Final project on

Design and Simulation of 24vdc to 230vac Inverter

With Automatic Charger
Submitted to Arba Minch University, Institute of Technology, Electrical and
Computer Engineering Department in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for
The award of degree of
B.Sc
In
Electrical power Stream
by

Aklilu Admasu
Ashenafi Weji
Aweke Tesfaye
Biruk Nasir

UNDER THE GUIDANCE OF

Mr. Anmut Main advisor

Electrical and Computer Engineering Department

Arba Minch Institute of Technology
Arba Minch University
Arba Minch, Ethiopia
June 2014.
Design and Simulation of 24vdc to 230vac Inverter With Automatic Charger 2014

CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the present work titled ―Design and Simulation of 24vdc to 230vac Inverter
With Automatic Charger‖, submitted by

Aklilu Admasu RET/1452/02

Ashenafi Weji RET/685/02
Aweke Tesfaye RET/1458/02
Biruk Nasir RET/1217/02

In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of degree of B.S.C, is a record of their
original work carried out by him. They are worked under my supervision and have fulfilled the
requirement for the submission of this report. The results presented in this work have not been
submitted in part or full to any other university for award of degree.

Date: Signature of main Advisor:_____________

Name of the Main Advisor: MR. ANIMUT

Electrical and Computer Engineer

Design and Simulation of 24vdc to 230vac Inverter With Automatic Charger 2014

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Before all we would like to thank our almighty GOD for his help to win all challenges around us.

We would like to take this opportunity to express our gratitude to our project Advisor, Mr.
Animut Kefale for his guidance, advice, assistance and encouragement throughout the project.
Also, our sincere thanks go to co-advisor Mr.Yalisho Girma, he always being available whenever
we required his guidance as well as for motivating us throughout the project work.

This is the fact that no vision or great work is accomplished without help from other people.
Many individuals have supported and contributed to this project and we are deeply grateful to
them.

We are also grateful to all our friends and all those were volunteers for guidance in the
successful completion of our project.

The rest thanks but not the lest we would like to follow to our family.

Name ID No. Address Contact Signature

Aklilu Admasu RET/1452/02 akililu.admasu@gmail.com 0910557819 ________
Ashenafi Weji RET/685/02 wejiashenafi89@gmail.com 0916441137 ________
Aweke Tesfaye RET/1458/02 aweketesfaye1@gmail.com 0916441137 ________
Biruk Nasir RET/1217/02 biruknasir@yahoo.com 0912365920 ________

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ABSTRACT
For alternative energy systems, inverters are the essential step between a battery‘s DC power and
the AC power needed by standard household electrical systems. In this project work, Astable
multivibrator is used to generate the operating frequency of 50Hz through capacitors and
resistors. Utility companies and generators produce sine wave alternating current (AC) power,
which is used by most commonly available appliances today. Inverters take the direct current
(DC) power supplied by a storage battery bank and electrically convert it to alternating current
(AC) power.
The final design consists of a bi-stable multi-vibrator stage and the inverter stage based on
complementary silicon transistors which converts the pulses generated from the multi-vibrator
stage into sine waves coupled to a center tapped transformer to 230VAC at 1200W power. This
power inverter operates using high frequency switching technology.

The harmonic that is produced using high frequency switching near the range of those that are
relatively than the 50Hz frequency. These harmonics can be isolated using a small low-pass
filter, which translates into a much cleaner output signal. Further work can be done to improve
efficiency and total harmonic distortion. With these additional improvements, the standard can
be raised for pure sine wave DC/AC power supplies.

