COURSE NOTES

Analog Electronics and Communication

(UG11T3302 -B.Tech.(M.E)-SY-SEM-III: PART-II)

Complied by:
Mr. Sanjay Dabadgaonkar
(Sr. Associate Professor)
TOLANI MARITIME INSTITUTE
Talegaon - Chakan Road, Induri, Pune -410507
Sr. No. Questions w.r.t. – UNIT No. 2, 4, 5, 6 and 7. Marks
Draw and explain working of Class B Push pull amplifier? Write its
1 conduction angle and mention efficiency of this amplifier with and 7
without push-pull arrangement.
Draw neat diagram and explain working of Class B complementary-
2 symmetry amplifier?
7
Draw proper diagram and derive an expression for efficiency of class B
3 push-pull amplifier? Derive the relation between maximum power 7
output, load resistance and transistor power dissipation?
4 What is phase inverter? How it works in Class B push-pull amplifier? 7
What is clipper? Draw different types of clipper with its input and
4 output waveforms and explain its working and applications?
7
What is Clamper? Draw different types of clamper with its input and
5 output waveforms and explain its working and applications?
7
Draw diagram and explain working of different types of Non-Sinusoidal
6 Oscillators? (Time base generator / Astable Multivibrator / Monostable 7
Multivibrator / Bi-stable Multivibrator / Schmitt Trigger )
7 Draw internal of IC 555 timer explain working of internal components? 7
Draw diagram and explain working of Astable Multivibrator /
8 Monostable Multivibrator using IC 555 timer & waveforms?
7
What is Differential Amplifier? How it works & where it is used? What
9 are the various input and output configurations of differential 7
amplifiers?
Draw IC 741 pin diagram and write its features? What are the
10 applications of OPAMP onboard ship?
7
Explain following concepts with reference to OPAMP
11 a) Zero input current b) Virtual ground
7
Derive the output of constant gain multiplier
12 a) Inverting amplifier and b) Non-inverting amplifier
7
Derive the output for a) Adder/Summing amplifier (Inverting; 2 or 3
13 input) b) Subtractor or Difference amplifier
7
Derive an output of OPAMP as a) Differentiator (High Pass Filter) b)
14 Integrator (Low Pass Filter) or OPAMP as Active Filters
7

1
 What is advantages and applications of using Thyristors for shipboard
15 system?
7
What is Thyristor / SCR / pnpn device? Draw its symbol, structure and
16 explain working of SCR? Draw and explain its V-I characteristics.
7
Explain any one method to turn ON SCR? (UJT Pulse generator)
17 What is phase control in thyristors? What is LASCR / photo device?
7
Draw diagram and explain working of half controlled converter/full
18 controlled bridge converter using SCR for R (lamp) and RL (Reactive / 7
motor) load. Derive an equation for output dc power control.
What is IGBT? Draw its symbol, structure and explain working of
19 IGBT with its features and parameters? Draw and explain its V-I 7
characteristics and transfer characteristics.
What is Inverter? Draw diagram of single phase SCR/IGBT Inverter
20 and explain its working with reference to waveforms. How to control 7
speed of AC Motor / Induction Motor / Propulsion Machine.
What is modulation and demodulation? What is its need? What are its
21 types? Explain basic block diagram of radio communication system?
7
What is amplitude modulation? Explain any one method to generate
22 AM? Draw diagram of AM transmitter and explain its working?
7
What is frequency modulation? Explain any one method to generate
23 FM? Draw diagram of FM transmitter and explain its working?
7
What is phase modulation? Explain any one method to generate PM?
24 Draw diagram of PM transmitter and explain its working?
7
What is principle of superhetrodyne? Draw diagram and explain
25 working of AM / FM superhetrodyne radio receiver?
7
Explain working of AM demodulation / AM diode detector / envelop
26 detector?
7
Explain working of FM demodulator / frequency discriminator /
27 FM detector / Slope detector?
7
What is pulse communication / Digital communication / Pulse Code
28 Modulation? Draw block diagram of digital radio communication 7
system and explain its working?
29 Draw block diagram and explain working of color TV? 7
Write a short note on: a) Telecommunication systems and services used
30 on board ship b) Wireless communication systems used on board ship.
7

NOTE: Numerical on above has to be solved from V. K. Mehta and B.L.Therja book.
2
 UNIT-2: Push-Pull Class B Power Amplifier

 The push-pull amplifier is a Class B power amplifier. It is frequently used in the output stages of
electronic circuits. It is used whenever high output power at high efficiency is required.
 Fig. shows circuit of a push-pull amplifier. Two transistors Tr1 and Tr2 (PNP) placed back to back.
 Both transistors are operated in class B operation i.e. collector current IC is nearly zero in the
absence of the signal.
 The centre-tapped secondary of driver transformer T1 supplies equal and opposite voltages to the
base circuits of two transistors.
 The output transformer T2 has the centre-tapped primary winding. The supply voltage VCC is
connected between the bases and this centre tap. The loudspeaker is connected across the
secondary of this transformer.
 Circuit operation: The input signal appears across the secondary AB of driver transformer.
 During the first half-cycle (marked 1/+) of the signal, end A becomes positive and end B negative.
 This will make the base-emitter junction of Tr1 reverse biased and that of Tr2 forward biased.
 The circuit will conduct current due to Tr2 only and is shown by solid arrows. Therefore, this
positive half-cycle of the signal is amplified by Tr2 and appears in the lower half of the primary of
output transformer.
 In the next half cycle of the signal, Tr1 is forward biased whereas Tr2 is reverse biased. Therefore,
Tr1 conducts and is shown by dotted arrows. Consequently, this negative half-cycle of the signal
is amplified by Tr1 and appears in the upper half of the output transformer primary.
 The centre-tapped primary of the output transformer combines two collector currents to form a
sine wave output in the secondary.
 A push-pull arrangement also permits a maximum transfer of power to
the load through impedance matching.
 If RL is the resistance appearing across secondary of output transformer,
then resistance R′L of primary shall be given by equation as shown.
Advantages: (i) The efficiency of the circuit is quite high (75%) due to class B operation.
(ii) A high a.c. output power is obtained.
Disadvantages: (i) Two transistors have to be used.
(ii) It requires two equal and opposite voltages at the input. Therefore, push-pull circuit requires
the use of driver stage to furnish these signals.
(iii) If the parameters of the two transistors are not the same, there will be unequal amplification
of the two halves of the signal.
(iv) The circuit gives more distortion. (v) Transformers used are bulky and expensive.

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 Complementary-Symmetry Class B Power Amplifier

 Complementary symmetry amplifier uses a

principle of assembling push-pull class B
amplifier without requiring centre-tapped
transformers at the input and output stages.
 Fig. shows the transistor push-pull amplifier
using complementary symmetry. It uses one
npn and one pnp transistor and requires no
centre-tapped transformers.
 The circuit action is as follows. During the
positive-half of the input signal, BE of T1 is
forward biased i.e. transistor T1 (npn
transistor) conducts current while BE of T2 is
in reverse bias so, T2 (pnp) is cut-off.
 During the negative half-cycle of the signal, BE of T2 is forward biased i.e. T2 conducts while BE
of T1 is reverse biased so, T1 is in cut off.
 In this way, npn transistor amplifies the positive half-cycles of the signal while the pnp transistor
amplifies the negative half-cycles of the signal.
 Note that we generally use an output transformer which is not centre-tapped for impedance
matching.

Advantages
(i) This circuit does not require transformer. This saves on weight and cost.
(ii) Equal and opposite input signal voltages are not required.

Disadvantages
(i) It is difficult to get a pair of transistors (npn and pnp) that have similar characteristics.
(ii) We require both positive and negative supply voltages.

Phase Inverter: To change phase of input signal phase inverters are used. Examples of
phase inverters are 1. Common Emitter Amplifier (it has 1800
phase shift in the output). The output voltage equation is
VO=VCE=VCC-ICRC. Thus
when input (Base current)
increases the Ic also
increases i.e. output
voltage VO decreases.
Thus input and output is
1800 out of phase.
2. Transformer also gives
1800 phase shift due to
cross coupling. We can see that one dot is positioned at
the top in primary terminal and the other one (dot) is
placed at bottom of secondary terminal. It shows that the
primary and secondary current and voltages are 180° out of phase. In addition, the primary and
secondary voltages (VP and VS) sine waves are opposite to each other. Also the primary and
secondary currents (IP and IS) are opposite in direction. These phase inverters are required in
class B push-pull amplifiers to get 3600 phase output audio signal after amplification.
4
5
 UNIT-4: WAVE SHAPING AND SWITCHING

Clipping Circuits (Diode clippers):

A clipper (or limiter) is used to clip off or remove a portion of an a.c. signal. The half-wave rectifier
is basically a clipper that eliminates either positive or negative half of an a.c. signal.

Definition: The circuit with which the waveform is shaped by removing (or clipped off) a portion of
the applied wave is known as a Clipper

Examples: (i) positive clipper (ii) negative Clipper (iii) biased clipper (iv) combination clipper.

Applications: Clippers find extensive use in radar, digital and other electronic systems.

(i) Positive clipper: A positive clipper removes the positive half-cycles of the input voltage. As
shown, the output voltage has all the positive half-cycles removed or clipped off.

 During the positive half-cycle of the input voltage, the diode is forward biased and conducts
heavily. Therefore, the voltage across the diode (which behaves as a short circuit) and hence
across the load RL is zero. Hence output voltage during positive half-cycles is zero.
 During the negative half-cycle of the input voltage, the diode is reverse biased and behaves as an
Open circuit. In this condition, the circuit behaves as a voltage
divider with an VOutput given by:
Generally, RL is much greater than R.
∴ Output voltage = − Vm

(ii) It may be noted that if it is desired to remove the negative half-cycle of the input, the only thing
to be done is to reverse the polarities of the diode in the circuit shown below. Such a clipper is
then called a negative clipper.



(iii) Biased clipper. Sometimes it is desired to remove a small portion of positive or negative half-
cycle of the signal voltage. For this purpose, biased clipper is used. Biased clipper uses diode with
a battery of V volts. As per the polarities of battery shown, a portion of each positive half-cycle will
be clipped. However, the negative half-cycles will appear as such across the load. Such a clipper
is called biased positive clipper.
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 The circuit action is as follows. The diode will conduct heavily so long as input voltage is greater
than +V. When input voltage is greater than +V, the diode behaves as a short and the output
equals +V.
 The output will stay at +V so long as the input voltage is greater than +V. During the period the
input voltage is less than +V, the diode is reverse biased and behaves as an open. Therefore,
most of the input voltage appears across the output. In this way, the biased positive clipper
removes input voltage above +V.
 During the negative half-cycle of the input voltage, the diode remains reverse biased. Therefore,
almost entire negative half-cycle appears across the load.
 If it is desired to clip a portion of negative half-cycles of input voltage, the only thing to be
done is to reverse the polarities of diode or battery. Such a circuit is then called a biased
negative clipper.

(iii) Combination clipper.

 It is a combination of biased positive and negative clippers. With a combination clipper, a portion
of both positive and negative half-cycles of input voltage can be removed or clipped as shown.

 The circuit action is as follows. When positive input voltage is greater than +V1, diode D1
conducts heavily while diode D2 remains reverse biased. Therefore, a voltage +V1 appears
across the load. This output stays at +V1 so long as the input voltage exceeds +V1.
 On the other hand, during the negative half-cycle, the diode D2 will conduct heavily and the
output stays at −V2 so long as the input voltage is greater than −V2. Note that +V1 and −V2 are
less than + Vm and – Vm respectively.
 Between +V1 and −V2 neither diode is on. Therefore, in this condition, most of the input voltage
appears across the load. It is interesting to note that this clipping circuit can give square wave
output if Vm is much greater than the clipping levels.

Applications of Clippers:

There are numerous clipper applications. However, in general, clippers are used to perform one of
the following two functions: (i) Changing the shape of a waveform & (ii) Circuit transient
protection.
7
 (i) Changing the shape of waveform. Clippers can alter the shape of a waveform. For example,
a clipper can be used to convert a sine wave into a rectangular wave, square wave etc. They can
limit either the negative or positive alternation or both alternations of an a.c. voltage.

(ii) Circuit Transient protection. Transients can cause considerable damage to many types of
circuits e.g., a digital circuit. In that case, a clipper diode
can be used to prevent the transient form reaching that
circuit.

Fig. shows the protection of a typical digital circuit

against transients by the diode clipper. When the
transient occurs on the input line, it causes diode D2 to
be forward biased. The diode D2 will conduct; thus
shorting the transient to the ground. Consequently, the
input of the circuit is protected from the transient.

Clamper circuits (Level shifter):

 A clamping circuit is used to place either the positive or negative peak of a signal at a desired
level. The dc component is simply added or subtracted to/from the input signal.
 It is a circuit which adds dc value to the input AC waveform without changing its shape. Thus after
clamping peak to peak amplitude and frequency of input signal remains same.
 It is also used to restore or reinsert the DC voltage level in to AC waveform which has lost its dc by
passing through coupling capacitor of an amplifier.
 Main components used in clamper are Diode, Capacitor, Resistor and Battery (for biased clamper)
 Application: In TV receiver, when the signal passes through the capacitive coupling network, it
loses its dc component. Then the clamper circuit is used to re-establish the dc component into the
signal input, Radio, TV Volume control etc.

Weak Signal(AC + DC) Strong AC but DC is lost Strong AC & DC

Amplifier Clamper
 Types: Positive clamper (Diode upward direction) and Negative Clamper (Diode downward
direction)
 To expalin working we have to always start from a diode which becomes forward bias first and
charges the capacitor to input peak voltage.
 Input and output has same voltage swing, i.e. VPP remains same. τ =RC>10 times Tin

 Neagative Clamper:

8
 I) Vi>0, During Positive Half Cycle Diode is Forward Bias/ conducting/ ON switch i.e. it acts as
short circuit. FB diode charges capacitor to + Vm i.e. Vc=+Vm and Vo=0. Then by applying
KVL, we get –Vi+Vm=0 i.e. Vm=Vi=10V
II) Vi<0, During Negative Half Cycle, Diode becomes Reverse Bias/not conducting/OFF switch i.e.
it is open circuit. But the voltage on capacitor remains same i.e. Vm because τ =RC>10 times
Tin
i.e. by applying KVL, Vi+Vm+Vo=0 and Vo= - (Vi+Vm) = - 2Vi = -20 V

 Positive Clamper:

I) Vi<0, During Negative Half Cycle, Diode becomes Forward Bias/ conducting/ ON switch i.e. it acts
as short circuit. FB diode charges capacitor to - Vm i.e. Vc= -Vm and Vo=0. Then by applying
KVL, we get –Vi+Vm=0 i.e. Vm=Vi=10V.
II) Vi>0, During Positive Half Cycle, Diode is Reverse Bias/not conducting/OFF switch i.e. it is open
circuit. But the voltage on capacitor remains same i.e. Vc= -Vm because τ =RC>10 times Tin
i.e. by applying KVL, -Vo+Vm+Vi=0 and Vo= (Vi+Vm) = 2Vi = 20 V.

