected together. When the
positive ends are also connected, the decrease in energy of the combined system is

(a)
1
4
(
C V12 − V22 ) (b)
1
4
(
C V12 + V22 )
1 1
C (V1 − V2 ) C (V1 + V2 )
2 2
(c) (d)
4 4
1 1
Sol: Initial energy of combined system U 1 = CV12 + CV22
2 2

V1 + V2
Final common potential, V =
2
2
1  V + V2 
Final energy of system, U 2 = 2  C  1 
2  2 

1
C (V1 − V2 )
2
Hence loss of energy = U 1 − U 2 =
4

(c)

Q.140 The plates of a parallel plate capacitor are 5 mm apart and 2 m2 in area. The plates are in
vacuum. A potential difference of 10 000 V is applied across the capacitor. Calculate

(a) the capacitance,

(b) the charge on each plate,

(c) the electric field in space between the plate,

472
Mr. Neetin Agrawal

(d) the energy stored in the capacitor.

 0 A 8.5  10 −12  2
Sol: (a) C = =  C = 3.54 nF.
d 5  10 − 3

(b) Q = CV = (0.00354  10−6)  (10 000)

Q = 3.54  10−5 C = 35.4 C

V 10 000
(c) E = = V/m = 20  105 N/C
d 5  10− 3

Or alternatively,

 Q 354  10−5
E= = = = 20  105 N/C
  A 8.85  10− 12  2

U = ½ CV 2

U = ½  (3.54 10−9) (10 000)2 = 0.177 J.

Q.141 Two metal plates form a parallel plate capacitor. The distance between the plates is d. A metal
plate of thickness b (= d/2) and same area is inserted completely between the plates. What is the
ratio of the capacitance in the two cases?

Sol: Before the introduction of the slab, the capacitance of the system,

q q
C0 = = [as E = (V/d)]
V (Ed)

A  A  
or C0 = =  as q = A and E =  … (1)
( )d d   

When the metal slab of thickness b is introduced between the plates [Fig. (A)], the system
becomes equal to two capacitors C1 and C2 in series (as metal slab is an equipotential surface) as
shown in Fig. (B). Therefore, the capacity C of the system is given by

1 1 1 1 (d − b − y ) y   A
= + or = + as C =  
C C1 C 2 C  A  A  d 

1 ( d − b)  A
or =  C=
C  A ( d − b)

473
 Solved Examples

V V
C1 d−b−y
V
d b Metal
V
y C2 y
O O

Fig. (A) Fig. (B)

But here, b = d/2. Therefore,

0 A  A
C= = 2  = 2C0
d /2 d

C 2C 0
 The ratio of capacitance = = =2
C0 C0

Q.142 The distance between the plates of a parallel plate capacitor of capacitance C is d. A slab of
dielectric constant K and thickness 3d/4 is inserted between the plates. What is the capacitance
of the system now?

Sol: We know that

C
C =
t t
1− +
d dK

Here t = 3d/4

C 4K 4K
 C = = C= C
3 3 4 K − 3K + 3 K +3
1− +
4 4K

Q.143 slab is inserted inside a parallel–plate capacitor whose capacitance is 20 F without the slab.
The thickness of the slab is 0.6 times the separation between the plates. The capacitor is
charged to a potential difference of 200 volts and then disconnected from the source. The
slab is then removed from the gap. Find the work done in removing the slab, if it is made of
(a) glass (K = 6), (b) metal.

Sol: Let C0, C be the capacitances before and after the insertion of the slab
(a) With glass slab:

474
Mr. Neetin Agrawal

 A
C0 =
d

 A C0 d 20  10−6
C= where t = 0.6d  C = = = 40 F
t t 0.6
d −t + d −t + 1 − 0.6 +
K K 6

 Q = Charge on capacitor = CV = 40  10−6 V  200 = 8  103 C

Q2 Q2
 Work done U = Uf − Ui = −
2C 0 2C

8  8  10−6  106 106 

=  −  = 0.8 J
2  20 40 

(b) With metal slab:

 A C0 d
C= = = 2.5 C0 = 50 F
d −t d −t

 Work done = U = Uf − Ui

Q2  1 1  ( 50  10−6  200)2  106 106 

=  − =  −  = 1.5 J
2  C0 C  2  20 50 

Q.144 A battery of 10 V is connected to a capacitor of capacitance 0.1 F. The battery is now removed,
and this capacitor is connected to a second uncharged capacitor. If the charge distributes
equally on these two capacitors, find the total energy stored in the two capacitors. Further,
compare this energy with the initial energy stored in the first capacitor.

