VERIFICATION OF BERNOULLI’S THEOREM

OBJECTIVES

The goal of this experiment is to understand and experimentally verify Bernoulli’s equation for
incompressible fluid flow

The objectives of this experiment are:

1. To record the pressure head, flowrate and pressure differential

2. To calculate velocity (from measured flowrate)
3. To analyze the relationship between pressure and velocity
4. To plot the total energy line versus distance

UTILITIES REQUIRED

1. Water supply
2. Electrical supply: single phase, 220 Volts, 50 Hz, 5 Amp with earth connection.

THEORY
In fluid dynamics, Bernoulli's principle states that an increase in the speed of a fluid occurs
simultaneously with a decrease in pressure or a decrease in the fluid's potential energy. The
principle is named after Daniel Bernoulli who published it in his book Hydrodynamica in 1738.
Thus for a steady, inviscid, incompressible flow, the same can be expressed in mathematical
form as follows:

Assumptions used in the derivation are:

1. Viscous effects are assumed negligible

2. The flow is assumed to be steady
3. The flow is assumed to be incompressible
4. The equation is appropriate only along a streamline

An alternative but equivalent form of the Bernoulli equation is obtained by dividing each term by
the specific weight.

Each of the terms in this equation has the units of energy per weight or length (m) and
represents a certain type of head.
 ● The elevation term z is called elevation head
● The pressure term, , is called the pressure head and represents height of a column of
the fluid that is needed to produce the pressure P.
● The velocity term, , is the velocity head and represents vertical distance needed for a
fluid to fall freely if it is to reach velocity u from rest.

The Bernoulli’s equation thus states that the sum of the pressure head, the velocity head, and
the elevation head is constant along a streamline.
Ripples in the pipes are observed if flow rate is set such that the pressure is less than the 1 atm.
Due to insertion of air from the manometer tubes.

PROCEDURE

1. Close the drain valves provided.

2. Fill the sump tank ¾ with clean water.
3. Close the valve given at the end of test section.
4. Open bypass valve given on the water supply line to overhead tank.
5. Ensure that all ON/OFF switches given on the panel are at OFF position.
6. Now switch on the main power supply (220V AC, 50Hz).
7. Switch on the pump ensuring supply of water back to the sump tank through the already
open by-pass valve
8. Slowly open the valve connecting the sump and overhead tank closing the bypass valve
at the same time. These ensure that water is directed to the overhead tank for filling.
9. Once the overhead tank is filled to the desired level, regulate flow of water through main
test section with the help of given gate valve at the end of the test section. The water in
this case flows back into the sump tank
10. Measure flow rate using measuring tank and stopwatch. When measuring flow rate,
ensure that the water is directed to the measuring tank before measurement.
11. Repeat the experiment for different flow rates.

PRECAUTIONS

1. Ensure that the sump tank is filled with water before start-up.
2. Keep periodic watch on the pump ensuring it runs smooth without getting hot.
3. Do not run the pump at low voltages. (Less than 180 V).
4. Never at any time fully close the Delivery line and By-pass line Valve simultaneously.

OBSERVATIONS:

Known data
Cross sectional areas at peizometric points

Peizometric Distance from Reference point. Cross- sectional area at test points
point in m in m2

1. 0.03 6.1707 x 10-4

2. 0.07 5.0074 x 10-4

3. 0.11 4.1620 x 10-4

4. 0.15 3.3329 x 10-4

5. 0.19 2.7172 x 10-4

6. 0.23 3.3006 x 10-4

7. 0.27 4.2273 x 10-4

8. 0.31 5.1794 x 10-4

9. 0.35 6.4063 x 10-4

g = acceleration due to gravity = 9.81 m/s2; A = area of measuring tank = 0.1 m2

Results:
Run No. = 1
Tube no. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

U (m/s) 1.13883 1.4034 1.68846 2.1084 2.58626 2.12913 1.66238 1.35679 1.09695
 4636 04339 8738 96171 7808 0124 6603 9414 2513

P/r g = h 10.6337 10.613 10.5787 10.518 10.4237 10.4837 10.5287 10.5537 10.5697
(m) 4618 74618 4618 74618 4618 4618 4618 4618 4618

u2/2g (m) 0.06610 0.1003 0.14530 0.2265 0.34091 0.23104 0.14085 0.09382 0.06133
317674 844923 71702 930735 64716 96985 26615 796386 052073

Z (m) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

E 10.6998 10.714 10.7240 10.745 10.7646 10.7147 10.6695 10.6475 10.6310

4935 13067 5335 33925 6265 9588 9884 7414 767
Run No. = 2
Tube no. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

U (m/s) 0.83105 1.02412 1.23214 1.5386 1.88731 1.55371 1.21311 0.99011 0.80049
72752 532 9238 61564 2354 906 5967 56752 40649