NON-SINUSOIDAL OSCILLATORS /Time Base Generator/ Saw tooth Wave

Generator / MULTIVIBRATORS/ Square Wave Generator /Schmitt Trigger
(Hysteresis generator)

In all these circuits transistors acts as switch. So for any question asked on
these topics start your answer with working table of transistor as switch.
The other important point is that if two transistors are there in circuit
diagram then one conducts at a time i.e. ON and the other is OFF. So
alternately they conducts. Both transistors cannot be conducting (i.e. ON) at
a time.

Transistor as a switch:

VBE Transistor Vo=VCE IC

<0.7V OFF / Cut-Off / Not conduct/ +VCC (Max) 0 (Min)
Open switch / RCE ≈∞
≥0.7V ON /Saturation / Conducts / 0 V (Min≈0.2 V) Max (VCC/RL)
Close switch / RCE ≈0

9
 What is a Time Base Generator? Or what is a Time Sweep Generator?
(UJT Oscillator also works as Sweep generator or Time base generator)
(Astable Timer using IC-555 also generates saw tooth wave across “C”)

 An Electronic generator that

generates the high frequency
saw tooth waves can be termed
as a Time Base Generator. The
horizontal velocity of a time base
generator must be constant.
 Time base signals can be
generated by RC, Transistor, and
UJT Oscillator circuit.
 Time Base Generator generates
an output voltage or current
waveform. Portion of these waveforms varies linearly with time.
 To display the variations of a signal with respect to time on an oscilloscope, a voltage that varies
linearly with time, has to be applied to the deflection plates in CRO. This makes the signal to
sweep the beam horizontally across the CRT screen (Left to Right).
 Hence the voltage is called as Sweep Voltage. The Time Base Generators are called as Sweep
generator circuits. To generate a time base waveform in a CRO or a picture tube, the
deflecting voltage increases linearly with time.
 Generally, a time base generator is used where the beam deflects over the screen linearly from
one side to the other (from left to right) and returns to its starting point. This occurs during the
process of Scanning. E.g. CRT (cathode ray tube) and TV & RADAR picture tube.
 This phenomenon is termed as Trace and Retrace. The deflection of beam over the screen from
left to right is called as Trace, while the return of the beam from right to left is called
as Retrace or Fly back or Restoration Time. Usually this retrace is not visible.
 This process is done with the help of a saw tooth wave generator which sets the time period of
the deflection with the help of RC components used.

 When the input signal Vi is LOW, the transistor Q becomes turn OFF (Open). Then Resistor R

charges the capacitor exponentially in the circuit. volts.

10
 When the input signal Vi is HIGH, the transistor Q becomes turn ON (Close). Then the transistor
provides the low resistance path through which the capacitor discharges.

 Actually, this Sweep voltage waveform is the practical output of a sweep circuit, whereas the ideal
output has to be the saw tooth waveform (Tr=0) shown in the above figure.

Applications: Time Base Generators are used in CROs, Televisions, RADAR

displays, precise time measurement systems, and time modulation.

MULTIVIBRATORS using Transistors / Types / AMV / MMV / BMV

 An electronic circuit that generates square
waves (or other non-sinusoidal such as
rectangular, saw-tooth waves) is known as a
multivibrator. A multivibrator is a switching
circuit which depends on positive feedback. It is
basically a two-stage amplifier with output of one feedback connected to the input of the other.

Astable Multivibrator (AMV)/ Free Running Oscillator/ No stable state

 Both transistors are common emitter and cross coupled with each
other.
 Case-I: When the circuit is switched on one transistor will driven to
saturation (ON) and other will driven to cutoff (OFF). Consider T1 is ON and T2 is OFF.
 During this time Capacitor C2 is charging to Vcc through resistor RC2.
 T2 is OFF due to the -ve voltage from the discharging capacitor C1 which is charged during the
previous cycle. So the OFF time of T2 is determined by R1C1 time constant=0.693xR1C1.
 After a time period determined by R1C1 time constant the capacitor C1 discharges completely
and starts charging in reverse direction through R1.
 Case-II: When the Capacitor C1 charges to a voltage sufficient provide base emitter voltage of
0.7V to the transistor T2, it turns ON and capacitor C2 starts discharging.

11
 The negative voltage from the capacitor C2 turns off the transistor T1 and the capacitor C1 starts
charging from Vcc through resistor RC1 and base emitter of transistor T2. Thus the transistor T2
remains in ON state.
 As in the previous state, when the capacitor C2 discharges completely it starts charging towards
opposite direction through R2.
 When the voltage across the capacitor C2 is sufficient to turn ON transistor T1, T1 will turn ON
and capacitor C1 starts discharging.
 This process continuous and produces rectangular waves at the collector of each transistors.
 (Diagrams for Case-I and Case-II are shown separately just for information on next page)
 T2 = OFF Period of transistor T1 = ON Period of Transistor T2 = 0.693R2C2
 T1 = OFF Period of transistor T2 = ON Period of Transistor T1 = 0.693R1C1

Applications:
1. Square wave generator (Clock)
2. PWM generator (Carrier)
3. Frequency measurement
4. Timers and 5. AF generation
Due to different VBE & β the one of the transistor turns ON. So Let T1 be ON
CASE-I: T1 ON T2 OFF CASE-I: T2 ON T1 OFF
Pre-charged C1 discharges initially via T1 Pre-charged C2 discharges via T2
As,VC1<0.7V, it keeps T2 VBE<0.7V(Vc1) As,VC2<0.7V, it keeps T1 VBE<0.7V(Vc1) i.e.
i.e. T2 remains OFF (Vo=HIGH= “1”) T1 remains OFF (Vo=LOW= “0”)
C2 charges through R & T1 C1 charges through R & T2
Then C1 starts charging through R1,C1,T1 Then C2 charges through R2,C2,T2
When Vc1≥0.7V then T2 turns ON When VC2≥0.7V then T1 turns ON

CASE-I (T1-ON and T2-OFF) CASE-II (T1-OFF and T1-ON)

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 Monostable Multivibrator using Transistor (MMV)
(One-shot Timer / Pulse generator) - 1 Trigger required

CASE-I: Q2 ON due to potential divider CASE-II: Trigger pulse applied which super
+VCC, R2 & VBE Q2 >0.7 V set -VBB so T1 ON
T1 OFF (-VBB) Trigger pulse not applied C1 discharges immediately and Q2 (VBE)<0.7V,
So, Q2 turns OFF. (VCE=Vo=HIGH “1”)
C1 charges (+VCC-RL1-C1-Q2). Then C1 charges from +VCC-R2-C1-Q1
As, Q2 ON the VCE=Voutput= “0” When VC1>0.7V, then Q2 turns ON
(LOW Pulse) ON Time α R2C1
 Monostable multivibrator have only ONE stable state and produce a single output pulse when
it is triggered externally.
 Monostable Multivibrator only return back to their first original and stable state after a period of
time determined by the time constant of the R2C1 coupled circuit.
 VCC provides reverse bias for CB junctions of Q1 and Q2 but forward-bias for EB junction of Q2
only. Hence, Q2 is ON i.e. conducts at saturation (Vo=0 or LOW).
 -VBB and R3 reverse bias Q1 and keep it cut off (OFF or Vc=VA=+Vcc).
 C1 charges to nearly VCC through RL1 to ground by the low-resistance path provided by ON
transistor Q2 (saturated).
 Thus, the initial stable state is represented by (i) Q2 conducting at saturation and (ii) Q1 cut-off.
 When a trigger pulse is applied to Q1 through C2, MMV will switch to its opposite unstable state
where Q2 is cut-off (OFF) and Q1 conducts at saturation (ON).

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 The chain of circuit actions is as under: If positive trigger pulse is of sufficient amplitude, it will
override the reverse bias of the EB junction of Q1 and give it a forward bias. Hence, Q1 will start
conducting.
 As Q1 conducts, its collector voltage falls due to voltage drop across RL1. It means that potential
of point A falls (negative-going signal).
 This negative-going voltage is fed to Q2 via C1 where it decreases its forward bias.
 As collector current of Q1 starts decreasing, potential of point B increases (positive-going signal)
due to lesser drop over RL2. Soon, Q2 comes out of conduction (Turns OFF).
 The positive-going signal at B is fed via R1 to the base of Q1 where it increases its forward bias
further. As Q1 conducts more (ON or Saturation), potential of point A approaches 0 V.
 This action is cumulative and ends with Q1 conducting at saturation and Q2 cut-off so as to return
to Initial Stable State.
 As point A is at almost 0 V, C1 starts to discharge through saturated Q1 to ground.
 As C1 discharges, the negative potential at the base of Q2 is decreased. As C1 discharges
further, Q2 is pulled out of cut-off.
 As Q2 conducts further, a negative-going signal from point B via R1 drives Q1 into cut-off. Hence,
the circuit reverts to its original state with Q2 conducting at saturation (ON) and Q1 cut-off.
 It remains in this state till another trigger pulse comes along when the entire cycle repeats itself.
 The output is taken from the collector of Q2 though it can also be taken from point A of Q1. The
width of this pulse is determined by the time constant of C1 R2.
 Since this MV produces one output pulse for every input trigger pulse it receives, it is called mono
or one-shot multivibrator.
 Monostable Multivibrator can produce a very short pulse or a much longer rectangular shaped
waveform whose leading edge rises in time with the externally applied trigger pulse and whose
trailing edge is dependent upon the RC time constant of the feedback components used.
 The Pulse width or ON duration of the pulse is given by T = 0.69 C1R2
 Applications: 1. The falling part of the output pulse from MMV is often used to trigger another
pulse generator circuit thus producing a pulse delayed by a time T with respect to the input pulse.
2. MMV is used for regenerating or rejuvenating old and worn out pulses. Various pulses used in
computers and telecommunication systems become somewhat distorted during use. An MMV can
be used to generate new, clean and sharp pulses from these distorted and used ones.

Bistable Multivibrator
 The basic circuit is shown in Fig. it has two absolutely stable states.
 It can stay in one of its two states indefinitely (as long as power is supplied) changing to the
other state only when it receives a trigger pulse from outside.
 When it receives another triggering pulse, then only it goes back to its original state.
 Since one trigger pulse causes the MV to ‘flip’ from one state to another and the next pulse causes
it to ‘flop’ back to its original state, the BMV is also popularly known as ‘flip-flop’ circuit.

14
 Due to –VBB both the transistors Q1 & Q2 are OFF even if S switch closed (ON)
CASE-I: Trigger pulse applied to Q1 Base CASE-II: Trigger pulse applied to Q2 Base
which super set -VBB and T1 turns ON which super set -VBB and T2 turns ON
i.e. Q1 output VA =VCE1= “0”. LOW i.e. Q2 output VB =VCE2= “0”. LOW
Then -VBB, R4, R2 acts as voltage divider Then -VBB, R3, R1 acts as voltage divider and
and voltage across R4 is Q2 VBE < 0.7 V. voltage across R3 is Q1 VBE < 0.7 V.
So, Q2 remains OFF. i.e. Vo=VB=+VCC= “1” So, Q1 remains OFF. i.e. Vo=VA=+VCC= “1”
HIGH HIGH
Thus, alternately only ONE transistor can be turned ON and other remains in OFF state
It acts as Flip-Flop or Single bit Memory element to store either “0” or “1” using trigger

 It is different than AMV e.g. 1. The base resistors are not joined to VCC but to a common source
–VBB and 2. The feedback is coupled through two resistors (not capacitors).
 Working: Suppose, a positive pulse is applied momentarily to S, Q1 starts conducting, then
the fact that point A is at nearly 0 V makes the base of Q2 negative (by the potential divider R2 –
R4) and holds Q2 off.
 Similarly, with Q2 OFF, the potential divider from VCC to –VBB (RL2. R1, R3) is designed to keep
base of Q1 at about 0.7 V ensuring that Q1 conducts.
 It is seen that Q1 holds Q2 OFF and Q2 holds Q1 ON.
 Suppose, a positive pulse is applied momentarily to R, it will cause Q2 to conduct. As
collector of Q2 falls to zero, it cuts Q1 OFF and, consequently, the BMV switches over to its other
state.
 Similarly, a positive trigger pulse applied to S will switch the BMV back to its original state.

 Applications: 1. in timing circuits as a frequency divider, 2. in counting circuits, 3. in

computer memory circuits. 4. Digital Electronics as Flip-Flop or single bit memory element.

15
 Schmitt Trigger (Hysteresis Generator)

 A Schmitt trigger is an amplifier with positive feedback and it introduces hysteresis in circuit.
 The Schmitt trigger is a binary circuit similar to Multivibrator (Square wave generator).
 It has two bistable states and the magnitude of the input voltage determines which of the two
output states (HIGH or LOW) is possible. [HIGH=1=+Vcc=+5V and LOW=0=0V=Negative=ground]
 The Schmitt Trigger is a logic input type that provides hysteresis or two different threshold voltage
levels for rising and falling edge.
 This is useful because it can avoid the errors when we have noisy input signals from which we
want to get square wave signals.