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Table of Contents

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ............................................................................................................................. I
ABSTRACT.................................................................................................................................................. II
LIST OF FIGURES ...................................................................................................................................... V
LIST OF TABLES ....................................................................................................................................... VI
CHAPTER ONE ........................................................................................................................................... 7
1. INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................ 7
1.1. Background ................................................................................................................................... 7
1.2. Statement of the problem .............................................................................................................. 8
1.3. Objectives of the project ............................................................................................................... 8
1.4. Scope of project ............................................................................................................................ 8
1.5. Methodology ................................................................................................................................. 8
1.6. Significance of the project ............................................................................................................ 9
CHAPTER TWO ........................................................................................................................................ 10
2. LITERATURE REVIEW ............................................................................................................... 10
2.1. Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 10
2.2. Controlled rectifier inverters ....................................................................................................... 10
2.3. Types of inverters and waveforms .............................................................................................. 12
2.3.1. Square wave ........................................................................................................................ 12
2.3.2. Modified sine wave ............................................................................................................. 12
2.4.3. True sine wave .......................................................................................................................... 13
2.4. Inverters and Application ............................................................................................................ 14
2.4.1. DC power source Utilization............................................................................................... 14
2.4.2. Uninterruptible power supply (UPS) .................................................................................. 14
2.4.3. Variable frequency drives ................................................................................................... 15
2.4.4. Electric vehicle drives ......................................................................................................... 15
2.5. Transformer................................................................................................................................. 15
2.6. Batteries ...................................................................................................................................... 16
2.7. Battery chargers .......................................................................................................................... 16
CHAPTER THREE .................................................................................................................................... 17
3. METHODOLOGY ............................................................................................................................. 17

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3.1. Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 17

3.2. The overall System Design ......................................................................................................... 17
3.2.1. Multi-vibrator stage............................................................................................................. 18
3.2.2. Inverter stage ....................................................................................................................... 23
3.2.3. Automatic Charger .............................................................................................................. 29
3.2.4. Rectifier Circuits and mode of operations .......................................................................... 31
3.2.5. Filtering Circuits ................................................................................................................. 34
3.2.6. Smoothing Capacitor........................................................................................................... 34
3.2.7. Voltage Regulator ............................................................................................................... 35
3.2.8. Battery Technology ............................................................................................................. 36
3.2.9. Relay ................................................................................................................................... 36
3.2.4. Transformer......................................................................................................................... 37
CHAPTER FOUR....................................................................................................................................... 42
4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ......................................................................................................... 42
4.1. Results ......................................................................................................................................... 42
4.1.1. Waveform Analysis for multi-vibrator stage ...................................................................... 42
4.1.2. Waveform Analysis for multi-vibrator and inverter stage .................................................. 42
4.1.3. Waveform Analysis for overall system design ................................................................... 43
4.1.4. Waveform analysis for the charger ..................................................................................... 43
Discussion and conclusion .................................................................................................................. 44
CHAPTER FIVE ........................................................................................................................................ 45
5. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION .................................................................................. 45
5.1. Conclusion and Scope of future work ......................................................................................... 45
REFERENCES ........................................................................................................................................... 47
GLOSSARY.................................................................................................................................................... 48
Appendix-A................................................................................................................................................. 49

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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1 square wave .................................................................................................................................. 12
Figure 2.Modified sine wave ...................................................................................................................... 13
Figure 3. pure sine wave ............................................................................................................................ 13
Figure 4 Modified sine wave and true sine wave diagram.......................................................................... 14
Figure 5.Overall block diagram of the power inverter with automatic charger .......................................... 17
Figure 6 power inverter circuit diagrams .................................................................................................... 17
Figure 7.Circuit diagram of multi-vibrator ................................................................................................. 20
Figure 8 Portion of Circuit diagram ............................................................................................................ 21
Figure 9 MOSFET characteristics curves ................................................................................................... 24
Figure 10 Cut-off Characteristics ................................................................................................................ 25
Figure 11 Saturation Region ....................................................................................................................... 26
Figure 12 High side switching losses and QG ............................................................................................. 27
Figure 13 Inductive Load Circuit with Snubber ......................................................................................... 29
Figure 14 block diagram of Automatic Charger ......................................................................................... 29
Figure 15 Variable Resistors. ...................................................................................................................... 30
Figure 16 Symbol of LED........................................................................................................................... 31
Figure 17 Bridge Rectifier .......................................................................................................................... 32
Figure 18 Positive half cycle of the bridge rectifier. ................................................................................... 33
Figure 19 Negative half cycle of the bridge rectifier. ................................................................................. 33
Figure 20 Waveforms of the input and output voltages for one cycle. ....................................................... 33
Figure 21. capacitor smoothing circuit ....................................................................................................... 35
Figure 22 Simple three -terminal regulator ................................................................................................. 35
Figure 23 Relay. .......................................................................................................................................... 36
Figure 24 Simple inverter circuit Connected to a transformer through the center tap transformer ............ 41
Figure 25 Output of multi-vibrator stage wave form. ................................................................................. 42
Figure 26 wave form of multi-vibrator and inverter stage. ......................................................................... 43
Figure 27 overall system design waveform ................................................................................................ 43

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LIST OF TABLES

Table 1 characteristics of MOSFET............................................................................................................ 28

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CHAPTER ONE

1. INTRODUCTION

1.1. Background

An inverter is an electrical device that converts direct current (DC) to alternating current
(AC). The converted AC can be at any required voltage and frequency with the use of
appropriate transformers, switching, and control circuits.