P/r g = h 10.6487 10.6287 10.5987 10.543 10.4637 10.5187 10.5537 10.5737 10.5887
(m) 4618 4618 4618 74618 4618 4618 4618 4618 4618

u2/2g (m) 0.03520 0.05345 0.07737 0.1206 0.18154 0.12303 0.07500 0.04996 0.03266
164091 73227 980349 666366 6785 9904 766309 580277 00789

Z (m) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

E 10.6839 10.6822 10.6761 10.664 10.6452 10.6417 10.6287 10.6237 10.6214

4782 035 2598 41281 9296 8608 5384 1198 0626
Run No. = 4
Tube no. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

U (m/s) 0.78782 0.97085 1.16805 1.4586 1.78913 1.47289 1.15001 0.93861 0.75885
77524 28801 5913 24235 9081 8477 2706 23319 43639

P/r g = h 10.6537 10.6387 10.6137 10.568 10.4987 10.5487 10.5787 10.5987 10.6087
(m) 4618 4618 4618 74618 4618 4618 4618 4618 4618

u2/2g (m) 0.03163 0.04804 0.06953 0.1084 0.16315 0.11057 0.06740 0.04490 0.02935
468743 053592 89713 39585 07978 23712 719795 280885 065982

Z (m) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

E 10.6853 10.6867 10.6832 10.677 10.6618 10.6593 10.6461 10.6436 10.6380

8086 8671 8515 18576 9698 1855 5338 4899 9684

Run No. = 5
Tube no. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
 U (m/s) 0.7346 0.90527 1.08916 1.3601 1.66829 1.37341 1.07233 0.87521 0.70759
154518 85015 1838 04284 5145 44 7324 55787 90148

P/r g = h 10.658 10.6487 10.6237 10.583 10.5137 10.5637 10.5937 10.6087 10.6187
(m) 74618 4618 4618 74618 4618 4618 4618 4618 4618

u2/2g (m) 0.0275 0.0942

055994 0.04177 0.06046 856097 0.14185 0.09614 0.05860 0.03904 0.02551
9 008997 246222 7 56927 0016 893658 191179 969244

Z (m) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

E 10.686 10.6905 10.6842 10.678 10.6556 10.6598 10.6523 10.6477 10.6442

25178 1627 0864 03179 0187 8619 5511 8809 6587

Run No. = 6
Tube no. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

U (m/s) 0.6598 0.81312 0.97829 1.2216 1.49847 1.23361 0.96318 0.78612 0.63557
378203 88169 43868 57187 6828 2446 24658 60451 14278

P/r g = h 10.673 10.6637 10.6437 10.608 10.5537 10.5887 10.6187 10.6287 10.6387
(m) 74618 4618 4618 74618 4618 4618 4618 4618 4618

u2/2g (m) 0.0221 0.0760

909250 0.03369 0.04877 675984 0.11444 0.07756 0.04728 0.03149 0.02058
3 920861 981178 7 61165 369347 442724 817323 873801

Z (m) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

E 10.695 10.6974 10.6925 10.684 10.6681 10.6663 10.6660 10.6602 10.6593

9371 4539 2599 81378 9229 0987 306 4435 3492
REFERENCES

1. McCabe, W. L.; Smith, J. C. and Harriott, P. “Unit Operations of Chemical Engineering”

2. Fox and Mcdonald, “Introduction to fluid mechanics”
3. Wikipedia, Bernoulli's Equation
 PRESSURE MEASUREMENT
OBJECTIVES

The goal of this experiment is to understand the concept of pressure and the various
instruments used for measuring the same.

The objectives of this experiment are:

1. To understand pressure, atmospheric pressure, barometric pressure, standard pressure

and vacuum
2. To understand the difference between absolute and gauge pressures
3. To study the working principle of various pressure measuring devices like Bourdon
gauge, diaphragm gauge and U-tube etc.
4. To convert gauge pressure into absolute pressure
5. To calculate pressure from the density and height of a column of fluid
6. To understand the concept of pressure gauge calibration

APPARATUS

Pressure test bench consisting of different pressure measuring devices (for measuring pressure
above and below atmospheric pressure)

UTILITIES
1. Air compressor with appropriate 3 phase electric supply for the same
2. Oil for hydraulic comparator
3. Vacuum pump with appropriate single phase supply

THEORY
Pressure is one of the key thermodynamic parameters. It is an intensive property. Pressure is
defined as a ratio between a force and a unit area, perpendicular to the direction of that force,
on which the force acts. Mathematically this definition is expressed as:

p = F/A

where p – pressure, F – normal force, A – area.

The primary unit of pressure in the International System of Units (SI) is pascal, abbreviated Pa.
One pascal is the pressure exerted by a force of magnitude one newton perpendicularly upon
an area of one square metre.
In most cases pressure measurement devices actually measure pressure difference (either
between two areas or between the measured area and reference level), not absolute pressure.
One commonly used reference level is the standardised atmospheric pressure.
Gauge pressure is pressure measured relative to atmospheric pressure while absolute pressure
is pressure measured relative to absolute zero or complete vacuum.
Absolute pressure is measured in reference to total vacuum, and as such can only have positive
values.