Consider input is sinusoidal signal Vin. It’s amplitude changes from 0 to 2V and back to 0V
CASE-I: Vin=0 i.e. T1 VBE <0.7 i.e. T1 is OFF
R1, Ra & Rb acts as potential divider and voltage across Rb=1.98V.
As, VRb=1.98 V i.e. T2 VBE >0.7 V. So, T2 is ON and VCE=Vo=LOW “0”
As VB is at 1.98V & T2 is ON, So VE must be 0.7 less i.e. 1.28 V.
Emitters of both T1 & T2 are common, so T1 also has same VE=1.28V
CASE-II: When Vin>1.98V, then T1 turns ON
Then T1 Vo=VCE will drop down to 1.28 V. So T2 has VBE<0.7V. So, T2 is OFF & Vo=HIGH “1”
CASE-III: When Vin<1.3V, again T1 VBE<0.7V, So T1 turns OFF. So, T1 Vo=VCE= HIGH “1”
Again due to R1, Ra & Rb potential divider T2 VBE >0.7 V. So, T2 is ON and VCE=Vo=LOW “0”
So, the upper limit is 1.98 V and lower limit is 1.3 V. This circuit generates square wave
output. As the circuit oscillates between these two thresholds limits it also acts as
HYSTERESIS generator.

16
 It is also called emitter-coupled binary oscillator because positive feedback occurs by coupling
through emitter resistor Re.
 Let’s suppose that the Vin input is 0 V. That means that transistor T1 is cut off and not
conducting.
 On the other hand the Transistor T2 is conducting because we have a voltage of about 1.98 V
(VBE>0.7V) at B node. At node voltage is 2.52 V.
 We can consider this part of the circuit as a voltage divider and calculate voltage at node B & A.
 So as the Transistor T2 is ON the output voltage will be low and the voltage at the emitter will be
about 0.7 V lower than the voltage at the base of the transistor i.e. 1.28 V.
 The emitter of the transistor T1 is connected with the emitter of the transistor T2, so they are at the
same voltage level of 1.28 V.
 Therefore the transistor T1 will turn on when the voltage Vin at its base will be 0.7 V above this
value of 1.28 V, or about 1.98 V.
 So as we increase the Vin input and we cross this value of 1.98V the transistor T1 will start
conducting (ON / Saturation).
 This will cause the voltage at the base of the transistor T2 to drop and will cut off the transistor T2.
 As the transistor T2 is no longer conducting the output voltage will go high.
 Next, the voltage Vin at the base of the transistor T1 will start declining and transistor T1 will get
into forward-active mode.
 In this mode the collector voltage will increase, which will also increase the voltage at the base of
the transistor T2.
 This will cause small amount of current to flow through the transistor T2 which will further drop the
voltage at the emitters and will cause the transistor T1 to turn off.
 In our case the Vin input needs to drop to about 1.3 V to turn off transistor T1.
 Now the cycle repeats over and over again. So we got two thresholds, the high threshold at
about 1.9 V and the low threshold at about 1.3 V.

Applications:
It is used in the making of a clock, the denouncing of a switch. This type of input circuit
implements hysteresis which can effectively filter many types of noise. Schmitt triggers are
typically used in open loop configurations for noise immunity and closed loop configurations to
implement function generators, Analog to digital conversion: The Schmitt trigger is effectively
a one bit analog to digital converter. Level detection: When undertaking this application, it is
necessary that the hysteresis voltage is taken into account so that the circuit switches on the
required voltage. Line reception: Using a Schmitt trigger broadly enables the peak to peak noise
to reach the level of the hysteresis before spurious triggering may occur.
 Up till now Multivibrator and its types AMV. MMV and BMV using transistors were discussed.
 In the following sections same Multivibrator using IC 555 timer circuits and its types AMV, MMV
and BMV will be explained.
 Multivibrator also called as Timer or square wave generator or Non-sinusoidal oscillator.

TYPE of MV Stable states Trigger required Output Time

Astable MV 0 NO Rectangular / Square Wave 0.693RC

Monostable MV 1 ONE One Pulse 1.1RC

Bi-Stable MV 2 TWO Half Pulse Indefinite

17
18
19
20
21
 UNIT-5: OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER (OPAMP)
Differential Amplifier
Amplifier circuit that accepts two
input signals and amplifies the
difference between these two
signals, such an amplifier is
called a Differential Amplifier
(DA). It is first and main stage of OP-AMP. Figure shows the block diagram of an ordinary
amplifier and differential amplifier. There are two input voltages v1 and v2. This amplifier
amplifies the difference between the two input voltages. Therefore, the output voltage is
Vo = A(v1 – v2) where A is the voltage gain of the amplifier.
 Fig. shows the basic circuit of a differential
amplifier.
 It consists of two transistors Q1 and Q2 that
have identical (ideally) characteristics. (β, VBE)
 They share a common positive supply +VCC,
common emitter resistor RE and common
negative supply -VEE. Circuit is symmetrical.
 The following points may be noted about the
differential amplifier :
(i) The differential amplifier (DA) is a two-input
terminal device using at least two transistors.
There are two output terminals marked
1 (vout 1) and 2(vout 2).
(ii) The DA transistors Q1 and Q2 are matched
so that their characteristics are the same. The
collector resistors (RC1 and RC2) are also
equal. The equality of the matched circuit
components makes the DA circuit arrangement completely symmetrical.
(iii) We can apply signal to a differential amplifier (DA) in the following two ways:
(a) The signal is applied to one input of DA and the other input is grounded. In that case, it is
called single-ended input arrangement.
(b) The signals are applied to both inputs of DA. In that case, it is called dual-ended or double-
ended input arrangement.
(iv) We can take output from DA in the following two ways:
(a) The output can be taken from one of the output terminals and the ground. In that case, it is
called single-ended output arrangement.
(b) The output can be taken between the two output terminals (i.e., between the collectors of Q1
and Q2). In that case, it is called double-ended output arrangement or differential output.
(v) Generally, the differential amplifier (DA) is operated for single-ended output. In other
words, we take the output either from output terminal 1 and ground or from output terminal 2 and
ground. Any input/output terminal that is grounded is at 0V.

Operation of Differential Amplifier

 We shall discuss the operation of single-ended input (i.e., signal is applied to one input of DA and
the other input is grounded) and double-ended output DA.
(i) Suppose the signal is applied to input 1 (i.e., base of transistor Q1) and input 2 (i.e., base of
transistor Q2) is grounded.
22
 The transistor Q1 will act in two ways: as a common emitter amplifier and as a common
collector amplifier.
 As a common emitter amplifier, the input signal to Q1 (input 1) will appear at output 1 (i.e.,
collector of Q1) as amplified inverted signal.
 As a common collector amplifier, the signal appears on the emitter of Q1 in phase with the input
and only slightly smaller.
 Since the emitters of Q1 and Q2 are common, the emitter signal becomes input to Q2.
 Therefore, Q2 functions as a common base amplifier.
 As a result, the signal on the emitter of Q2 will be amplified and appears on output 2 (i.e., collector
of Q2) in phase with the emitter signal and hence in phase with the input signal (signal at input 1).

(ii) Now suppose the signal is applied to input 2(i.e., base of transistor Q2) and input 1(base of
transistor Q1) is grounded.
 As explained above, now Q2 acts as a common emitter amplifier and common collector amplifier
while Q1 functions as a common base amplifier.
 Therefore, an inverted and amplified signal appears at output 2 (i.e., at collector of Q2) and non-
inverted, amplified signal appears at output 1(i.e., at collector of Q1).

23
 The following points are worth noting about single-ended input DA :
(a) When signal is applied to input 1 (i.e., base of transistor Q1), an inverted, amplified signal
appears at output 1 and non-inverted, amplified signal appears at output 2.
 Reverse will happens when signal is applied to input 2 and input 1 is grounded.
(b) When only one output terminal is available, the phase of the output of single-ended input DA
depends on which input receives the input signal.
 When signal applied to the input of DA produces no phase shift in the output, it is called
noninverting input or Positive input. In other words, for noninverting input, the output signal is in
phase with the input signal.
 When the signal applied to the input of DA produces 180° phase shift, it is called inverting input
or Negative input. In other words, for inverting input, the output signal is 180° out of phase with
the input signal.
 Thus the differential amplifier circuit can be used to amplify the difference between the two input
signals or amplify only one input signal simply by grounding the other input.
 The input signals to a DA are defined as : (i) Common-mode signals (ii) Differential-mode signals
(i) Common-mode signals: When the input signals to a DA are in phase and exactly equal in
amplitude, they are called common-mode signals. The common-mode signals are rejected
(not amplified) by the differential amplifier. It is because a differential amplifier amplifies the
difference between the two signals (v1 – v2) and for common-mode signals, this difference is zero.
Note that for common-mode operations, v1 = v2.
(ii) Differential-mode signals. When the input signals to a DA are 180° out of phase and exactly
equal in amplitude, they are called differential-mode signals. The differential-mode signals are
amplified by the differential amplifier. It is because the difference in the signals is twice the value of
each signal. For differential mode signals, v1 = –v2.
 Thus the important conclusion is that a “differential amplifier will amplify the differential-
mode signals and it will reject the common-mode signals”.
 Most of noises and other unwanted signals are common-mode signals which are common mode
rejected.
 The voltage gain of a DA operating in differential mode is called differential-mode voltage gain
and is denoted by ADM.
 The voltage gain of DA operating in common-mode is called common-mode voltage gain and is
denoted by ACM.
 Ideally, a DA provides a very high voltage gain for differential-mode signals and zero gain for
common-mode signals.
 However, practically, differential amplifiers do exhibit a very small common-mode gain (usually
much less than 1) while providing a high differential voltage gain (usually several thousands).
 The higher the differential gain w.r.t. the common-mode gain, the better the performance of
the DA in terms of rejection of common-mode signals.
 A differential amplifier should have high differential voltage gain (ADM) and very low common mode
voltage gain (ACM). The ratio ADM/ACM is called common-mode rejection ratio (CMRR).
 The CMRR is the ability of a DA to reject the common-mode signals. The larger the CMRR, the
better the DA is at eliminating common-mode signals. Ideally CMRR should be ∞.

24
What is Operational Amplifier? Draw its block diagram and explain its main features?

Features of op-amp (** Write this common answer in all related OPAMP questions ** up to
applications)
 Usually referred as an 'op-amp'. It is a analog device also called as linear device.
 It is a DC-coupled, high voltage gain, high input impedance (Zi/p) and low output impedance
(Zo/p) voltage amplifier with differential inputs and a single output.
 Ordinary amplifier has ONE input, but OPAMP has TWO inputs (Inverting and Non-inverting). It
amplifies difference between TWO input signals (V1 & V2). V1 & V2 are electrical equivalent of
any physical parameters e.g. Temp, pressure, flow, level, speed, torque etc.
 The output of the op-amp is controlled by negative feedback.
 It performs mathematical operations e.g. addition, subtraction, log, integration and differentiation.
 Therefore, it is a basic building block of Analog computation / Analog Computer.
 Applications: Marine control engineering, Analog signal processing, audio and video
amplifier, communication, active filter (LPF/HPF), Schmitt trigger, comparator, signal
generator, signal conditioning, Voltage follower, comparator, Integrator, Differentiator,
summing and difference amplifier, Instrumentation amplifier, precision rectifier, signal
generators. monitoring and control of process parameters on ship e.g. temp, pressure,
level, flow, speed, torque, humidity, moisture, vibrations etc.
 An operational amplifier is a multistage amplifier and consists of a differential amplifier stage, a
high-gain CE amplifier stage and class B push-pull emitter follower.
 It has three stages 1. I/p Differential amplifier 2. Intermediate stage and 3. O/p Push-pull stage.
 Opamp used in circuit is a 8 pin IC 741. It is linear or Analog Integrated Circuit.

Block Diagram of OPAMP

1. Input Differential Amplifier: It uses dual input, balanced output differential amplifier. Low gain
stage. It has high input impedance Zi and low output impedance Zo. Difference between two input
signal is amplified by voltage gain amplifier.

2. Intermediate Stage: Dual I/P, unbalanced O/P (single ended) Direct coupled amplifier. It uses
Cascaded amplifier, which provides very high voltage gain.

3. Output Stage: Push-Pull Class B amplifier with low output impedance. High current sourcing &
sinking capabilities and large AC output voltage swing.
25
Q. What is Ideal Op-Amp? Describe various parameters of operational amplifier and also
explain the concept of virtual ground?

Basically it’s a Differential amplifier which amplifies the

difference between two different signals.

Vo α ( V1 – V2 ) & Let V1 – V2 = Vd

Differential Gain Ad is given by: Vo = Ad ( V1 – V2 ) i.e. Vo = Ad.Vd

i.e. Ad = Vo / Vd = 20 log10( Ad ) in dB

Common Mode Gain Ac is given by: Vc = [ V1 + V2 ] / 2 & Vo = Ac.Vc

i.e. Ac = Vo / Vc = 20 log10( Ac ) in dB

i.e. Practically output of Differential amplifier also depends on average level of two inputs.
Therefore the Total output voltage is Vo = Ad.Vd + Ac.Vc
Parameters of Op-amp:

Input Parameters:

1. Input Offset Voltage (Voi):The voltage applied to one of the input to give a zero output voltage.
2. Input Bias Current (Ib):The average of the currents flowing into both inputs. Ib = [Ib1 + Ib2]/ 2
3. Input Offset Current (Ios):
This is the difference of the two input bias currents when the output voltage is zero. [Ib1 – Ib2]
4. Input Voltage Range (Vcm):The range of the voltage common to both inputs and ground.
5. Input Resistance (Zi):The resistance 'looking-in' at either input with the remaining input
grounded. (≈2 MΩ)
6. Supply Voltage: The maximum Positive & Negative Voltage (±Vcc) for its operation.
Ex: ±10 V, ±12 V, ±15 V etc.

26
 Output Parameters:

Output Resistance (Zoi): Resistance at the output terminals of op-amp.

Output Short-Circuit Current (Iosc): This is the maximum output current that the op-amp can
deliver to a load.
Output Voltage Swing (Vo max): Depending load resistance, this is the max. 'peak' output
voltage that op-amp can supply without saturation or clipping.