Static inverters have no moving parts and are used in a wide range of applications, from
small switching power supplies in computers, to large electric utility high-voltage direct
current applications that transport bulk power. Inverters are commonly used to supply AC
power from DC sources such as solar panels or batteries.

The electrical inverter is a high-power electronic oscillator. It is so named because early

mechanical AC to DC converter was made to work in reverse mode, and thus was ‗inverted‘,
to convert DC to AC. The inverter performs the opposite function of a rectifier.

The need for continuous power supply arises, if the consequences of a failure or disruption of
the normal supply are not acceptable. Basically, there are four reasons for having continuous
power supply these are: safety, security, financial loss and data loss.

Inverters can be designed in a number of topologies depending on the situation and its
requirements. The efficiency of the inverter is highly dependent on the switching device,
topology and switching frequency of the inverter.

There should be no limitation in the use of an electronic tool or gadget at a fixed location due
to power limitations and unreliable power supply. To make power supply more accessible to
everyone, even those in the remote and rural areas, the invention of DC to AC power inverter
was produced.

In the market, however, the power inverters available are limited to areas where it can be
recharged by AC power supply. In order to overcome this problem, a power inverter which
can recharge automatically is so developed that, it can produce a continuous power supply to
be used everywhere.

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1.2. Statement of the problem

There varied choice of power inverters is available in the market. They range from the very
expensive to the inexpensive, with varying degrees of quality, efficiency and power output
capability. Continuous power supply has always been an issue when it comes to the use of
inverters. As a result, electronic mobility is limited and not suitable for camping, vacations
and rural areas where there is no electricity.

An inverter of DC to AC type will be needed to convert 24VDC to 230VAC and recharge the
batteries automatically while in use.

1.3. Objectives of the project

The objectives of this project are to develop an automatic power inverter that can convert
24VDC to 230VAC, that is: able to produce power continuously without breaking, suitable
for rural areas, camping and vacations, to serve as an alternative source of power for homes
when electrical power goes off. to obtain a reliable and economical source of power. to
promote the use of power inverters in other to save energy that contributes to global warming
or greenhouse effect.

1.4. Scope of project

The scope of work is to design an inverter circuit and automatic battery charger that will
recharge the battery while in use and produce a continuous power supply. The output voltage
waveform of the inverter is to be sinusoidal and with a high output gain. Minimum power is
required by its controlling circuit and the semi-conductor device used in the inverter is to be
of minimum switching and conduction losses.

1.5. Methodology

In this project, the two main parts that evaluated are the inverter and the automatic charger
circuits. The inverter also parted into multi-vibrator and inverter stage. And the automatic
charger also includes rectifier and charge controller circuits.

The testing includes the evaluation and simulation of each stage separately and the overall
simulation of the power inverter circuit that will convert DC voltage to AC voltage and the
charge controller that converts the Ac signals into rectified DC wave.

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1.6. Significance of the project

Increasingly, governments around the world are turning to renewable energy to end our
dependence on fossil fuels. Homes, businesses, community groups and schools are being
encouraged to install solar power and other renewable sources of energy, like the power
inverters to reduce greenhouse effect on the environment.

This is a simple project which is easy to build and cheap, as all the parts are readily available
on the market. With average background in engineering, the inverter circuit can be made and
used at all times.

It can be constructed and used in the villages where there is no electricity. The inverter can
be transported and used anywhere when necessary.

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CHAPTER TWO

2. LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1. Introduction

In the past centuries, conversion of DC to AC power was accomplished through the use of
rotary converter or motor- generator set. In the early twentieth century, vacuum tubes and gas
filled tubes were used as switches in inverter circuits. The most widely used type of tube was
the thyratron. Early AC to DC converters used an induction or synchronous AC motor
directly connected to a generator (dynamo) so that the generator‘s commentator reversed its
connection at the same moment to produce DC.