Sol: Since the charge is distributed equally on the two capacitors, the capacitance of the second capacitor is
also 0.1 F.

Initial energy in the first capacitor

Ui = ½C1V 2 = ½  0.1  (10)2 = 5.0 J

Potential difference across the parallel combination

Total charge C V + C 2V2 0.1  10

V = = 1 1 = = 5V
Total Capacitance C1 + C 2 0.2

 Final energy in the combination

475
 Solved Examples

1 1
Uf = (C1 + C2 ) V 2 = (0.2 ) (5)2 = 2.5 J
2 2
Uf 2.5 1
 = =
Ui 5.0 2

Q.145 In the given network [Fig. (A)] each of the capacitors C1, C2, C3 and C4 is equal to 1 F.
Find the effective capacitance between A and B and the charge on each capacitor.
C2

Sol: The capacitors C1, C2 and C3 are in series. Their effective

C1 C3
capacitance is 1/3 F. The circuit reduces to the one shown in Fig.
(B). This is a parallel combination of 1/3 F and 1 F. The C4
A B
effective capacitance is 4/3 F.
10 V

Fig. (A)

The charge on 1/3 F capacitor is 1/3 F

1 10
Q = CV =  10 = C
3 3
Same will be the charge on C1, C2 and C3 (all are in series) 1 F
The charge on capacitor C2 = 1F is
10 V
Q = CV = 1  10 = 10 C

Fig. (B)

A
S/4 S/4 S/2
Q.146 Four dielectric slabs are introduced between
K3 d/2
the plates of a parallel-plate capacitor, having K2
K1
plate area S and separation d, as shown in
figure. Find the equivalent capacitance K4 d/2
between A and B, if 2K1 = 2K2 = K3 = K4 = 5.
B
A

Sol: The capacitor may be considered as a parallel S/4 S/4 S/2

combination of C1 and C2. Again, capacitor C1 is d/2
C1 K1 K2 K3 C2
equivalent to two capacitors in parallel, each
d/2 K4
having plate area S/4 and separation d. The
capacitor C2 is equivalent to two capacitors in
series, each having plate area S/2, and separation
B
d/2. Hence, the equivalent capacitance is

476
Mr. Neetin Agrawal

0  S S  S / 2
C = C1 + C2 =  K1 + K2  +
d  4 4 d / 2 d /2
+
K3 K4
 0S  
= (K1 + K2 ) + 0S  K3K 4  = 0S (5) + 0S  5  = 150S
4d d  K3 + K4  4d d 2 4d

Q.147 The four surfaces of an isolated capacitor of capacitance

C, have charges Q1, Q2, Q3 and Q4 as shown. The
potential difference between the two plates is Q1 Q3

𝑸𝟏 +𝑸𝟐 +𝑸𝟑 +𝑸𝟒 𝑸𝟐

(a) (b) Q2 Q4
𝟒𝑪 𝑪
𝑸𝟐 +𝑸𝟑 𝑸𝟐 −𝑸𝟑
(c) (d)
𝟐𝑪 𝟐𝑪

Sol: Parallel conducting surfaces facing each other must have equal and opposite charge densities. Here, as
the two plates are having the same area,
therefore, we must have
Q2 = –Q3
charge on the capacitor means the charge on the inner surface of the positive plate. In this case,
therefore, the charge on the capacitor is Q2 (assuming Q2 is positive).
q Q2
V = =
C C
Hence, answer (b) is correct
Also, we can write
Q2 2Q2 Q2 + Q2 Q2 − ( −Q2 ) Q2 − Q3
V= = = = =
C 2C 2C 2C 2C
Hence, answer (d) is also correct.