Dynamic Parameters:
Open-Loop Voltage Gain (Aol):The ratio of output voltage to input voltage of the op-amp without
external feedback.
Common Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR): The ratio of Ad to Ac i.e CMRR = Ad /Ac.
Slew Rate (SR):The time rate of change of output voltage with respect to time.SR = dVo/dt V/μs

Concept of Virtual ground and Zero input current:

 In ideal differential amplifier V1≈V2 so, if V2 is at ground potential then it is assumed that
V1 is also at same potential. So this is called virtual ground effect.
 OPAMP has very high input impedance (≈2MΩ) i.e. the actual current entering the OPAMP
is almost negligible (0) and it is considered as OPAMP has Zero input current.
Op-amp configurations: Assumptions:
1. Open Loop 2. Closed Loop
( No feedback ) ( With – Ve feedback ) 1. Zero Input Current: The current drawn by input
terminals (i.e. + NIV or – INV ) is zero. (Practically it is
negligible as it is in μA / ηA)

2. Virtual Ground:The differential input voltage Vd between

+ NIV and – INV terminal is almost zero.
e.g. If Vo = 10 V and Open loop gain Aol = 104
4
then, Vo = Aol X Vd i.e. Vd = Vo / Aol i.e. Vd = 10 / 10 =
1 mV i.e. very less.
Hence, as Aol →∞ the Vd = (V1 – V2) →0 i.e. Vd = (V1 –
V2 ) = Vo / Aol = Vo / ∞ = 0
i.e. V1 = V2 ; thus if one terminal is actually grounded and the
other one is virtually grounded.

Q4. Draw the pin diagram of IC 741 and write the Ideal and typical Parameters for IC 741
along with its features ?
Features: 1. No frequency compensation required.
2. Short circuit protection provided.
3. Offset voltage Null capability.
4. Large Common voltage and differential voltage range.

27
Sr. No. Parameter Symbol Ideal Value Typical Value for IC 741

1. Open loop voltage gain Aol ∞ 2 X 105

2. Output Impedance Zout 0 75 Ω

3. Input Impedance Zin ∞ 2 MΩ

4. Input offset current Iios 0 20 nA

5. Input offset voltage Vios 0 2 mV

6. Bandwidth B.W. ∞ 1 MHz

7. CMRR ρ ∞ 90 dB

8. Slew Rate S ∞ 0.5 V / μS

9. Input Bias current Ib 0 80 nA

10. Power supply Rejection Ratio PSRR 0 30 μV / V

Describe and explain the applications of operational amplifiers?

1. CONSTANT GAIN MULTIPLIERS
A ) INVERTING AMPLIFIER:
Amplifies input signal with1800 phase shift.
Input side I = [ Vin – VA ] / R1
as VA = VB = 0 i.e. I = Vin / R1 ----(1)
Output side I = [ VA – Vo ] / Rf
as VA = VB = 0 i.e. I = - Vo / Rf ----(2)
i.e. By equating equation (1) & (2), We get,
Vin / R1 = - Vo / Rf
Therefore Voltage Gain with feedback
AVF = - Vo / Vin = - Rf /R1

B) NONINVERTING AMPLIFIER:
Amplifies the input signal without any phase shift.
Virtual Condition is VA = VB = Vin
From output side I = [ VO– VA ]/RF
i.e. I= [ VO– Vin ] / RF
From input side I = [ VA – 0 ] / R1 ; then by
equating both we get, [ Vo– Vin ] / Rf = [ VA – 0 ] / R1
i.e. Voltage Gain with feedback is AVF is
AVF = [ Vo / Vin ] = [1 + ( Rf / R1)]
28
2. VOLTAGE SUMMING AMPLIFIER (ADDER):
(Inverting TWO input)
It used for adding two or more inputs.
Virtual conditions are VA = VB = 0
From Input side I1=[ V1 – VA ] / R1 = V1/R1
And I2 = [ V2 – VA ] / R2 = V2 / R2
at node “A” Op-amp input current is I = I1 + I2
From output side
I = [ VA – Vo ] / Rf = - Vo / Rf as I = I1 + I2
i.e. - Vo / Rf =(V1/R1)+(V2/R2)
i.e. Vo =[ (V1. Rf / R1) ] + [ (V2. Rf /R2) ] If Rf = R1 = R2 ; Then, Vo = - [ V + V ]
1 2
3. VOLTAGE SUMMING AMPLIFIER (ADDER) (Three input-Inverting)
The similar exercise can be done for
THREE input ADDER
It used for adding Three inputs.
Virtual conditions are VA = VB = 0
From Input side
I1=[ V1 – VA ] / R1 = V1/R1
I2 = [ V2 – VA ] / R2 = V2 / R2
I3 = [ V3 – VA ] / R2 = V2 / R3
at node “A” Op-amp input current is I = I1 + I2+I3
From output side; I = [ VA – Vo ] / Rf = - Vo / Rf as I = I1+I2 +I3
i.e. - Vo / Rf =(V1/R1)+(V2/R2) +(V3/R3)
i.e. Vo =[ (V1. Rf / R1) ] + [ (V2. Rf /R2) ] + [ (V3. Rf /R3) ] If Rf = R1 = R2 =R3 ;
Then, Vo = - [ V1 + V2 +V3]

4. OPAMP SUBTRACTOR or DIFFERENCE AMPLIFIER

Similar to the summer circuit, the subtraction of 2 input voltages is possible with the help of op-
amp circuit called subtractor or difference amplifier circuit. Here we have to find relation
between input and output using superposition theorem.
Let Vo1 be the output, with input V1 acting, assuming V2 to be zero. And Vo2 be the output, with
input V2 acting, assuming V1 to be zero.
With V2 zero, the circuit acts as an inverting amplifier. Hence we can write

29
While with V1 as zero, Let potential of node B be VB. The potential of node A is same as B
i.e. VA = VB • Applying voltage divider rule to the input V2 loop,.

Equating the equations (3) and (4),

Substituting VB from (2) in (5) we get,

Hence using Superposition principle,

Now if the resistances are selected as R1 = R2. thus as per equation (8) the output voltage is
proportional to the difference between the two input voltages. Thus it acts as a subtractor or
difference amplifier.
If Ri = R2 = R f is selected, But by selecting proper values of R1,
R2 and Rf, we can have the subtraction of two inputs with appropriate strengths like,

5. OPAMP INTEGRATOR / LOW PASS FILTER /ACTIVE FILTER

The Op-amp Integrator is an operational amplifier that
performs the mathematical operation of Integration. So,
the op-amp integrator produces an output voltage which is
proportional to the integral of the input voltage. i.e. The
30
 magnitude of the output signal is determined by the length of time a voltage is present at its input.

Due to virtual ground & Op-amp has zero input current due to high input impedance i.e. I=IF

6. OPAMP DIFFERENTIATOR / HIGH PASS FILTER / ACTIVE FILTER

The basic Differentiator Amplifier circuit is the exact
opposite to that of the Integrator operational amplifier
circuit. Here, the position of the capacitor and resistor
have been interchanged and now the Capacitor, C
is connected to the input terminal of the inverting
amplifier while the Resistor, R1 forms the negative
feedback element across the operational amplifier.
This circuit performs the mathematical operation of Differentiation that is it
produces a voltage output which is proportional to the rate-of-change of input voltage and the current
flowing through the capacitor.

Due to virtual ground & Op-amp has zero input current due to high input impedance i.e . I=IF

Examples:

31
 If signal input is noisy and suppose device has one set point (No UTV & LTV), So we get
incorrect input and it could get more than two square wave pulses in the output.
 The Schmitt Trigger is a device which provides two threshold levels and hysteresis in the output.
 It has upper threshold level and lower threshold level for rising and falling edge, thus it gives
different response during loading and unloading and we get only two pulses.
 It is useful onboard ship for monitoring and controlling of process parameters e.g. Temp, pressure,
flow, level etc. It avoids the errors or noise in electrical equivalent of these input analog signals.
 Thus, it converts noisy sinusoidal input signal to square wave output signal. It converts noisy
square wave or slow edges input also in to clean square wave.
 It can be made using transistors or OPAMP with few resistors and positive feedback. Vin is
applied to Non-inverting input and inverting input is connected to zero.
 So, it acts as comparator to compare non-inverting input with the inverting input (Vin-0).
 The output will change from –Vcc to + Vcc, when VA >0.
 Thus by selecting proper value of resistors R1 & R2, we can decide at what input value Schmitt
trigger will operate. Here in this circuit the UTV & LTV are ± 6 volts.

32
UNIT-6: INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS (POWER ELECTRONICS)

Study of Applications of Thyristors (SCR and IGBT)

What is Power Electronics? What are types of thyristors? Draw general block diagram and
mention the advantages and application for thyristors?
Ans:

AC / DC
Power Supply

Power Electronics is branch of Electronics which deals with High Voltage, High Current i.e. High
Power by using Thyristors. 5000 Volts / 6000 Amp P=30 M Watt

Types of Thyristors:1. SCR 2. GTO 3. Power MOSFET 4. IGBT 5. TRIAC

Low Power Devices e.g. UJT, DIAC and PWM controlling can be used to Turn ON, High Power
Devices SCR, TRIAC & PMOSFET, IGBT respectively.

Advantages: 1. Energy saving: Optimum Utilisation of available energy to avoid wastage.

2. Power controlling: to deliver the power according to requirement of load. 3. Power conversion:
AC-DC (Rectifier), DC-AC (Inverter), DC-DC (Chopper),AC-AC Variable Frequency
(Cycloconverter), AC-AC Variable Voltage (Voltage Regulator). 4. Reduces burning of fuel & it's a
green technology, which is environment friendly.

Applications on board ship: 1. Controllers for cranes, elevators, lifts, excavators, winders,
trolleys. 2. Speed control of AC / DC drives, 3. Controlling Centrifugal pumps used for Cargo and
Ballast operation onboard ship. 4. Sea water cooling system 5. Electric Propulsion system. 6. Light
dimmers, Fan regulators, 7. UPS, EPS, Inverters, Battery chargers, 8. Lighting system onboard 9.
Oil-water separator, electrostatic precipitators for pollution control, 10. Soft start circuits.
Analysis of Basic Power Controller Circuit:

33
What is Silicon Controlled Rectifier ( S C R )? Darw its symbol, structure and equivalent
schematic and explain its features?

 It is a semiconductor, unidirectional, three terminal devices. (Anode, cathode and gate)

 It is a four layer structure with 3 junctions; J1 & J3 : Forward bias and J2: Reverse bias
 It is a PNPN device with two transistors connected back to back (PNP and NPN ).
 It is the basic element used for power controlling and conversion (AC DC ).
 It acts as power control switch. i.e. Only when it is ON, the power is fed/control to the load.
 Its Turn-on is controlled by gate current, called Triggering or firing of SCR.
 Its Turn-off depends on reverse voltage VAK and anode current flow through SCR i.e. IA
 Turn-on / firing or triggering of SCR: R, RC, UJT, IC, Digital, Microprocessor.
 Turn-off or commutation of SCR : Line, Forced and Load commutation.
Explain working of SCR and its V-I characteristics? Also explain its switching action and
mention its various parameters with typical values?

 When Anode is negative and cathode is positive, SCR is in Reverse blocking state (OFF and
can't be turn-on by applying gate current),
 When Anode is positive and cathode is negative, SCR is in Forward Blocking state (OFF but
ready to Turn-on by applying gate).
 When gate current is increased, then for some value of positive V AK, SCR starts conducting
which is called as turn-on of SCR.
 When SCR is OFF, the current IA flowing through SCR and Load is minimum but voltage across
SCR is applied voltage i.e. Maximum VAK Anode to Cathode Voltage.
 When SCR is ON, the current through SCR and Load increases suddenly and voltage drop
across SCR becomes minimum it is called on-state voltage of SCR ( 0.8 Volts i.e. < 1 V ).
 The minimum current required to keep SCR in ON state is called as Holding current ( I H).
 The minimum current at which SCR turns ON is called as Latching current ( I L= 3 IH).

 SCR acts as power control switch (Switching Frequency=1KHz)

34
SCR Switching action ON / Close / R=0 OFF / Open / R=∞

Anode to cathode voltage = VAK Min Max

Anode Current = IA Max Min

Parameters and Typical Values for SCR :
Sr. Parameter Typical Value

1. Holding Current 10 mA

2. Latching Current 30 mA

3. Turn-on Time 200 to 400 uS

4. Turn-off Time 50 to 100 uS

5. Gate Voltage / Gate current 5 to 15 volts / 10 to 1000 mA

6. Anode to cathode Voltage / Anode current 100 to 10 KV / 5 to 3000 A.

Turn-on methods for Thyristor / SCR: Thermal Turn-on, Light. ( LASCR: Light Activated Silicon
Controlled Rectifier), High Voltage, Gate Current / Pulse Triggering dv/dt Triggering.
Gate Triggering Methods: Resistance Triggering, Resistance-Capacitance Triggering, UJT –
Triggering.
Turn-off methods for Thyristor: Line Commutation (Natural Commutation: Due to natural
reversal of AC), Load Commutation (depends on reactive load), Forced Commutation (Forcefully
SCR is turned off by applying reverse volt.)
Thyristor Ratings: Maximum Voltage, Current, Power, Temperature limits for SCR.
Voltage Rating:1.Forward blocking voltage (700V), 2.Reverse blocking voltage (1000V) ,3.On
state voltage ( 0.8-1.0 V) ,4. dv/dt (20-500 V/μsec) 5. di/dt (20-500 A/μsec)
Current Rating:1.Forward current ( > 1000 A), 2.Reverse current ( Few μA to mA), 3.di/dt (20-
500 A/μsec), 4. I2t ( F=50 Hz or 60 Hz)
Temperature Rating: 1. Junction temp. 1250 c, 2. Heat sink is required.

SCR Applications: Controlled converter, Inverter, Cycloconverter, Speed control of DC and AC

motors, Variable Frequency Drives, Electrical propulsion system, Pump control system.

Q. Draw diagram and explain working of single phase full wave controlled converter with R-
Load (Lamp load) using SCR / Thyristor / PNPN device. Derive an expression for output
power control?
 Rectifier converts AC to DC.
 Diode rectifier is un-controlled rectifier. So output DC power is maximum and constant.
 SCR are used in controlled rectifier. So its output DC voltage, we can vary by applying delay
angle (firing angle) from 00 to 1800. (Vdc=207 to 0 Volts)
 At delay angle of 00 SCR work like diode and gives maximum dc V output and Po.
 When delay angle is increased from 00 to 1800 then output Vdc and Power will decrease and at
1800 Vdc and Power output will be ZERO.
 Vdc output will vary inversely proportional to delay angle from 0 to 207 Volts.
 During positive half cycle T1, T2 conducts and T3,T3 are OFF. i.e. Vo=Vdc=Positive
 During negative half cycle T1,T2 are OFF and T3,T4 conducts. i.e. Vo=Vdc=Positive

35
Q. Draw diagram and explain working of single phase full wave controlled converter with
RL / RLE (MOTOR) using SCR / Thyristor / PNPN device. Derive an expression for output
power control?