Latest development is the synchronous converter in which the motor and generator windings
are combined into one armature, with slip rings at one end and a commentator at the other
end with only one field frame. The result with either AC in or DC out, with a motor generator
set. The DC can be considered to be separately generated from the AC with a synchronous
converter. Given the right auxiliary and control equipment, Motor-Generator (M- G) set or
rotary converter can be ―run backwards‖ converting DC to AC.

2.2. Controlled rectifier inverters

Since early transistors were not available with sufficient voltage and current ratings for most
inverter applications, it was the introduction of thyristor or silicon – controlled rectifier
(SCR) that initiated the transition to solid state inverter circuits. The commutation
requirements of SCRs are a key consideration in SCR circuit designs.

They only turn off when the forward current is reduced to below the minimum holding
current, which varies with each kind of SCR through some external process. For SCRs
connected to an AC power source, commutation occurs naturally every time the polarity of
the source voltage reverses. SCRs connected to a DC power source usually require a means
of forced commutations that forces the current to zero when commutation is required. The
least complicated SCR circuits employ natural commutation rather than forced computation,
with the addition of forced commutation circuit, SCR have been used in the types of inverter
circuits described above.

In applications where inverters transfer power from a DC power source to an AC power

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source, it is possible to use AC–to–DC controlled rectifier circuits operating in the inversion
mode. In the inversion mode, a controlled rectifier circuit operates as a line commutated
inverter. This type of operation can be used in HVDC power transmission systems and in
regenerative braking operation of motor control systems.

Another type of SCR inverter circuit is the current source input (CSI) inverter. A CSI inverter
is the dual type of six – step voltage source inverter. With a current source inverter, the DC
power supply is configured as a current source rather than a voltage source. The inverter
SCRs is switched in a six – step sequence to direct the current to a three – phase AC load as a
stepped current waveform. CSI inverter commutation methods include load commutation and
parallel capacitor commutation. With both methods, the input current regulation assists the
commutation. With load commutation, the load is a synchronous motor operated at a leading
power phase factor.

As they have become available in higher voltage and current ratings, semiconductors such as
transistor or IGBTs that can be turned off by means of control signals have become the
preferred switching components for use in inverter circuits. DC and AC current

In the world today, there are currently two forms of electrical transmission, Direct Current
(DC) and Alternating Current (AC), each with its advantages and disadvantages. DC power
is simply the application of a steady constant voltage across a circuit resulting in a constant
current. A battery is the most common source of DC transmission as current flows from one
end of a circuit to the other. Most digital circuitry today is run on DC power as it carries the
ability to provide either a constant high or constant low voltage, enabling digital logic to
process code executions.

As can be seen in the equation above, power loss can be derived from the electrical current
squared and the resistance of a transmission line. When the voltage is increased, the current
decreases exponentially, therefore high voltage transmission reduces the power loss. For this
reason, electricity was generated at power stations and delivered to homes and businesses
through AC power.

Alternating current, unlike DC oscillates between two voltage values at a specified frequency
and its ever changing current and voltage makes it easy to step up or down the voltage. For
high voltage and long distance transmission situations, all that is needed to step up or down
the voltage is a transformer. Developed in 1886 by ‗William Stanl‘ the transformer made

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long distance electrical transmission using AC power possible.

It should be noted that since 1954, there have been many high voltage DC transmission
systems implemented around the globe with the advent of DC / AC converters, allowing the
easy stepping up and down of DC voltages.

2.3. Types of inverters and waveforms

Inverters, besides coming in a wide variety of power capabilities, are distinguished primarily
by the shape of the alternating current wave they produced. The three major waveforms are:
square wave, modified sine wave and true sine wave.

2.3.1. Square wave

Square wave inverters are largely obsolete, as the waveform shape is not well suited for
running most modern appliances. Prices have come down considerably in comparison with
the superior modified sine wave and true sine wave types.

Figure 1 square wave

2.3.2. Modified sine wave

The least expensive type of modern inverter produces modified sine wave power. The
waveform looks like a stair step, where the power rises from zero to upper peak voltage,
returns to zero and straight to lower peak voltage, resting to each point for a moment.