Q.148 Three large, parallel conducting plates, A, B and C are placed horizontally, as shown. Plates A
and C are rigidly fixed and earthed. Plate B is given some charge. Under gravitational and
electrostatic forces, plate B

(a) may be in equilibrium if it is closer to C than to A A

(b) may be in equilibrium if it is closer to A than to C
(c) may be in equilibrium midway between A and C
B
(d) can never be in stable equilibrium

Sol: When the plate B is midway between A and C it is equally pulled in the upward and downward
directions. Thus, the net force acting on the plate B will be the downward gravitational force. Hence,
it cannot be in equilibrium at this portion. The choice (c) is incorrect. When the plate B is moved

477
 Solved Examples

upwards, the electric field between A and B is more than that between B and C. Thus, the net
electrostatic force on B will be upwards. Hence, it may be in equilibrium when closer to plate A. The
choice (b) is correct.

At the equilibrium position, when the plate B is slightly displaced towards any plate either A or C, the
net force also points in the same direction. Hence, the equilibrium will never be stable. The choice (d)
is also correct.

Q.149 Three charges Q, +q and +q are placed at the vertices of a Q

right-angled isosceles triangle as shown. The net
electrostatic energy of the configuration is zero if Q is
equal to
−q − 2q
(a) (b)
1+ 2 2+ 2
+q +q
(c) –2q (d) +q


kq2 kqQ kqQ

Sol: U= + + =0
a a 2a
 (b)

Q.150 Four identical capacitor plates each of area A, are arranged such that adjacent plates are a
distance d apart. The plates are connected to a source of emf V as shown in the figure. The
charge on plate 4 is
𝛆𝐨 𝐀𝐕 𝛆𝐨 𝐀𝐕
(a) (b) −
𝐝 𝐝
𝟐𝛆𝐨 𝐀𝐕 −𝟐𝛆𝐨 𝐀𝐕
(c) (d)
𝐝 𝐝

1 2 3 4 5

−
V
+

478
Mr. Neetin Agrawal

Sol: When the given connection is represented by a Schematic diagram of 1 2

capacitor, it is found that there are four identical capacitors, each of
capacitance oA/d. The capacitance of the combination is 4oA/d. So, 3 2
the charge is 4AV/d, and in parallel combination it is divided in the −
+
ratio of capacitances. Hence charge on 4 is 2oAV/d and it is
negative. 3 4

Hence (d) is correct. 5 4

Q.151 Consider the situation shown in the figure. The capacitor A has a charge q on it whereas B is
uncharged. The charge appearing on the capacitor B a long time after the switch is closed is

(a) zero (b) q/2

(c) q (d) 2q

Sol: As the negative charge on the plate of capacitor A is bound, it will not move upon closing the switch.
(a)

Q.152 Two identical capacitors, have the same capacitance C. One of them is charged to potential V1
and the other to V2. The negative ends of the capacitors are connected together. When the
positive ends are also connected, the decrease in energy of the combined system is

𝟏 𝟏
(a) 𝟒 𝑪(𝑽𝟐𝟏 − 𝑽𝟐𝟐 ) (b) 𝟒 𝑪(𝑽𝟐𝟏 + 𝑽𝟐𝟐 )
𝟏 𝟏
(c) 𝟒 𝑪(𝑽𝟏 − 𝑽𝟐 )𝟐 (d) 𝟒
𝑪(𝑽𝟏 + 𝑽𝟐 )𝟐
1 1
Sol: Initial energy of combined system U 1 = CV12 + CV22
2 2
V1 + V2
Final common potential, V =
2
2
1  V + V2 
Final energy of system, U 2 = 2  C  1 
2  2 
1
Hence loss of energy = U 1 − U 2 = C (V1 − V2 )
2

4
 (c)

Q.153 The effective capacitance between A and B will be

(a) 0.5 F 2 F
(b) 1.5 F A
1 F 2 F
(c) 2 F 1 F
(d) 2.5 F
B 2 F

479
 Solved Examples

Sol: The equivalent capacitance is given by

2 F and 2 F are in series.
This whole thing is in parallel with 1 F.
Again, the whole thing is in series with 2 F and subsequently in parallel with 1F.