What is Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor (IGBT) ? Draw its symbol, equivalent diagram,
structure and give its features? Features of IGBT:

36
 The symbol, equivalent diagram and construction of IGBT is as shown in figure.
 IGBT is a power switching device which combines good features of Bipolar Junction Transistor
(BJT) and Power MOSFET.
 Internal MOSFET (I/P side) makes IGBT voltage control device. so, it has high input impedance.
 Due to internal BJT (O/P side) it offers low ON-state power loss.
 Three terminals; Gate, Collector and Emitter, Four-layer structure with three junctions.
 IGBT has positive temperature coefficient.
 It can be turned ON and OFF by applying PWM signals. (PWM: Pulse Width Modulation)
 It has high switching speed up to 20 Khz, It's turn off-time is 0.1 μS.
 It has On-state voltage drop of 2 to 3 volts.
 IGBT have near ideal characteristics for high voltage (> 100V) and medium frequency (15 KHz)
applications.
 IGBT is of TWO types, p-channel and n-channel

WORKING:
 We connect two Batteries 1. Between Gate and Emitter (V GE) and 2. Between Collector and
Emitter (VCE). [ VGE << VCE]
 Then J1 becomes forward biased, J2 becomes reverse biased and J3 forward biased.
 As long as J2 is reverse biased Ic will not flow through IGBT and IGBT is in cut-off or OFF state.
 Due to SiO2 layer and internal MOSFET at input side, this forms virtual capacitor with gate side
and p body region acts as two plates of this capacitor.
 So when we increase VGE then gate side will me more positive and p-body region side will be
more negative. It is due to accumulation of electrons between J2 and J3. This removes RB on
J2 and creates virtual channel for flow of current. Thus IGBT starts conducting or it is ON.
 By varying VGE, we can control virtual channel width and total current flow through IGBT and
load. Thus we can control power output across load.
 When VGE is maximum then channel width is maximum with Ic flow and power output is Max.
 When VGE is minimum then channel width is minimum with Ic flow and power output is Min.

Rating: Voltage: 1500 V, Current: 1000 A.

Explain working of IGBT? Also draw V-I characteristics and give applications of IGBT?

 When the gate terminal is positive with respect to emitter and with gate- emitter voltage more
than the threshold voltage of IGBT, an n-channel is formed in the p-regions as in a
power MOSFET. This n-channel short circuits the n– region with n+ emitter regions.

37
 An electron movement in the n-channel, in turn causes substantial hole inject from p + substrate
layer into the epitaxial n– layer. Ultimately a forward current flows through the device.
 When C is positive and E is negative with G open, then J1 & J3 are forward biased and J2 is
reverse biased i.e IGBT doesn't conduct and it is in forward blocking state or CUT-OFF.
 The Ic current flows through IGBT (C to E) is almost zero. (Negligible leakage current in µA)
 With same + VCE, when gate voltage VGE is applied then junction J2, brakes down & IGBT starts
conducting and it becomes ON. Then forward current Ic starts flowing through IGBT.
 The forward current is directly proportional to N-channel width. When + VGE increases, the N-
channel width also increases which reduces its resistance and provides increase in forward
current from Collector to Emitter.
 Thus it is a voltage controlled device, The V-I (VCE Vs IC) Output characteristics is shown in
figure, it similar to BJT characteristics. Only it is having high power as compared to BJT.
 The transfer characteristics is between VGE and IC. It is the response between variation in
output current IC by change in input voltage at gate terminal. The threshold voltage ≈ 1Volts.

Applications: SMPS, AC/DC motor drives, PWM Inverters for Electric Propulsion system onboard
ship, Variable Frequency Drives for controlling centrifugal pumps onboard ship, contactors, Solid-
state relays, Inverters, UPS, Electric Motor Vehicles, Solar inverters, High frequency Welding,
Induction Cookers etc.

Draw diagram and explain working of single phase inverter using SCR/Thyristor/IGBT. How
to control the speed of Propulsion Machine?

 Inverter converts DC power to AC power output.

 Power switches used in Inverter can be either SCR / IGBT / MOSFET etc.
 IGBT is preferred due to better switching frequency and power capacity.
 Output load connected to inverter is AC machine (AC Motor) (Ex: Induction Motor or
Synchronous Motor). These machines acts as propulsion machine onboard ship.
 The speed of AC machine is controlled by changing frequency of supply input.
 We need inverter to change the frequency and speed of propulsion system.
 As per affinity laws, Nα(P)3. So if we reduce speed then cube root of power can be saved.
 Therefore, by reducing speed we can save more energy, reduce fuel consumption and reduce
GHG emission which further leads to concept of Eco-friendly green shipping.
 The diagram shows single phase H-bridge inverter using IGBT switches.

38
 Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) signals are used to Turn-On and Turn-Off IGBT switches.
 Input is fix i.e. + Vdc. It can be +12 or +24 Volts.
 For time interval 0 to t/2, PWM signal is applied to T1 & T2. So, T1 & T2 starts conducting and
current flows from A to B. We consider it as positive AC current. So, +Vo=+Vac is developed.
 For interval t/2 to t, PWM signals are applied to T3& T4. So, T3 & T4 starts conducting and
current flows from B to A. We consider this as negative AC current. So, -Vo=-Vac is developed.
 The actual output of inverter is square wave AC which contents lot of harmonics. So, we need
to convert this to perfect sinusoidal AC using wave shaping and filter circuits.
 The AC output is then given to step-up transformer. The output secondary ac voltage is then
given to Induction Machine and further to the Propeller.
 The switching time of IGBT is varied to change output frequency. Thus by changing output
frequency we can change the speed of propulsion machine. [As N=120xF/P]

LASCR (Light activated silicon control rectifier) / Photo-electric switch

LASCR is a semiconductor opto-electronic switch which has a lens that focuses light on its gate.
It is triggered into conduction by light. If sufficient light does not fall on the LASCR then it remains
in off state.
Working: When light is focused on LASCR (light activated
silicon controlled rectifier), the incident photons will generate
electron hole pairs. The number of optically generated
electron hole pairs is proportional to the intensity of light.
These electrons will constitute a gate current for LASCR and
due to the internal current multiplication The LASCR is
latched into ON state. The LASCR is most sensitive to light
when its gate terminal is left open. Its sensitivity can be
reduced and controlled to some extent by inserting a resistor between its gate and cathode
terminals. It offers complete electrical isolation between the triggering source and the switching
device. The forward breakdown voltage decreases with increase in light intensity.

There are some important applications of LASCR (Light activated silicon control rectifier)
which are given below,
 The light activated silicon control rectifier (LASCR) is used in high voltage and high current
applications.
 The LASCR is used in HVDC transmission and VAR compensation.
 It is used in light activated flash units, logic circuits and etc. It is used in alarm circuits.
 The LASCR is used in large computer applications. It is used in optical light control.
 It is used in phase control. It is used in motor control.
 It is used in circuits where isolation is required in control and power circuit.

Comparison between SCR and IGBT

SCR is current controlled device IGBT is Voltage controlled device

Switching frequency is about 1KHz (Slow) Switching frequency is about 15 KHz. (Fast)

High power capacity among all thyristors. Medium Power (better than PMOSFET)

Terminals: Anode, Cathode and Gate Terminals: Collector, Emitter and Gate.

39
UNIT-7: ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION

Q. What is frequency spectrum? Mention various frequency bands and its applications for
various types of communication services?

Ans: Frequency Spectrum is a band of frequencies reserved for various types of communication
services.

Radio Frequency ranges:

Frequency Range Abbreviation Application

0 Hz Direct Current DC Electrical
30 Hz - 300Hz Low Frequency LF Electrical (AC)
300Hz – 30 KHz Voice Frequency VF Audio
300 KHz-3MHz Medium Freq. MF Radio AM
30-300 MHz Very High Freq. VHF FM Radio, TV
300MHz-3GHz Ultra High Freq. UHF Radar, Microwave
3 GHz-30 GHz Super High Freq SHF Satellite

Application Frequency Range Application Frequency Range

Audio / Voice 20 Hz -20 KHz Cell Phone (Uplink) 896 MHz – 900 MHz

Video 0-5 MHz Cell Phone (Downlink) 901 MHz – 935 MHz

AM Radio 540 KHz – 1650 KHz INMARSAT (Uplink) 1625 MHz – 1650
MHz
FM Radio 88 MHz – 108 MHz INMARSAT (Downlink) 1525 MHz – 1550
MHz
TV (VHF) 54 MHz – 88 MHz RADAR: X-Band 10.50 GHz – 10.55
GHz
TV (UHF) 174 MHz – 890 MHz RADAR: K-Band 24.05 GHz – 24.25
GHz
Microwave Oven 2450 MHz RADAR: S-Band 33.4 GHz – 36.0 GHz

Wi-Fi 2.45 GHz Optical Fiber 1 THz – 1000 THz

Coaxial Cable BW 750 MHz SONAR 200 KHz & 83 KHz

40
Q. What is Modulation and Demodulation? What are its types explain in brief?

Ans: Modulation is the process of varying some parameter (Amplitude / Frequency / Phase) of a
carrier signal according to amplitude of Audio information (Modulating) signal, in order to convey
audio information.
 The three key parameters of a sinusoid are its amplitude, phase and frequency, One of which
can be modified in accordance with the amplitude of audio (AF) information signal to obtain the
modulated signal.
 Demodulation is the process of separating carrier and audio information after reception of
modulated signal.
 A device that performs modulation is known as a Modulator and a device that performs the
inverse operation of demodulation is known as a Demodulator. A device that can do both
operations is called Modem. Modem is used in computer communication, internet for sending
E-mail, data, images, graphs, images using telephone lines or by using wireless
communication network.

Audio Frequency / Low Frequency / Modulating Signal / Information signal

Fm = 20 Hz to 20 Khz;
Carrier Signal / High Frequency / Radio Frequency
Fc = 540 Khz to 1650 Khz(AM) & 88 Mhz to 108 Mhz ( FM)

Types of Modulation: 1. Amplitude Modulation. 2. Angle Modulation (Types of Angle Modulation

are i) Frequency Modulation and ii) Phase Modulation)

Medium

Amplitude Modulation: Modulation in which the amplitude of a carrier wave ( RF/HF) is varied in
accordance with amplitude of the modulating signal (AF/LF).
Frequency Modulation: Modulation in which the Frequency of a carrier wave ( RF/HF) is varied in
accordance with amplitude of the modulating signal (AF/LF).
Phase Modulation: Modulation in which the Phase of a carrier wave ( RF/HF) is varied in
accordance with amplitude of the modulating signal(AF/LF).

41
Types of Demodulation (Detector):
1. Amplitude Demodulation 2. Frequency Demodulation 3. Phase Demodulation

Amplitude Demodulation: Demodulation of AM wave, in which the carrier wave ( RF/HF) is

separated out and the modulating i.e. Audio signal detected (AF/LF), for extracting audio
information transmitted. Example: Diode Detector.

Frequency Demodulation: Demodulation of FM wave, in which the a carrier wave ( RF/HF) is

separated out and the modulating i.e. audio signal is detected (AF/LF).
Example: Frequency demodulator, balanced slope detector, ratio detector etc.

Phase Demodulation: Demodulation of PM wave, in which the carrier wave ( RF/HF) is separated
out and the modulating i.e. audio signal is detected (AF/LF).
Example: Phase detector.

Q. What is the need of Modulation? Explain with examples?

Ans: Modulation means using High Frequency ( RF ) carrier signal for transmitting an audio
information signal (AF) to longer distance. The modulation is necessary due to following
parameters.

Length of Antenna ( L ): Distance of Transmission is inversely proportional to Wavelength of

transmitted Wave and Height of antenna is approximately equal to Wavelength of Transmitted
Radio Frequency signal.

Velocity of RF waves
but; Wavelength = ------------------------- i.e. λ = C / f C = 3 X 108 m/s
Frequency
Example: i.e for Frequency: 1. 20 Hz to 20 K Hz 2. 540 K Hz to 1650 K Hz. 3. 88MHz-108MHz
H = 15000 Km to 15 Km H = 555.55 meter to 181.81 meter H=3.4 m to 2.7 meter
(Height of antenna is impracticable without modulation) ( it is practicable with Modulation)

Operating Range: The Energy contained in the Transmitted RF Wave depends on

Frequency of Transmission i.e. If Frequency is less, the energy radiated is also less and it will
not reach the longer distance. i.e. E α F

Wireless Communication: Radiation Efficiency depends on Frequency of transmission.

i.e. LF signal with less Efficiency will not be radiated & reach longer distance. i.e. η α F.
Therefore, by using High Frequency (RF) as a carrier, we can radiate and transmit actual audio
information signal (AF) to longer distance. Hence modulation is very essential in every distant
electronic communication system.
.
Effective power radiated by an antenna: A theoretical study of radiation from a linear antenna

(length l) shows that the power radiated is proportional to . This implies that for the same
antenna length, the power radiated increases with decreasing λ, i.e., increasing frequency. Thus
modulated signal has high frequency carrier will radiate more power as compared to direct
transmission of LF/AF signal. Thus modulation is necessary.

42
The general block diagram for electronic communication is as shown in figure.
Therefore, the three main components of radio communication are Radio (Transmitter /
Modulation), Medium and Radio Receiver (Demodulation / Detector).

Q. What is Amplitude Modulation? Draw its diagram of AM generator and explain its
working?

Ans: Amplitude Modulation is a type of Modulation in which the amplitude of a carrier wave
(RF/HF) is changing according to amplitude of the modulating signal (AF/LF). Thus the information
is in amplitude variations. After modulation of carrier signal, each cycle of carrier has different
amplitude.