Modified sine wave inverters can be used to run many household appliances such as a
television, radio, and microwaves with occasional minor electrical ―noise‘. Sensitive
equipment like battery chargers, tools with variable speed motors, laser printers and certain
heating controllers may run erratically but not with modified sine wave power. For a remote
cabin with only the ―basic‖ running on the electrical system, modified sine wave inverters are
also often well suited for solar powered electrical systems.

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Figure 2.Modified sine wave

2.4.3. True sine wave

The power supplied by utility companies and engine generator is a true sine waveform. This
is the most reliable waveform for household use. True sine wave power passes from the
upper and lower peak voltages in a smooth curved wave, rather than the stair step of the
modified sine wave.

Figure 3. pure sine wave

All appliances and electronic equipment runs as intended when using sine wave power. True
sine wave inverters produces Ac power as good as or better than utility power, ensuring that
even the most sensitive equipment runs properly. While sine wave inverters are more
expensive than the modified sine wave models, the quality of their waveform can be a
definite advantage. This cost, however, is made up for in its ability to provide power to all
AC electronic devices, allow inductive loads to run faster and quieter, and reduce the audible
and electric noise in audio equipment, TV‘s and fluorescent lights.

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Figure 4 Modified sine wave and true sine wave diagram

2.4. Inverters and Application

2.4.1. DC power source Utilization

An inverter converts the DC electricity from sources such as batteries, solar panels, or fuel
cells to AC electricity. The electricity can be at any required voltage. In particular, it can
operate AC equipment designed for mains operation, or rectified to produce DC at any
desired voltage.

Grid tie inverters can feed energy balk into the distribution network because they produce
alternating current with the same wave shape and frequency as supplied by the distribution
system. They can also switch off automatically in the event of a blackout.

Micro –inverter converts direct current from individual solar panels into alternating current
for the electric grid. They are grid tie designs by default.

2.4.2. Uninterruptible power supply (UPS)

An Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS) uses batteries and inverter to supply AC power
when main power is not available. When main power is restored, a rectifier supplies DC
power to recharge the batteries.

The development of static UPS clearly was dependent on the availability of solid – state
switching devices. The earliest conversion systems available in 1960 for DC to AC were no
more than mechanical vibrators with ratings not higher than 500VA used for

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radio/communications applications. The advent of power transistors enabled the first true
static inverters to be built, applications in the early years being communications and
instrumentation.

2.4.3. Variable frequency drives

A variable – frequency drive controls the operating speed of an AC motor by controlling the
frequency and voltage of the power supply to the motor. An inverter provides the controlled
power. In most cases, the variable frequency drive includes a rectifier so that DC power for
the inverter can be provided from main AC power. Since an inverter is the component,
variable frequency drives are sometimes called inverter drives or just inverters.

2.4.4. Electric vehicle drives

Adjustable speed motor controlled inverters are currently used to power traction motors in
some electric and diesel – electric rail vehicles as well as some battery electric vehicles and
hybrid electric highway vehicles such as the Toyota Prius and Various improvements in
inverter technology are being developed specifically for electric vehicle applications. In
vehicles with regenerative braking, the inverter also takes power from the motor (now acting
as a generator) and stores it in the batteries.

2.5. Transformer

The transformer is the part of the circuit that is responsible for boosting the voltage. It does
this by means of iron ferrite core, primary and secondary windings. It is important to note
that the transformer does not create power; it merely transforms or transfers it. Ideally, power
in is equal to power out, but in a real world case there is some power loss in the device. The
transformer operates by inducing a magnetic flux on the core from the current flowing
through the primary winding. This flux passing through the core is induced onto the
secondary winding and current flows out of the device.

The transformers used in this project is used to step up the voltage from the converter to
provide an appropriate voltage of 240VAC with an approximate frequency of 50Hz and also
steps down to 12VAC to be rectified to 12VDC for the charger.

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2.6. Batteries

Essentially, a battery consists of one or more cells connected in series to give the required
voltage. A battery provides a voltage source that has a small internal resistance. The capacity
of a battery is expressed in watts – hour (Wh). The product of the capacity and the voltage of
a battery and its amount of energy are expressed in ampere – hour (Ah). These three
parameters vary with both temperature and the rate of discharge. Immediately a current is
taken from the battery, there is a voltage drop across its internal resistance and the terminal
voltage drops to the plateau value. The larger the current taken from the battery, the smaller
will be the plateau voltage.