 (c)

Q.154 Two parallel plate condensers A and B having capacitances of 1 F and 5 F are charged
separately to the same potential of 100 V. Now, the positive plate of A is connected to the
negative plate of B and the negative plate of A to the positive plate of B. Find the final charge on
each condenser and the total loss of electrical energy in the condensers.
A
A1 A2
Sol: Original charge on A, − +
qA = CAV = 110−6100 = 10−4 C
Original charge on B
B2 B1
qB = CBV = 510−6100
= 510−4 C B
Thus, before connecting, the charge on plate A1 is +10−4
C and that on plate A2 is −10−4 C. The charge on

plate B1 is +510−4 C and that on plate B2 is −510−4 C. After connection,

Charge on A1 and B2 = 10−4 + (−510−4) = −410−4 C
Charge on A2 and B1 = −10−4 + (+510−4) = +410−4 C

The two capacitors are in parallel. Therefore, the capacitance of the combination,
C = CA + CB = (1 + 5)  10−6 = 610−6 F

Q 4  10−4 200
 Common voltage, V = = = V
C 6  10− 6 3

200 200
 Charge on A = 10− 6  = C
3 3

200 1000
Charge on B = 5  10−6  = C
3 3

Initial energy =
1
2
1 1
( )
CAVA2 + CBVB2 = 10−6 + 5  10−6 (100)2 = 0.03 J
2 2

2
Final energy = ½CV 2 = ½(6  10− 6 ) 
200  0.04
 = J
 3  3

0.04
 Loss of energy = 0.03 − = 1.6710−2 J
3

480
Mr. Neetin Agrawal

Q.155 In the circuit shown, the capacitances are: C1 = 1 F, C2 = 2 F, C3 = 3 F, C4 = 6 F.

The emf of the cell is E = 100 volts. Find the charge and the C3 C4
potential difference across the capacitor C4.
A B
Sol: The capacitance between points A and B is
C1 C2
36
CAB = + 2 = 4 F
3+6
Therefore, the potential difference across A and B, E
C1 1
VAB = E=  (100) = 20 volts
C1 + C BC 1+ 4
3 F 6 F
 potential difference across C4,
3 20
V4 =  20 = volt A
B
3+6 3
1 F 2 F
 charge on capacitor C4, B
Q4 = C4V4 = 40 C E

V1
Q.156 A capacitor has square plates each of side a A
making an angle  between them as shown in 
figure. Show that for small , the capacitance
is given by x
d
ε a2  θa  dx
C= 0 1−
d  2d  a V2
B
a

Sol: The given capacitor may be assumed to be made up of large number of elemental capacitors
connected in parallel. Consider an elemental capacitor of width dx at a distance x as shown in figure.
The area of each plate of this capacitor is (a dx) and the separation AB between the plates is
(d + x tan ). The capacitance of this elemental capacitor is
0 ( a dx)
dC =
( d + x tan θ )
a dx
 C =  0 a 0
( d + x tan )
ε0 a
C= [log e (d + x tan  )]0a
tan θ
 a   d + a tan  
= 0 log e  
tan    d 
If  is small, then tan   , therefore
 a  a 
C = 0 log e 1 + 
  d

481
 Solved Examples

And as for x<1 loge (1 + x) = x – ½ x2 + …

0 a  a 1  a    a 2
2
 a 
 C=  −   = 1 − 2 d 
  d 2  d   d

Q.157 The given circuit consists of a capacitor made of identical parallel metal plates P1 and P2
connected by identical metal springs S1 and S2 to a 100 V battery.

With the switch open, the capacitor plates are S1 S2

uncharged, separated by a distance d = 8.0 mm
and have a capacitance 2.0 F. When the switch is P1 P2
closed, the distance between the plates decreases to
half.