43
 Diagram is as shown above. One input to Amplitude Modulator is RF carrier wave. It is 540
Khz to 1650 Khz for AM radio broadcast. It is given to Base input of Common Emitter amplifier.
 The other input to the modulator is Audio Frequency signal. It is the output of Microphone
which has frequency of 20 Hz to 20 Khz. It is given through Emitter of CE amplifier circuit.
 The input to microphone may be message, speech, music or any type of audio information, we
want to transmit. The microphone converts sound waves in to Audio Frequency waves. These
are AF/LF signals.
 The modulator combines these two signals (AF & RF) and produces an Amplitude Modulated
(AM) wave in the output. Its amplitude changes according to amplitude variations of audio
signal. The AF signal actually superimposes and rides over RF carrier. Thus the output AM
wave has amplitude variations similar to AF signal and frequency that of RF carrier. So that it
can be transmitted to longer distance.
 R1, R2 are biasing resistors. It provides voltage divider bias with VBE>0.7 V. Cin, Cc are

coupling capacitors. Capacitor offers less reactance to high frequencies i.e. If C is

connected in series, it allows HF to pass easily. CE acts as bypass capacitor. It is connected
across to bypasses high frequencies and allow only low frequencies through it.
 The CE amplifier circuit amplifies RF carrier and AF signal to Emitter provides variable AC bias,
thus the output amplified carrier has variable gain of amplification due to variable AC bias
according to AF signal. Thus AM wave produced in the output has different amplitude for every
cycle.
 Thus we get AM wave as a result of AF signal superimposing the RF carrier signal.
 The resultant AM wave has three components; Carrier, LSB and USB. 1. Carrier with amplitude
of Vdc and frequency Fc 2. Lower Side Band with amplitude of Vm/2 and frequency of
(Fc – Fm) 3. Upper Side Band with amplitude Vm/2 and freq. of (Fc + Fm).

Q. Draw and explain the block diagram of Amplitude Modulated i.e. AM Radio Transmitter?
OR Draw and explain diagram of Radio Broadcast Transmitter for AM Radio Broadcasting?

 Ans: Block Diagram is as shown below. One input to Amplitude Modulator is RF carrier wave it
is 540 Khz to 1650 Khz for AM radio broadcast. The HF Master oscillator generates this carrier
then it is given to input of High Frequency amplifier. This can be clappThe Band width of HF
amplifier is about 1000 KHz.
 The other input to the modulator is Audio Frequency signal. It is the output of Low Frequency
signal source (Microphone) and LF amplifier which has frequency of 20 Hz to 20 Khz. The
bandwidth of LFA is 20 KHz.
 The modulator combines these
two signals (AF & RF) and
produces an Amplitude Modulated
(AM) wave in the output. Its
output is given to power amplifier
for amplification of power level of
AM signal.
 Basically CE amplifier provides
variable bias for the amplified
carrier signal.
 The amplitude of carrier signal
changes according to the amplitude variations of audio signal. The AF signal actually rides over
RF carrier. Thus the output AM wave has amplitude variations similar to AF signal and
frequency that of RF carrier. So that it can be transmitted to longer distance by the antenna.

44
Q. What is Modulation Index? What are various methods for the measurement of
Modulation Index.

Ans: I) The Modulation Index ( m ) of AM wave is the ratio of amplitude of the modulating (AF)
signal to the amplitude of the carrier (RF). Let Modulation Index be M.I. = m ; Vm = amplitude
of modulating ( AF ) signal and Vc = amplitude of Carrier (RF) then;

m = Vm / Vc

It can be expressed in terms of percentage.

II) Measurement of Modulation Index using
AM envelope is as given below,
Vmax = Vc + Vm and V min = Vc - Vm
i.e. Vmax – Vmin = Vc + Vm - Vc + Vm = 2 Vm......(1)
and Vmax + V min = Vc + Vm + Vc – Vm = 2 Vc.....(2)
Dividing equation (1) by (2), we get;

Vmax – Vmin Vm
Modulation Index M.I. (m) = ------------------ = -----
Vmax + Vmin Vc

Q. Derive an expression for AM wave with amplitude and Frequency of LSB and Upper side
bands.

Mathematical Analysis of a Modulated Carrier Wave

45
Q. Find the expression for Total Power radiated by AM Radio Transmitter
Ans: Power Relations in an AM Wave: As per AM wave equation, a Amplitude Modulated carrier wave
consists of the following three components:

46
Q. Numerical on Amplitude Modulation to find out, Equation of AF, RF and AM wave,
Amplitude (Voltages) e.g. Vm, Vc, Vmax, Vmin, Vlsb, Vusb, MI and Frequencies e.g. Fm, Fc,
Flsb, Fusb, BW and Power transmitted e.g. Total Power, Carrier Power, Side band Power,
PLSB, PUSB etc.

Q. What is Frequency Modulation? Draw the FM generator & explain its working with
features?

Ans: The modulation in which the frequency of the carrier ( RF ) wave is varied according to
amplitude of audio ( AF ) signal. i.e. In frequency modulated wave the information is available in
frequency variations of carrier wave. Therefore, each cycle has different frequency.

 The microphone converts sound waves in to AF signal of 20 Hz to 20 Khz.

 The Varactor diode modulator circuit is shown for generation of FM wave.
 Varactor diode modulator is the direct method of FM generation wherein the carrier frequency is
directly varied by the modulating signal.
 A Varactor diode is a semiconductor diode whose junction capacitance varies linearly with
applied voltage when the diode is reverse biased.
 Varactor diode is arranged in reverse bias to offer junction capacitance effect. The modulating
voltage which is in series with the Varactor diode will vary the bias and hence the junction
capacitance, resulting the oscillator frequency to change accordingly.
 The external modulating AF voltage adds to and subtracts from the dc bias, which changes the
capacitance of the diode and thus the frequency of oscillation.
 Positive alternations of the modulating signal increase the reverse bias on the Varactor diode,
which decreases its capacitance and increases the frequency of oscillation.
 Conversely, negative alternations of the modulating signal decrease the frequency of oscillation.
 The Frequency Modulator uses Varactor Diode. The capacitance of this diode changes
according to amplitude AF signal. As this capacitance is a part of LC tank circuit. The LC tank
circuit has Resonant frequency f = 1 / (2π√ LC). Therefore, the change in capacitor due to AF
signal, changes resonant frequency of tank circuit which is called modulating frequency fm. This
is deviation δ according to amplitude of AF signal.
47
 When modulating frequency fm is mixed with carrier frequency fc, the FM wave is generated.
 The FM wave has minimum frequency fc – δ and maximum frequency fc + δ (δ = deviation)
 The frequency of carrier wave is varied proportional to the amplitude of the modulating signal.
The amplitude of carrier is kept constant but only its frequency changes.
 As amplitude of AF signal increases, the frequency of Carrier FM wave also increases by
positive deviation +δ. i.e FM wave frequency is fc + δ.
 As amplitude of AF signal decreases the frequency of Carrier FM wave also decreases by
negative deviation -δ. i.e FM wave frequency is fc – δ.
 The maximum frequency deviation for commercial FM Radio Broadcast is δ = ± 75 Khz.
 Guard band of 25 Khz is added on either side to prevent adjacent channel interference.
 Total carrier swing = 2 X 75 Khz = 150 Khz, i.e. BW of FM = 150Khz+2 X 25 Khz =200 Khz.
 It is more complex than AM, this is because it involves minute changes in frequency.
 FM wave has less effect of noise as compared to AM wave. Therefore, we receive more clear
audio in FM as compared to AM radio.
 For FM Radio station with 93.9 Mhz carrier, the frequency swing will be from lowest frequency =
93.9 Mhz – 75 Khz to Highest frequency = 93.9 Mhz + 75 Khz.= 93.825 Mhz to 93.975 Mhz.
 The RFC and capacitor Cb act as a filter which transmits only the AF variations to the Varactor
diode and blocks high frequency RF voltage from reaching the AF stage.
 The Varactor diode FM modulators are widely accepted because they are simple to use, reliable
and have the stability of a crystal oscillator.
 This method of FM generation is direct because the oscillator frequency is varied directly by the
modulating signal, and the magnitude of frequency change is proportional to the amplitude of
the modulating (audio) signal voltage.
 Varactor diode modulator is used for automatic frequency control and remote tuning.
 The waveforms for AF, RF and FM are as shown.
 The High frequency oscillator generates a frequency called as center or carrier frequency fc.
 These AF waves changes capacitance of tank circuit. Tank circuit has variable capacitor and fix
inductor.

48
Q. Write an expression for FM wave and define the Modulation Index of FM wave?

max frequency deviation δ

Modulation Index for FM is mf = =
modulating frequency fm
(For FM Radio broadcast: Minimum Modulation Index= 3.75 to Maximum Modulation Index
=75KHz/20Hz=3750 )
Bandwidth of FM= 2(δ + Fm) δ= Frequency deviation and Fm=Max audio frequency
Maximum BW= 2(75KHz+20KHz)=190 KHz [ For AM BW=2xFm=2x20Khz=40KHz]
So, AM is narrow band transmission and FM is broadband transmission.
FM side bands: Fc ± n Fm (n=1,2,3,.….….….∞)

Q: Numerical on Frequency Modulation. Examples.

Q. Compare the following types of modulation. i) Amplitude and Frequency Modulation

No. Amplitude Modulation Frequency Modulation

1. Amplitude of RF Carrier changes according Frequency of RF Carrier changes according
to Amplitude of AF modulating signal. to Amplitude of AF modulating signal.
2. AM produces TWO set of side bands ( LSB, FM produces MANY set of side bands.
USB).
3. It is Narrow Band Transmission system. It is Broad Band Transmission system.
4. More Noisy reception, Less Signal to Noise Less Effect of Noise, More S / N Ratio.
Ratio.
5. Used for Large distance Radio broadcasting. Used for Short distance Radio Broadcasting
6. Simplified and less costly. Sophisticated and more costly.
7. Frequency range is 540 Khz to 1650 Khz. Frequency range is 88 Mhz to 108 Mhz.
8. Diode detector is used for demodulation of Slope detector is used for detection of FM.
AM
9. AM transmitter and receiver doesn't require FM transmitter, receiver requires Pre-
Pre-emphasis , Amplitude limiter and De- emphasis, Amp. Limiter & De-emphasis.
emphasis,
10. Intermediate Frequency AM Receiver IF for FM receiver = 10.7 Mhz.
IF = 455 Khz.
49
Q. Draw block diagram of FM Radio broadcast Transmitter and explain its working in brief?


RF / HF oscillator (Clapp or Colpitts Oscillator) generates RF carrier of 88 Mhz to 108 Mhz. Its
output is given to RF amplifier and then amplified RF carrier is given to Varactor diode
Frequency Modulator.
 The input to the modulator is AF Modulating signal of 20 Hz to 20 Khz. It is the output of
microphone, i.e. Microphone converts sound like speech, music in to AF signal.
 The Frequency Modulator uses Varactor Diode. The capacitance of this diode changes
according to AF signal. As this capacitance is a part of LC tank circuit, the change in
capacitance is nothing but change in frequency because F = [1 / ( 2π √ LC )] .
 This change in frequency when mixed with RF carrier, generates Frequency Modulated Wave.
Which is further given to Power Amplifier for Transmission.
 The RF carrier used in FM is called broadcast station frequency.

Q. What Radio Receiver? What are its types? Draw the block diagram of and explain
principle of super heterodyne used in radio receivers?

 Radio receiver is a electronic device basically used

for the reception of audio information by
demodulating received modulated signal transmitted
by Radio transmitters.
 It is used for getting information, education,
entertainment and some special purpose
applications in security control, for exchange of
message on ship, in aviation etc. The main function
of receiver is to demodulate the received RF signal
and extract original audio information transmitted by
the Transmitter.
 There are two types of commonly used radio receivers, i) AM radio & ii) FM radio receiver.
 The basic blocks required for super heterodyne receiver is as shown.
 Super heterodyning means mixing of two signals and generate third one in the output.
Therefore mixer stage combines the Local oscillator signal ( fo = 955 Khz to 2105 Hz ) with
incoming RF signal ( fs = 540 Khz to 1650 Khz ) and produces Intermediate Frequency fi of 455
Khz in the output.
 As RF stage and Local oscillator stage are connected by ganged tuning, the any incoming RF
signal fs can be converted to fi. i.e. fo – fs = fi = always 455 Khz in AM radio receiver and 10.7
Mhz in FM receiver.

50
 Q. Draw and explain block diagram of AM Radio Receiver? Also explain the concept of AM
demodulation using envelope / diode detector?

 The basic blocks required for AM super heterodyne receiver are as shown.
 Super heterodyning means mixing of two signals and generate third one in the output. The RF
stage is a Tuner & RF amplifier stage to
tune any AM broadcasting station having
center frequency belonging to fs = 540 Khz
to 1650 Khz.
 The Local oscillator is a High frequency
oscillator which gives input to mixer stage.
 The mixer stage combines the Local
oscillator signal ( fo = 955 Khz to 2105 Hz )
with incoming RF signal (fs = 540 Khz to
1650 Khz ) and produces Intermediate
Frequency fi of 455 Khz in the output.
 As RF stage and Local oscillator stage are
connected by ganged tuning, the any
incoming RF signal fs can be converted to
fi. i.e. fo – fs = fi = always 455 Khz in AM radio receiver.
 IF amplifier increases gain of received signal and give it to AM detector.
 The detector is most important stage in radio receiver. It basically performs demodulation of
received RF signal and extract original audio information transmitted by the Transmitter.
 The output of detector is 20 Hz to 20 KHz AF signal, given to audio power amplifier which
amplifies the audio and give it to loudspeaker.
 By controlling gain of the amplifier we can control volume or loudness of the audio played back by
the radio receiver.
 This audio information is exactly same as that of the transmitted audio information signal.
 The radio receiver has Three controls 1. Tuning – to select desired station by variation of gang
capacitor. 2. Volume control- To adjust the loudness of the audio information reproduced by after
detection. This can be done by potentiometer and by variation of Potentiometer we can change
the gain of Audio amplifier stage. 3. Automatic Gain Control-It is available inside the radio
receiver to adjust the gain automatically according to distance between transmitter and receiver
to avoid sudden increase in loudness due to frequent tuning of near and far station.

AM DEMODULATION:

 One of the advantages of amplitude

modulation (AM) is that it is cheap
and easy to build a demodulator
circuit for a radio receiver.
 A number of methods can be used
to demodulate AM, but the simplest
is a diode detector.
 It operates by detecting the
envelope of the incoming signal. It
achieves this by simply rectifying
the signal.
 Current is allowed to flow through the diode in only one direction, giving either the positive or
negative half of the envelope at the output, either will work equally well.