The open – circuit voltage may be larger than the nominal voltage by as much as 15%. When
the battery is exhausted its terminal voltage rapidly falls to a low value and thus need to be
replaced or recharged.

2.7. Battery chargers

Battery charging is a complex electrochemical process, in which the discharged electric
energy must be replenished from the electric network. The quality of the charging process is
critical to the health and longevity of batteries. As a result, battery chargers play a key role in
the eye and preface of today‘s industrial batteries.

A battery charger is an electrical / electronic device that converts the incoming AC line
voltage into a regulated DC voltage to meet the changing needs of the respective battery (see
figure 2.2). Although current industrial battery charging market is dominated by Ferro
resonant and SCR chargers which have been in existence for many years; new switch mode
technologies are making headways into the industrial battery charger markets. This is due to
the higher efficiencies and smaller sizes and weights that a switch mode technology offers
over Ferro resonant and SCR types.

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CHAPTER THREE

3. METHODOLOGY

3.1. Introduction
This chapter gives a concise and complete coverage of all the theory relevant to the design of
this power inverter and the automatic charger. Here the overall system has two stages i.e.
multi-vibrator stage and inverter stage in addition to this, the system also includes automatic
battery charger.

3.2. The overall System Design

One of the most important considerations in building a power inverter is the AC output
signal. An overall block diagram of the power inverter is shown in the figure.

Figure 5.Overall block diagram of the power inverter with automatic charger

The power inverter circuit consists of a multi-vibrator stage and the inverter stage controlled
by two 2N597 transistors in multi-vibrator stage and eight complementary 2N6660
MOSFETs. Figure 6 shows the circuit diagram of the power inverter.

Figure 6 power inverter circuit diagrams

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3.2.1. Multi-vibrator stage

A multi-vibrator is an electronic circuit used to implement a variety of simple two-state
systems such as oscillators, timers and flip-flops. It is characterized by two amplifying
devices (transistors, electron tubes or other devices) cross-coupled by resistors and
capacitors.
Types of multi-vibrator circuit

 ‘A stable’, in which the circuit is not stable in either state—it continuously oscillates
from one state to the other. Due to this, it does not require an input (Clock pulse or
other).
 ‘Mono-stable’, in which one of the states is stable, but the other is not—the circuit
will flip into the unstable state for a determined period, but will eventually return to
the stable state. Such a circuit is useful for creating a timing period of fixed duration
in response to some external event. This circuit is also known as a one shot. A
common application is in eliminating switch bounce.
 ‘Bi-stable’, in which the circuit will, remains in either state indefinitely. The circuit
can be flipped from one state to the other by an external event or trigger. Such a
circuit is important as the fundamental building block of a register or memory device.
This circuit is also known as a latch or a flip-flop. In its simplest form, the multi-
vibrator circuit consists of two cross-coupled transistors. Using resistor-capacitor
networks within the circuit to define the time periods of the unstable states, the
various types may be implemented. Multi-vibrators are applied in a variety of systems
where square waves or timed intervals are required. Simple circuits tend to be
inaccurate since many factors affect their timing, so they are rarely used where very
high precision is required. Before the advent of low-cost integrated circuits, chains of
multi-vibrators found use as frequency dividers. A free-running multivibrator with a
frequency of one-half to one-tenth of the reference frequency would accurately lock
to the reference frequency. This technique was used in early electronic organs, to
keep notes of different octaves accurately in tune. Other applications included early
television systems, where the various line and frame frequencies were kept
synchronized by pulses included in the video signal.

3.2.1.1. Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT)

Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) a bipolar (junction) transistor (BJT) is a three-terminal
electronic device constructed of doped semiconductor material and may be used in

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amplifying or switching applications. Bipolar transistors are so named because their

operation involves both electrons and holes. Charge flow in a BJT is due to bidirectional
diffusion of charge carriers across a junction between two regions of different charge
concentrations. This mode of operation is contrasted with unipolar transistors, such as the
2N597 is a silicon Epitaxial-Base Planar NPN transistor. It is intended for power switching
circuits, series and shunt regulators, output stages and high fidelity amplifier. The
complementary NPN type is 2N597.