(a) How much charge collects on each plate?

K B
(b) What is the spring constant for each spring?

Sol: As the separation between the plates decreases to half, the capacitance becomes double. That is,
C = 2C = 2  2 F = 4 F

(a) As the battery remains connected the potential difference remains unchanged (V = V).
Therefore, charge on each plate is
q = CV = CV = 410−6100 = 400 C.

(b) The force between the plates of a charged capacitor is given by F = (q2/20A), while that
in a spring by F = kx. So, for equilibrium of a plate, we should have
q2 q2
kx = or k= … (1)
2 A 2 Ax
But the change in separation between the plates [d − (d/2)] is equal to the stretch of two
identical springs,
2x = (d/2) or x = (d/4)

Also, as C = (0A/d)  0A = Cd

Eqn. (1) becomes
2 2
2 q  2  4  10− 4 
k= =  −3 
= 250 N/m
C  d  2  10− 6  8  10 

Note that some students make the mistake of equating the elastic energy in the two springs to the
change in energy stored in the capacitor, i.e.,
q2
kx2 =
4C

482
Mr. Neetin Agrawal

4q 2
which gives x =
Cd 2
This is wrong, since at equilibrium, forces balance each other, and not the energy.

Q.158 In the figure shown the plates of a parallel plate capacitor have unequal charges. Its capacitance
is ‘C’ P is a point outside the capacitor and close to the plate of charge –Q. The distance between
the plates is ‘d’ select incorrect alternative

2Q –Q

(A) A point charge at point ‘P’ will experience electric force due to capacitor

(B) The potencial difference between the plates will be 3Q/2C

𝟗𝐐𝟐
(C) The energy stored in the electric field in the region between the plates is
𝟖𝐂

𝐐𝟐
(D) The force on one plate due to the other plate is
𝟐𝛑∈𝟎 𝐝𝟐

Sol: [D]

2Q Q 3Q
E= + E=
2A 0 2A 0 2A 0

3 Q 3Q
E=  Ed = =V
2 Cd 2C

(ii) F = EQ/2

 2Q  (– Q) – Q 2
F =    =
 2A 0  1 A 0

Q2
F=
A 0

1
(iii) Energy = 0 E2 Ad
2

2
1  3Q  9 Q2
= 0   Ad =
2  2cd  8 C

Q.159 A, B, C, D, E, F are conducting plates each of area A and any two consecutive plates separated
by a distance d. The net energy stored in the system after the switch S is closed is:

483
 Solved Examples

A B C D E F

𝟑𝛆𝟎 𝐀 𝟓𝛆𝟎 𝐀
(A) V2 (B) V2
𝟐𝐝 𝟏𝟐𝐝

𝛆𝟎 𝐀 𝛆𝟎 𝐀
(C) V2 (D) V2
𝟐𝐝 𝐝

Sol: [C]

0A
Ceff = since effective capacitance between plates A and E is zero
d

1  A
U= CV2 = 0 V2
2 2d

Q.160 Three identical metal plates of area 'A' are at distance d1 & d2 from each other. Metal plate A is
uncharged, while plate B & C have respective charges +q & – q. If metal plates A &C are
connected by switch K through a consumer of unknown resistance, what energy does the
consumer give out to its surrounding?

Assume d1 = d2 = d

A
B +q

C –q

𝐪𝟐 𝐝 𝐪𝟐 𝐝
(A) (B)
𝟒𝛆𝟎 𝐀 𝛆𝟎 𝐀

𝐪𝟐 𝐝 𝟐𝐪𝟐 𝐝
(C) (D)
𝟐𝛆𝟎 𝐀 𝛆𝟎 𝐀

Sol: [A]

484
Mr. Neetin Agrawal

+q –q

1 C2 1 C q2
Energy loss = ×V2 = ×
2 C+C 2 2 C2

q2 q 2d
= =
4C 4 0 A

Q.164 Initially K1 is closed, now if K2 is also closed, find the heat dissipated in the resistances of
connecting wires