51
 It has Low Pass Filter at output. The charging of capacitor is quick due to small time constant but
discharging is very slow due to large time constant. The Low Pass Filter is to remove any radio
frequency components of the signal at the output.
 The resistor is used to enable the capacitor to discharge. This type of detector or demodulator is
called a linear envelope detector because the output is directly proportional to the input
envelope.
 Advantages: Less complex circuit, Simplicity of operation, Long distance communication,
less cost.
 Disadvantages: Harmonic contents in the output are high, Not used for high quality applications.

Q. Draw and explain block diagram of FM Radio Receiver? What are the types of FM
demodulation and explain the concept of FM demodulation using Slope detector?

 The basic blocks required for FM super heterodyne receiver are as shown.
 Super heterodyning means mixing of two signals and generate third one in the output.
 The RF stage is a Tuner & RF amplifier stage to tune any FM broadcasting station having center
frequency belonging to fs = 88 Mhz to 108 Mhz.
 The Local oscillator is a High frequency
oscillator which gives input to mixer stage.
 The mixer stage combines the Local
oscillator signal ( fo = 98.7 Mhz to 118.7
Mhz ) with incoming RF signal ( fs = 88 Mhz
to 108 Mhz ) and produces Intermediate
Frequency fi of 10.7 Mhz in the output.
 As RF stage and Local oscillator stage are
connected by ganged tuning, the any
incoming RF signal fs can be converted to
fi. i.e. fo – fs = fi = always 10.7 Mhz in FM
Receiver.
 IF amplifier increases gain of received
signal and give it to FM detector.
 The detector is most important stage in radio receiver. It basically performs demodulation of
received RF signal and extract original audio information transmitted by the Transmitter.
 The output of detector is given to audio voltage and power amplifier which amplifies the audio
and give it to loudspeaker.
 By controlling gain of the amplifier we can control volume or loudness of the audio played back
by the radio receiver.
 The radio receiver has three controls 1. Tuning – to select desired station by variation of gang
capacitor. 2. Volume control- To adjust the loudness of the audio information reproduced by after
detection. This can be done by potentiometer and by variation of Potentiometer we can change
the gain of Audio amplifier stage. 3. Automatic Frequency Control-It is available inside the radio
receiver to adjust the frequency variations.

FM DEMODULATION: In FM demodulator, the intelligence i.e. audio information to be recovered

from the variation of carrier frequency. As it is either above or below the center frequency,
therefore the FM demodulator must have its output amplitude which will vary linearly according to
the frequency of the incoming signal. Various types of FM detectors are (1) Slope Detector (2)
Phase-shift detector, (3) Ratio detector.

52
 SLOPE DETECTOR (FM demodulator / FM detector):

 It is the simplest form of frequency-demodulation.

 Here tank circuit is tuned to a frequency either slightly above or below the FM carrier frequency.
 The resonant frequency of the tank is the frequency at point 4. Components are selected so that
the resonant frequency is higher than the frequency of the FM carrier signal at point 2.
 The entire frequency deviation for the FM signal falls on the lower slope of curve between points 1
and 3.
 As the FM signal is applied to the tank circuit, the output amplitude of the signal varies as its
frequency swings closer to, or further from, the resonant frequency of the tank.
 It will develop amplitude variations in the output like AM wave. This is because of the response of
the tank circuit, which varies with the input frequency.
 This signal is then applied to the diode detector and the detected waveform is the Audio output of
20Hz to 20KHz further given to loud speaker.

PULSE
COMMUNICATION

53
 Block diagram of Pulse communication (Digital Communication) radio transmitter and receiver is
as shown above. The modulated signal called Pulse Code Modulated (PCM) signal.
 It is a receiver designed especially for transmission and reception of voice or code messages
transmitted by radio communication systems.
 The carrier used is square wave (not sinusoidal) by using any type of square wave generator with
generates RF/HF signal. (Ex: IC 555 Astable square wave generator)
 The microphone converters speech or information to AF signal of 20 Hz to 20 KHz.
 Then AF signal is converted to digital signal by using Analog to Digital converter (ADC).
 The ADC has three stages a) Sampling b) Quantization and c) Encoding.
 Sampling will divide the corresponding audio signal in to equal timings. Then sampling amplitude
is marked.
 To recover the signal exactly from its samples it has to be sampled at a rate fs ≥ 2fm.
 The quantization will be done to mark sampling amplitude for corresponding quantization level
according to number of bits in the digital output.
 No. of quantization levels = 2n (n=number of bits in digital output. Ex: 3-bit, 4-bit, 5-bit etc.)
 So, for n=3, Eight (0 to 7) quantization levels are there.
 Then quantized signal is encoded to corresponding digital signal by using different digital nuber
systems. (Ex: Binary, Gray, ASCII etc.)
 Thus ADC output is Digital audio signal in the form of 1’s & o’s. This is then mixed with pulse
(square wave with 1’s & 0’s) wave carrier.
 The modulator can be Pulse width or pulse amplitude or Pulse position modulation.
 Then modulated digital output is in the form of pulse train (series of bits 1’s and 0’s).
 This is modulated signal is then given to power amplifier and transmitting antenna.
 The receive signal first given to RF/HF amplifier.
 It is then demodulated for separating pulse carrier and digitized audio signal.
 Then decoder is used to convert digitized audio signal to analog audio sigal of 20Hz to 20KHz.
 This AF signal is then given to Low Pass Filter, which removes any RF/HF component in it.
 Thus Audio signal of 20Hz to 20KHz is then given to loud speaker.
 Thus loud speaker produces actual reproduction of original signal which is transmitted by pulse
communication.
 Pulse communication or digital communication is superior to analog communication (AM/FM/PM)
due to following reasons,
a) Less noise b) High Fidelity (Hi-Fi) c) Better performance d) Error correcting and error detecting
codes will recover information lost during transmission. e) All types of audio mixing and mixing
with video is possible in various format (Ex: MP3, MP4, AVI, Karaoke etc.)

Q. Draw block diagram of color TV / Black & White TV and explain its working?

The color tv receiver consist of five

section namely

1.Radio Frequency (RF) Tuner

2.Video Section
3.PAL decoder / Color chrominance
4.HV /EHT section
5.Synch Section
6.Sound Section

54
 RF TUNER
It consists of VHF (Very High Frequency) and UHF (Ultra High Frequency). It selects the desired
T.V Channel and provides constant values of PIF = 38.9 MHZ and SIF = 33.4 MHZ.

Video Section
It consists of video detector which provides composite color video signal (CCVS). This CCVS
consist of pure video, synch pulses, color signals, color bus, AGC bias is also obtained from this
section.

PAL Decoder / Color chrominance section

It consists of color demodulator which provides demodulated U and V signals. PAL decoder
provides R.G.B signals. Where, R- Red, G-Green and B-Blue

Which are applied to picture tube and PAL decoder also consist of ACC (Automatic Color Control)
and color killer circuit.

Color Synchronization Section

This section provides horizontal and vertical synchronize pulses. It also provides color bus which
is used as trigger signal to generate CSC ( Color Sub carrier ) signal. The horizontal and vertical
pulses are applied to deflection coils of PT (Picture tube). The horizontal signal is also used to
generate EHT (Extra high tension) supply of about 25 Kv.

Sound section
The output of FM (Frequency Modulator) detector is processed and the audio signal is reproduced
by the speaker. The Audio Frequency signal generated is of 20Hz to 20KHz.

RADAR for Ship Navigation

 Radar is an acronym for RAdio Detecting And Ranging. It is a device which measures not only the
time taken by a pulsed signal reflected back from an object but also it’s bearing relative to our
position.
 Radar is of great practical value to the navigator in the piloting waters. Radars are used for
tracking other vessels in the vicinity, so as to avoid risk of collision.
 Radar was developed during World War II. Today, Radar is available for all classes of vessels
including small fishing vessels and pleasure craft.
 No other gear can give you the ability to spot a vessel coming at you out of the fog, or tell you the
location of the inlet to a harbor in the pitch black of night.
 Radar mainly functions as an anti-collision aid. It also provides information about the whereabouts
of neighboring vessels, coastal outlines, etc. When Radar targets such as other ships, landmasses
or buoys enter the zone, an audible alarm sounds to alert the operator. The alarm area can be
forward of own ship or a 360-degree circle around the vessel.
 As we ever shout at a cliff and hear the echo of our shout? Radar works in a similar manner.
Radio pulses are emitted from the scanner in a certain direction. When the pulse strikes an object
such as a ship or island some of the energy returns to the scanner.
 The direction in which the scanner is pointing when the reflection is received is the direction of the
target causing the reflection.

55
 Since radio waves travel at a near-constant speed, the time required for the reflected echo to
return to the scanner is a measure of the range to the target.
 The radio pulse makes a complete round trip, but only half the time of travel is needed to
determine the range to the target. This equation shows how range is determined;

C = Speed of Radio Pulse (3 x 108 m/sec), T = Time between transmission of

radio pulse and reception of reflected echo, D = Distance in meter (Range of RADAR)
 Radar determines distance to an object by measuring the time required for a radio signal to travel
from a transmitter to the object and return. Since marine radars use directional antennae, they can
also determine an object’s bearing.
 The scanner rotates 360 degrees at 24 rpm about its vertical axis, using a special gear. In order to
achieve precise bearing resolution, the antenna radiates RF signal as highly directional beam.
 The sharper the beam (<1 degree), the more accurately the bearing of a target can be determined.
 Both radio waves and light travel at the near-constant speed of 3 x 108 m/sec; therefore, the Radar
can process vast amounts of information in a very short time.
 Radar targets are displayed on what is called a Plan Position Indicator, or PPI. This display is
essentially a polar diagram, with the transmitting ships position at the center. Images of target
echoes are received and displayed at their relative bearing, and at their distances from the PPI
center.
 Radars use LCD or daylight bright CRT displays. These types of displays provide steady, bright,
non-fading Radar echoes in monochrome or color depending on model. The picture is visible even
in full daylight. Digital information is displayed on-screen to keep you informed of your navigational
situation at all times.
 Radar range is generally calculated as follows;

 The magnetron generates the radio pulses for RADAR. There are two main frequency bands in
commercial Radar: X-Band (9,000 MHz band; wavelength 3cm) and S-Band (3,000 MHz band;
wavelength 10 cm). Magnetron output power ranges from 1kW for small Radars to 60kW for
large Radars.
 Sonar and Fish Finders use ultrasonic waves rather than radio waves. Since the propagation
speed of the ultrasonic wave is 2.4 x 106 m/sec, signal processing is much slower with these
devices than with Radar.

Frequency Band Characteristics

X-Band • Short wavelength for better directivity
• Attenuation in precipitation is greater than on S-Band
• Small, light-weight antennas
S-Band • Longer wavelength for long range detection
• Penetrates precipitation for excellent performance in improper weather
• Large antenna

RADAR Types:
Pulse - RADAR : Transmits a series of pulses separated by non-transmission intervals during which
the radar “listens” for a return.
Continuous Wave - Constantly emitting radar. Relative motion of either the radar or the target is
required to indicate target position. Frequency shift.

56
Features: 1. The pulse width determines the minimum range that the target can be detected. a. If
transmitter is still ON when the pulse (echo) is returned then won’t see the return. b. Need short
pulses to detect close targets.
2. Need long pulses to have sufficient power to reach targets that have long ranges. Pulse
Repetition Time, Frequency or Rate.
Definition: The elapsed time between the beginning of one pulse transmission and the next.
KEY Points: 1. Varying the pulse width affects the range of the radar. 2.Need short pulses for short
range targets. 3. PW determines radar’s minimum range resolution. 4. The slower the PRF the
greater the radar’s maximum range. 5. The faster the PRF the greater the radar’s accuracy. C =
3 x 10 8 m/sec; t is time to receive return divide by 2 because pulse travelled to object and back.
Working of RADAR:
The Basic components of Radar are,

Antenna – Focuses and directs outgoing radar pulse; receives incoming pulse to send to receiver.
Synchronizer – Coordinates timing for ranging; sets RF and timing clock.
Transmitter – Creates radio wave and modulates it to form pulse train.
Duplexer – Switch that alternately connects transmitter and receiver to antenna.
LNA/Receiver – Sensitive to transmitted frequency; it amplifies signal received and give it to super-
heterodyne stage, where it is mixed with local oscillator frequency and converted to standard
Intermediate frequency for demodulation.
Detector- It demodulated output of IF amplifier for processing in a video amplifier and display.
Display – Present radar information in usable form.
Power Supply – Provide electrical power to all stages.
The factors affecting Performance of Radar are: Signal Reception, Receiver Bandwidth, Pulse
Shape, Power Relation, Beam Width, Pulse Repetition Frequency, Antenna Gain, Radar Cross
Section of Target, Signal-to-noise ratio, Receiver Sensitivity, Pulse Compression, Scan Rate,
Carrier Frequency, Antenna aperture, Narrower beams allow more accurate determination of
bearing and altitude.
Doppler Effect: Based on frequency changes associated with moving objects, EM energy scattered
by objects moving toward / away from radar causes freq. change. Frequency of return signal (FR) is
compared with transmitted signal frequency (FT) to determine location of the Target from our ship. 1.
Ship moving towards our ship increases reflected wave frequency (FT<FR). 2. Ship moving away
from our ship decreases reflected wave frequency (FT>FR). If FT=FR then both ships are stationary
or moving with same speed in same direction.
57
Operation of the Marine Radars: The operation of the marine radars can be explained as follows:

 There is an antenna on the top of the radar that continuously rotates and flashes
 The flashes actually are frequency beams that are transmitted from the radar to find out whether
there any objects present in the path of the ship
 The frequency and the time taken by the flashes to return (reflections) to the radar receiver of
the ship helps to find out whether the route of the boat can be continued with or not
 On the display screen, the reflections can be seen so that identifying the actual distance of the
objects can be even more easy
 The screens used to view the position of the objects are LED screens. The clarity of the objects is
highlighted is good. Due to water-proof screens, there is no threat of interruption to the ship radar
in times of rough weather.
 The tracking ship system has further been developed to include even boats. This means that even
boat owners can be assured of their vessel’s safety while on the water.
 One major advantage of the marine radars is that the power and electricity consumption by them
is too less. This means that the marine radars are not just user-friendly but also help the ship
owner to regulate the cost of power and electricity.