3.2.1.2. Capacitor
A capacitor (formerly known as condenser) is a passive electronic component consisting of a
pair of conductors separated by a dielectric (insulator). When there is a potential difference
(voltage) across the conductors, a static electric field develops in the dielectric that
stores energy and produces a mechanical force between the conductors. An ideal capacitor is
characterized by a single constant value, capacitance, measured in farads. This is the ratio
of the electric charge on each conductor to the potential difference between them.
Capacitors are widely used in electronic circuits for blocking direct current while allowing
alternating current to pass, in filter networks, for smoothing the output of power supplies, in
the resonant circuits that tune radios to particular frequencies and for many other purposes.
The effect is greatest when there is a narrow separation between large areas of conductor;
hence capacitor conductors are often called "plates", referring to an early means of
construction. In practice the dielectric between the plates passes a small amount of leakage
current and also has an electric field strength limit, resulting in a breakdown voltage, while
the conductors and leads introduce an undesired inductance and resistance.

Resistor

Resistors are the most commonly used component in electronics and their purpose is to create
specified values of current and voltage in a circuit.

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Figure 7.Circuit diagram of multi-vibrator

Working principle and operation of Multi-vibrator

When power is applied, theoretically both T1 and T2 should turn on, since their base pins are
connected through resistors (R2 and R3) to Vcc. However, due to small differences in the
electric properties, one of the one them will turn on slightly earlier than the other. Without
loss of generality, let‘s assume T2 turns on first. Therefore, T2′s collector begins to conduct
and can be thought of as ‗shorted‘ to ground. Note that C2′s right lead is connected to T2′s
collector, and since C2 is not charged yet, its left lead also has a voltage close to ground. This
immediately shuts off T1, i.e.

T1 becomes an open circuit. Therefore C1′s left lead is in floating status, and its right lead is
connected to T2′s base, which is about 0.7V due to the forward voltage drop of transistors.
This forward voltage drop is the same as a diode. So at this moment, the circuit is equivalent
to the following: During this period, T2′s collector (output O2) remains low, and C2 begins
to charge through R3. Thus the voltage on C2′s left lead will rise, and the rising time
depends on R3 x C2. At the same time, C1 also charges, through R1, which is typically a
small resistor (e.g. 100-1000 ohm). So C1′s left lead (output O1) will quickly rise up to Vcc
and remains high.

As C2 continues to charge, a critical moment will happen when its left lead rise up to 0.7V,
at which moment transistor T1 will turn on, and its collector will conduct to ground. This will
shuts off T2 firmly.

Note that since C1′s left lead is connected to T1′s collector, it will also drop to ground
voltage. As C1 is fully charged, its right lead will suddenly drop to a negative voltage (-Vcc)
this will shuts off T2 firmly. Therefore the circuit will suddenly transition to the following

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equivalent: During this period, output O1 will remain low, and output O2 will quickly rise to
Vcc (due to the charging of C2 through a small resistor R4). At the same time, C1 charges
through R2 and the voltage on its right lead will rise over time determined by R2 x C1. As
C1 continues to charge, the next critical moment happens when C1′s right lead rises above
0.7V. At that point, T2 will conduct again while T1 shuts off. The same cycle will repeat.

The main components required for the multivibrator stage are as follows:

 2N597 – BJTs
 C1=C2 =0.10uf
 R1=R4=1K
 R2=R3 =100K
 R5=R6= 1K

Figure 8 Portion of Circuit diagram

R2 and C1 are connected in series between Vcc and ground. C1 has an initial voltage of
(Vcc – Vb). How long does it take for C1′s voltage to rise up to +Vb? Assume C1′s voltage is
V(t): a function that changes over time. According to the law of capacitor, the change of V(t)
is equal to the current flowing through it divided by the capacitance:

………………………………………………………………………………………Eqn. 3-1

Since, i(t) equal to the current flowing through the resistor R2

………………………………………………………Eqn. 3-2

, dV(t)= -d(Vcc-V(t)) ……………………………..Eqn. 3-3

And integrate both sides, we get:

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ln(Vcc-V(t))=

(Vcc-V(t))=K ………………………………………………………..Eqn. 3-4

Where, K is a constant. Using the knowledge that when t=0, V(t)= -(Vcc – Vb), we find out

K=Vcc-V(t)=Vcc-(-(Vcc-Vb))=2Vcc-Vb

Vcc-V(t)=(2Vcc-Vb) ……………………………………………………Eqn. 3-5

Recall that our goal is to find hen V(t) is equal to Vb, so substitute Vb to V(t), and solve
for t
t= ………………………………………………………….Eqn. 3-6