C C C

C K2

V K1

1 2
(A) CV2 (B) CV2
2 3

1 1
(C) CV2 (D) CV2
3 4

Sol: [C]

When K1 is closed

+Q –Q

Q = CV

1
energy Ui = CV2
2

When K2 is also closed

485
 Solved Examples

2 5
1
6
3 4

Equivalent circuit

C
C C
1 4
2 5
C 3
6

2C 5C
Ceq = C + =
3 3

1 5C 2 5
Energy Uf = × V = CV2
2 3 6

Charge supplied by battery after closing K2

5 2
= CV – CV = CV
3 3

Energy supplied by battery = Uf – Ui + H

2 5 1
CV2 = CV2 – CV2 + H
3 6 2

1
 H = CV2
3

Q.165 Find the capacitance between the inner & outer curved conductor surface as shown in figure

K=5.5
30º
60

20mm 5mm
(A) 6.86 PF (B) 1.86 PF
(C) 3.26 PF (D) 12.63 PF

Sol: [A]

486
Mr. Neetin Agrawal

R 

d
h

0 KRd  h
dc =
b

all small discs are in parallel


6
 Ceq =  dc =  dc
=0


6
6Kh
=
b
R  d
=0

  khR
= × 0
6 b

Q.166 A capacitor is composed of three parallel conducting plates. All three plates are of same area A.
The first pair of plates are kept a distance d1 apart and the space between them is filled with a
medium of a dielectric 1. The corresponding data for the second pair are d2 & 2 respectively.
What is the surface charge density on the middle plate?
d1 d2

1 2

V0

 1  2   1  2 
(A)  0 V  +  (B) − 0 V  + 
 d1 d 2   d1 d 2 

487
 Solved Examples

 1  2   1  2 
(C) 2 0 V  +  (D) − 2 0 V  + 
 d1 d 2   d1 d 2 

Sol. [A]

Equivalent circuit
C1V0

1
11' 33' 2, 2'
1 1' 2' 2 C2V0
2 3 3'

Middle plate V0

  A   A
Total charge on 2 & 2' plate =  1 0 + 2 0  V
 d1 d2 

  
 = 0V  1 + 2 
 d1 d 2 

Q.167 A thin conducting plate is inserted in half way between the plates of a parallel plates capacitor of
capacitance C.

Conducting plate

What does the value of capacitance, if both the plate of capacitor is shortened?

(A) C (B) 2C

(C) 3C (D) 4C

Sol. [D]

1
1
d/2
2
2
3
3

488
Mr. Neetin Agrawal

Cl

1
1
3 Cl 2
2
3

(0 A)  2  A
=2× = 4. 0 = 4C
d d

Q.168 Separation between the plates of a parallel plate capacitor is 5 mm. This capacitor, having air as
the dielectric medium between the plates, is charged to a potential difference 25 V using a
battery. The battery is then disconnected and a dielectric slab of thickness 3 mm and dielectric
constant K = 10 is placed between the plates, as shown. Potential difference between the plates
after the dielectric slab has been introduced is -

3mm
5mm

(A) 18.5 V (B) 13.5 V

(C) 11.5 V (D) 6.5 V

Sol. [C]

The capacitor is charged by a battery 25 V. Let the magnitude of surface charge density on each plate
be . Before inserting the dielectric slab, field strength between the plates,

 V
E= =
0 d

 25
or E = = = 5000 N/C
 0 5  10 – 3

The capacitor is disconnected form the battery but charge on it will not change so that  has the same
value. When a dielectric slab of thickness 3 mm is placed between the plates, the air thickness
between the plates will be 5 – 3 = 2 mm. Electric field strength in air will have the same value (5000
5000 5000
N/C) but inside the dielectric, it will be = = 500 N/C
K 10
So potential difference

= Eair dair + Emed dmed

= 5000 × (2×10–3) + 500 × (3×10–3)

489
 Solved Examples

= 11.5V

Q.169 You have a parallel plate capacitor, a spherical capacitor and cylindrical capacitor. Each
capacitor is charged by and then removed from the same battery. Consider the following
situations

(i) separation between the plates of parallel plate capacitor is reduced

(ii) radius of the outer spherical shell of the spherical capacitor is increased
(iii) radius of the outer cylinder of cylindrical capacitor is increased

Which of the following is correct?