The RADAR Pulse

 The Pulse Repetition Frequency (PRF) of the radar system is the number of pulses that are
transmitted per second.
 Radar systems radiate each pulse at the carrier frequency during transmit time (or Pulse Width
PW), wait for returning echoes during listening or rest time, and then radiate the next pulse, as
shown in the figure.

 The time between the beginning of one pulse and the start of the next pulse is called pulse-
repetition time (PRT) and is equal to the reciprocal of PRF.
 The PRF & PRT determines RADAR’s maximum and Minimum detection range.

Applications of Radars:

On ground: Detection, location, and tracking of aircraft and space targets.

In the air: Detection of other aircraft, ships, or land vehicles; mapping of land; storm avoidance,
terrain avoidance, and navigation.
On the sea: Navigation aid and safety device to locate buoys, shore lines, other ships, and for
observation of aircraft.
In space: Guidance of spacecraft; remote sensing of land and sea.

58
Some specific applications are as follows:
Air traffic control: Controlling of air traffic in the vicinity of airports; and also for automated landing.
Aircraft navigation: Weather avoidance to indicate regions of severe precipitation; terrain
following/terrain avoidance (TF/TA); radio altimeter and doppler navigator are also radars.
Ship safety: Collision avoidance; detection of navigation buoys.
Space: Rendezvous and docking; landing on the moon and other planets; detection and tracking of
satellites.
Remote sensing: Sensing of geophysical object, or the “environment” like weather, cloud cover,
earth resources, water resources, agriculture, forests, geological formation, etc. This is usually
done from aircraft or satellites.
Law enforcement: To monitor speed of vehicles in traffic.
Military: Surveillance and navigation; control and guidance of weapons.

Advantages of Radar

 The radar can see through the medium consisting of fog, snow, rain, darkness, clouds etc.
 Radar signal can penetrate and see through insulators.
It can help find out following parameters of object or target: • Range, • Angular Position, • Location
of Target, • Velocity of Target
 It can distinguish fixed as well as moving target types.

Disadvantages of Radar
 It cannot distinguish and resolve multiple targets which are very close like our eye.
 It cannot recognize color of the targets.
 It cannot see targets which are in the water and are too deep.
 It cannot see targets which are placed behind some conducting sheets.
 It is also difficult to recognize short range target types.
 Switching time of radar duplexer is very crucial when targets are very close. In this situation
reflected pulses arrive much earlier than the time required to connect receiver part with the
antenna by the duplexer. This results into "reflected pulse is not received by the radar".

Q. What are different telecommunication systems and services / wireless communication

systems used onboard ship.

Ans: Making use of electronic equipment’s for individual communication, navigational purpose and
for transmission and reception of process parameters used in measurement and control
applications is called electronic communication.

Applications of Radio Communications onboard ship

Radio Communication using AM and FM Trans-receivers: used for sending and receiving
messages and also used for individual communication e.g. HAM receivers, Walkie-talkie set etc.

Telemetry: Telemetry is the wireless transmission and reception of measured quantities for the
purpose of remotely monitoring environmental conditions or equipment parameters / data. A
telemetry transmitter consists of a set of measuring instruments, an encoder that translates
instrument readings into analog or digital signals, a modulator, and a wireless transmitter with an
antenna. A telemetry receiver consists of an antenna, a set of radio-frequency amplifiers, a
demodulator, and recording devices. A computer can be used to process and store received
information. The frequency band used for telemetry is from 216 MHz to 220 Mhz.
59
INMARSAT (International Maritime Satellite): International Maritime Satellite Organisation
operates a geostationary satellite designed to extend phone, fax and data communications all over
the world. It provides telephony and data services to users worldwide, for the purpose of
establishing a satellite communications network for the maritime community. It provides speed for
services like voice at 4.8 kbit/s, fax/data at 2.4 kbit/s to 9.6 kbit/s, ISDN Mobile phone services at
64 kbit/s. Frequency usage conditions for earth stations of the Inmarsat satellite network in the
frequency bands 1626.5–1650.7 MHz (Earth to space) and 1525–1550.7 MHz (space to Earth)

VTS: A vessel traffic service (VTS) is a marine traffic monitoring system established by
harbour or port authorities, similar to air traffic control for aircraft. Typical VTS systems uses
radar, closed-circuit television (CCTV), VHF radiotelephony and automatic identification system
to keep track of vessel movements and provide navigational safety in a limited geographical area.
VTS is designed to improve the safety and efficiency of navigation, safety of life at sea and the
protection of the marine environment. VTS is governed by SOLAS as per IMO regulations.

AIS: The Automatic Identification System (AIS) is an automatic tracking system used on ships
and by vessel traffic services (VTS) for identifying and locating vessels by electronically
exchanging data with other nearby ships, AIS base stations, and satellites. When satellites are
used to detect AIS signatures then the term Satellite-AIS (S-AIS) is used. AIS information
supplements marine radar, which continues to be the primary method of collision avoidance for
water transport.

SART: A Search and Rescue Transponder (SART) is a self-contained, waterproof transponder

intended for emergency use at sea. These devices may be either a radar-SART, or a GPS-based
AIS-SART (Automatic Identification System SART). The radar-SART is used to locate a survival
craft or distressed vessel by creating a series of dots on a rescuing ship's radar display. A SART
will only respond to a 9 GHz frequency. Shipboard Global Maritime Distress Safety System
(GMDSS) include one or more search and rescue locating devices.

EPIRB: An Emergency Position Indicating Radio Beacon is used to alert search and rescue
services in the event of an emergency. It does this by transmitting a coded message on the 406
MHz distress frequency via satellite and earth stations to the nearest rescue co-ordination centre.
Some EPIRBs also have built-in GPS which enables the rescue services to accurately locate you
to +/- 50 metres.

GMDSS: Global Maritime Distress Safety System: is an internationally agreed set of safety
procedures, types of equipment, and Radio Communication protocols used to increase safety and
make it easier to rescue distressed ships, boats and aircraft. GMDSS consists of several systems
which are intended to perform the following functions: alerting (including position determination of
the unit in distress), search and rescue coordination, locating (homing), maritime safety
information broadcasts, general communications, and bridge-to-bridge communications. Specific
radio carriage requirements depend upon the ship's area of operation, rather than its tonnage. The
system also provides redundant means of distress alerting, and emergency sources of power.
Recreational vessels do not need to comply with GMDSS radio carriage requirements, but will use
the Digital Selective Calling (DSC) VHF radios. Offshore vessels may elect to equip themselves
further. Vessels under 300 Gross tonnage (GT) are not subject to GMDSS requirements.

GPS: The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a space-based satellite navigation system that
provides location and time information in all weather conditions, anywhere on or near the Earth,
where there is an unobstructed line of sight to four or more GPS satellites.

60
VOR: VHF Omni Directional Radio Range (VOR) is a type of short-range radio navigation system
for aircraft, enabling aircraft to determine their position and stay on course by receiving radio
signals transmitted by a network of fixed ground radio beacons, with a receiver unit. It uses radio
frequencies in the very high frequency (VHF) band from 108 to 117.95 Mhz.

TACAN: A tactical air navigation system, commonly referred to by the acronym TACAN, is a
navigation system used by military aircraft. It provides the user with bearing and distance (slant-
range) to a ground or ship-borne station. It is a more accurate version of the VOR/ Distance
Measuring Equipment, system that provides bearing and range information for civil aviation.

RDF: A radio direction finder (RDF) is a device for finding the direction to a radio frequency
source. Due to low frequency propagation characteristic to travel very long distances and "over the
horizon", it makes a particularly good navigation system for ships, small boats, and aircraft that
might be some distance from their destination.

ECDIS: An Electronic Chart Display & Information System (ECDIS) is a computer-based

navigation information system that complies with International Maritime Organization (IMO)
regulations and can be used as an alternative to paper nautical charts.

Cadets have to solve numerical on following topics from books mentioned below;

1. Principle of Electronics by V.K.Mehta & Rohit Mehta.

2. Electrical Technology Volume-4 by B.L Theraja & A.K. Theraja.

Topics for numerical practice according to importance and priority are;

1. Numerical on Amplitude Modulation and Frequency Modulation.

2. Numerical on IC-555 based, Astable and Monostable timer / Multivibrator.
3. Numerical on Oscillators (RC-Phase Shift, Wien bridge and Crystal Oscillator)
4. Numerical on JFET, MOSFET and UJT.
5. Numerical on Efficiency of Class B Push-pull amplifier.
6. Numerical on biased clipper & clamper.
7. Numerical on OPAMP applications.
8. Numerical on SCR & IGBT.
9. Numerical on RADAR.

61
62
******************************ALL THE BEST****************************************

63
 MOCK QUESTION PAPER-1 ONLY FOR PRACTICE
B. Tech. (MARINE ENGINEERING) - Semester – III
ANALOG ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION (Subject Code: UG11T3302)

Time: 3 Hours Max Marks: 100

Date: __________ Pass Marks: 50

PART-A
All questions are compulsory

1. (Questions at least ONE from each Unit.)

(a) Make a neat comparison between JFET and MOSFET. (3)

(b) What is CMOS Inverter? What are its applications? (3)
(c) What is phase inversion in transistor power amplifiers? (3)
(d) What is barkausen criterion? What are the basic requirement of (3)
oscillator?
(e) What is signal generator? What are its applications? (3)
(f) Make a neat compairision between diode clipper and clamper? (3)
(g) Make a neat comparison between Astable and Monostable timer. (3)
(h) Define following parameters of OP-AMP? (3)
i) Slew Rate ii) CMRR iii) Gain of OPAMP
(i) What is LASCR? Draw its V-I characteristics and write its applications? (3)
(j) Enlist various telecommunication systems and services used for (3)
navigation onboard ship?

PART-B
Answer ANY FIVE of the following

2. (a) What is JFET? Draw its symbol, structure and explain working of N- (7)
channel JFET? Draw its output and transfer characteristics and mention
its features.
(b) Draw and explain Frequency Response of CE transistor amplifier? What (7)
is bandwidth and why its taken at 3dB below the maximum?

3. (a) Draw and explain working of Push-pull amplifier? Derive its effciciency (7)
and write its applications?
(b) Draw and explain concept of load line woth reference to Common (7)
Emitter Amplifier? Why output is 1800 out of phase with input?

4. (a) Draw diagram and explain working of Phase shift Oscillator? Expalin (7)
how RC circuit provides phase shift in the circuit?
(b) In the Wien bridge oscillator, R1 = R2 = 220 kΩ and C1 = C2 = 250 pF. (7)
Determine the frequency of oscillations?
64
 5. (a) Draw diagram and explain working of Diode clamper? What are its (7)
applications?
(b) Draw diagram of Sweep Generator / Time base Generator / Sawtooth (7)
generator and explain its working and applications?

6. (a) Draw and explain working of OPAMP Invertering Amplifier and Non- (7)
Inverting Amplifier? What are the applications of OPAMP onboard ship?
(b) Draw diagram and explain working of IC 555 based Astable (7)
Multivibrator (Timer)? Draw waveforms & write appropriate formulae?

7. (a) What is Thyristor/SCR/PNPN device? Draw its symbol, structure and (7)
explain its working with refence to V-I characteristics?
(b) Draw diagram and explain working of single phase IGBT based (7)
Inverter/DC to AC power converter? Expalain how to change speed of
propellor with AC macine?

8. (a) Draw diagram and explain working of envelop detector? (7)

(b) What is RADAR? Draw blcok diagram and explain its working with (7)
reference to its features, frequencies, advantages and applications?

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MOCK QUESTION PAPER-2 ONLY FOR PRACTICE
B. Tech. (MARINE ENGINEERING) - Semester – III
ANALOG ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION (Subject Code: UG11T3302)

Time: 3 Hours Max Marks: 100

Date: __________ Pass Marks: 50

PART-A
All questions are compulsory
1. (Questions at least ONE from each Unit.)

(a) Draw symbol, structure and write features of DE-MOSFET. (3)

(b) Which devce has negative resistance region? Draw its diagram and (3)
expalin its features with V-I characteristics?
(c) Make a neat compairision between volatge and power amplifiers? (3)
(d) What is decoupling capacitors? Why they are needed in circuits? (3)
(e) Draw pin diagrm of IC 555 and write its functions and parameters? (3)
(f) What is Differential amplifier? What are various input-output (3)
configurations used in OPAMP applications?
(g) Define following concepts related to OP-AMP Applications? (3)
i) Virtual ground ii) Zero input current
(h) Make a neat comparison between SCR and IGBT. (3)
(i) What is Phase Modulation? What are its applications? (3)
(j) Make a neat comparison among AM, FM and PM. (3)
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 PART-B
Answer ANY FIVE of the following

2. (a) What is MOSFET? Draw its symbol, structure and explain working of N- (7)
channel E-MOSFET and D-MOSFET? Draw its output and transfer
characteristics and mention its features.
(b) Draw digram and explain Effect of Negative and Positive Feedback with (7)
refrence to gain and bandwidth?

3. (a) Draw and explain working of complementary symmetry amplifier? write (7)
its advantages and applications?
(b) What is phase inversion? Why it is required in Power amplifiers? Derive (7)
the relation between maximum output power, load resistance and
transistor power dissipation in class B Push-pull amplifier?

4. (a) Draw diagram and explain working of Wien bridge Oscillator? (7)
(b) Draw diagram and explain working of Crystal Oscillator? In the phase (7)
shift oscillator, R1 = R2 = R3 = 1MΩ and C1= C2 = C3 = 68 pF. At what
frequency does the circuit oscillates?

5. (a) Draw diagram and explain working of Positive and Negative Diode (7)
clipper? What are its applications?
(b) Draw diagram of Schmitt Trigger (Transistor and OPAMP based) and (7)
explain its working and applications?

6. (a) Draw and explain working of OPAMP Differentiator and Integrator (7)
Amplifier? What are the applications of OPAMP onboard ship?
(b) Draw diagram and explain working of IC 555 based Monostable (7)
Multivibrator (Timer)? Draw waveforms & write appropriate formulae?

7. (a) What is IGBT? Draw its symbol, structure and explain its working with (7)
refence to V-I characteristics and applications?
(b) Draw diagram and explain working of single phase full bridge controlled (7)
converter? Expalain how to change speed of propellor with DC macine?

8. (a) Draw diagram and explain working of AM or FM SHR? (7)

(b) What is Pulse communication? Draw diagram and explain its working? (7)

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