Conversion of atmospheric and gauge pressure is given below:

Absolute pressure = Atmospheric pressure + gauge pressure (for pressures above atmospheric)

Absolute pressure = Atmospheric pressure - gauge pressure (for pressures below atmospheric)

There are multiple types of pressure measurement devices (manometers) based on various
principles. They can be either direct-reading gauges, where working elements are directly
influenced by the pressure, or indirect-reading gauges, where actually measured are some
other pressure dependant parameters. Some of the gauge types are listed below:
Hydrostatic gauges – which are based on comparison between the pressure and hydrostatic
force of a column of fluid: Piston type and Liquid column
Aneroid gauges – based on metallic element which flexes under pressure: Bourdon gauge
(flattened tube gauge), Diaphragm gauge and Bellows gauge .

Pressure gauge calibration: Generally there are two traditional methods for pressure gauge
calibration:
Direct technique, where values indicated by the calibrated gauge are directly compared to:
Pressure exerted by a static liquid column – for near-atmosphere pressures, Pressure exerted
by a solid weight (deadweight test) – for pressures much higher than atmospheric and Pressure
of wet steam (usually mercury) at known temperature – for very low pressures.
Indirect technique – where the calibrated gauge is connected to the same pressurised tank as
another gauge considered already calibrated, and the indications are compared.

PROCEDURE

Pressures above atmospheric: In this case emphasis is placed on understanding the working
principle of various instruments for measuring pressures above atmospheric pressure using a
pneumatic system. The pressure unit 2 (shown in figure below) has been provided with two
numbers gauge connection station and one micro adjuster cylinder to raise or lower pressure as
required while maintaining the same above atmospheric. The micro adjustor cylinder is capable
of generating adequate pressure for pressure gauges, manometers (if needed without help of
any external source)

Bourdon gauge
 1. Start the air compressor.
2. Using the pressure regulator and valves (operate and release valves) provided for the
pneumatic comparator, control flow of air to the Bourdon gauge and read different
values of pressure from the gauge dial. Use the operate valve to allow air into the
gauge (to increase pressure). The release valve can be used to lower pressure
reading on the gauge.
3. Use the micro adjustor if needed to get the exact reading on the gauge.
4. Visually observe the working principle of the gauge.

U – tube manometer

1. Isolate the compressor before connecting the manometer to the gauge connection
provided for the same. To isolate the compressor, close all relevant valves which will
stop flow of air from the compressor to this section. In addition before connecting the
manometer, ensure that the pressure levels at each gauge station is reduced to zero.
2. Manually using the micro adjustor vary pressure and for each value of pressure note the
difference in level of mercury in the limbs of the manometer.

Pressures below atmospheric:

The unit for vacuum measurement contains two gauge stations and one micro adjustor cylinder
to alter the amount of vacuum generated. The two gauge stations are connected to a single limb
and U-tube manometer respectively. Start vacuum pump and using the operating and release
valves, adjust the vacuum at each gauge station to a desired value. Read the dial gauge and
respective manometers. Repeat the experiment by altering the vacuum level at the stations.

Pressure measurement using hydraulic comparator

This system is provided to understand the concept of calibration and the function of a
diaphragm gauge.

1. Prime the system to ensure that no air is trapped within. Keeping the release valve
open, rotate the screw handle clockwise and anticlockwise several times until air stops
coming out from the oil cup. Lock the release valve at the end of the priming operation.
2. To start the experiment, rotate the screw slowly clockwise to generate the pressure
required and subsequently calibrate the instrument gauge using the master gauge
provided.
3. Rotate the screw in anti-clockwise to release pressure.
4. Ensure full pressure release using the release wall.

5. Always keep the release valve closed to prevent repeated priming.

DATA REDUCTION
(a) Hydraulic unit:
Standard (Master) Gauge Diaphragm gauge

kg/cm2 Pa (N/m2) Corresponding kg/cm2 Pa (N/m2) Corresponding absolute

absolute pressure (Pa)
pressure (Pa)

20 1962000 2063325 6 588600 689925

30 2943000 3044325 17 1667700 1769025

40 3924000 4025325 26 2550600 2651925

50 4905000 5006325 36 3531600 3632925

60 5886000 5987325 45 4414500 4515825

(B ) Vacuum unit : (Here the gauge pressure is pressure elow atmospheric)

Bourdan Gauge Single limb manometer

mmHg Pa (N/m2) Corresponding mm Hg Pa (N/m2) Corresponding absolute

absolute pressure pressure (Pa)
(Pa)

100 13332.2 87992.8 94 12532.268 88792.7

200 26664.4 74660.6 198 26397.756 74927.244

300 39996.6 61328.4 298 39729.956 61595.044

400 53328.8 47996.2 402 53595.444 47729.556

500 66661 34664 495 65994.39 35330.61

600 79993.2 21331.8 595 79326.59 21998.41

REFERENCE

McCabe, W. L., Smith, J. C. and Harriott, P. “Unit Operations of Chemical Engineering”