(A) In each of these situations (i), (ii) and (iii), charge on the given capacitor remains the same
and potential difference across it also remains the same

(B) In each of these situations (i), (ii) and (iii), charge on the given capacitor remains the same
but potential difference, in situations (i) and (iii), decreases, and in situation (ii), increases

(C) In each of these situations (i), (ii) and (iii), charge on the given capacitor remains the same
but potential difference, in situations (i), decreases, and in situations (ii) and (iii), increases

(D) Charge on the capacitor in each situation changes. It increases in all these situations but
potential difference remains the same

Sol. [C]

Each capacitor is charged and then removed from the battery. Changing the plate separation in a
parallel plate capacitor or the radius of any shell or cylinder in the spherical or the cylindrical
capacitors will not change the charge on any capacitor. Each capacitor, in the disconnected state, is an
isolated system.

0A Q
In situation (i), since C = , capacity will increase as d is reduced. Therefore, V = decreases, Q
d C
being the same.

ab a
In situation (ii), C = 4 = 4
b−a 1− a / b

a and b are the radii of the inner and the outer spherical shells, respectively.

As b is increased, capacity will reduce and

Q
V= increases, Q being the same.
C

L
In situation (iii), C = 
n ( b / a )

L is the length of cylinders; a and b are the radii of inner and outer cylinders, respectively.

490
Mr. Neetin Agrawal

As b is increased, capacity will decrease and

Q
V = increases, Q being the same.
C

Q. 170 Find the capacitance between the inner and outer curved cylindrical conductor surface as shown
in figure:

[Space between conductor surface is filled with dielectric of K = 5.5]

K = 5.5

30º

60

20 mm 5 mm

(A) 6.86 PF (B) 1.86 PF

(C) 3.26 PF (D) 12.63 PF

Sol. [A]

R

d

 0 KRd  h
dC =
b

All small dC are in parallel


6
 Ceq = dC =  dC
=0


6
6KhR   0 KhR
=
b
=0
 d = 6
×
b

491
 Solved Examples

Q.171 An air parallel plate capacitor has capacity C. When the area and distance between the plates is
𝐂𝟏
doubled, the capacitance is C1, then is -
𝐂
(A) 1 (B) 2
(C) 3 (D) 4

Sol. [A]

0A
C=
d

0 (2A)
C1 = =C
2d

C1
=1
C

Q.172 Two capacitors are joined in series as shown in figure. The area of each plate is A. The
equivalent of the combination is –
d

a b

d
0A 0A
(A) (B)
d1 − d 2 a−b

1 1  1 1 
(C)  0 A −  (D)  0 A − 
a b d
 1 d 2

Sol. [B]

When two capacitors are in series

x1 x2

1 x1 x x + x2
 = + 2 = 1
C eq 0 A 0 A 0 A

0 A
 Ceq =
x1 + x 2

0 A
=
Sum of separation s between plates

492
Mr. Neetin Agrawal

Now in given arrangement

Capacitors are in series

& sum of separations = a – b

0 A
 Ceq =
a−b

Q.173 The two spherical shells are at large separation one of them has radius 10 cm and has 1.25 C
charge. The other is of 20 cm radius and has 0.75 C charge. If they are connected by a
conducting wire of negligible capacity, the charge on the shells are -
2 4
(A) 1 C, 1C (B) C, C
3 3
4 2
(C) C, C (D) 0.25 C, 0.25 C
3 3

Sol. [A]

Total charge = 1.25 C + 0.75 C = 2 C

q1’: q2' = R1: R2 = 1: 2

1 2 
 q1 ' = 2 = C 
3 3

2 4 
q2 ' = 2 = C
3 3 

493
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