Under the assumption that Vcc is much larger than Vb, this is approximately equal to

Ton= =0.693R2C1………………………………………………….Eqn. 3-7

This is how long stage 2 will last. Similarly, stage 1 will last for approximately

Toff=0.693R3C2

Therefore, full cycle will take the time

T=ton + toff = 0.693(R2C1+R3C2) ………………………………………………Eqn. 3-8
Before the next cycle begins,

The frequency of the wave is thus:

f= = = =

Here we need a frequency of 50Hz

50Hz= =

Let R2=100k=R3

C1=0.1µF=C2

Therefore Ton= =0.693R2C1

=0.693x100kx0.1μf=0.00693sec

Toff=0.693R3C2=0.693x100kx0.1μ=0.00693sec

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From this information to calculate the firing angel to consider f=50hz, ton=0.00693 .after
this from the general formula finding the firing angel.

α=ωxton=2xπxfxton

=2x50xπx0.00693

=124.74

To calculate the duty cycle (q)

Ul=Us x (q/1-q)………………………………………………………………….Eqn. 3-9

q=Ul/(Ul+Us)=230/(230+24)*100

=90.5% duty cycle

3.2.2. Inverter stage

The main function of the inverter stage is to invert the pulses generated by the stable multi-
vibrator into useful sine wave to be amplified by the transformer. It consists of a pair of
complementary field effect transistors connected back to back to amplify the sine wave. The
main components are:
 2N6660 (four)
 Heat sink (1kΩ)
 Resistor
 Capacitor

3.2.2.1. Comparison of MOSFET and BJT

A bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) is a current-controlled device and requires base current
for current flow in the collector. Since the collector current is dependent on the input current,
the current gain is highly dependent on the junction temperature. BJT suffered from second
breakdown.

A power MOSFET is a voltage-controlled device and requires only a small input current and
their parameters are less sensitive to junction temperature. The switching speed is very high
and the switching times are of the order of nanoseconds. It does not have the problems of
second breakdown phenomena as BJT do.

MOSFET Characteristics Curves

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The minimum ON-state gate voltage required to ensure that the MOSFET remains fully-ON
when carrying the selected drain current can be determined from the V-I transfer curves
above. When VIN is HIGH or equal to VDD, the MOSFET Q-point moves to point A along the
load line. The drain current ID increases to its maximum value due to a reduction in the
channel resistance, ID becomes a constant value independent of VDD, and is dependent only
on VGS. Therefore, the transistor behaves like a closed switch but the channel ON-resistance
does not reduce fully to zero due to its RDS(on) value, but gets very small.

Likewise, when VIN is LOW or reduced to zero, the MOSFET Q-point moves from point A
to point B along the load line. The channel resistance is very high so the transistor acts like
an open circuit and no current flows through the channel. So if the gate voltage of the
MOSFET toggles between two values, HIGH and LOW the MOSFET will behave as a
―single-pole single-throw‖ (SPST) solid state switch and this action are defined as:

1) Cutoff mode,
2) Triode mode or Saturation mode

Figure 9 MOSFET characteristics curves

1) Cutoff mode
During the cutoff mode, the gate source voltage is insufficient to activate the transistor and
the connection between the source and drain terminals remain closed.
Here the operating conditions of the transistor are zero input gate voltage ( VIN ), zero drain
current ID and output voltage VDS = VDD. Therefore the MOSFET is switched ―Fully-OFF‖.
Cut-off Characteristics

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• The input and Gate are grounded ( 0v )

• Gate-source voltage less than threshold
voltage VGS < VTH
• MOSFET is ―fully-OFF‖ ( Cut-off region)

• No Drain current flows ( ID = 0 )

• VOUT = VDS = VDD = ‖1″
• MOSFET operates as an ―open switch‖

Figure 10 Cut-off Characteristics

Cut-off Characteristics

Then we can define the ―cut-off region‖ or ―OFF mode‖ when using a MOSFET as a switch
as being, gate voltage, VGS < VTH and ID = 0. For a P-channel Enhancement MOSFET, the
Gate potential must be more positive with respect to the Source.

Saturation Region

During the triode mode the gate voltage is enough to establish a weak connection between
the source terminal and the drain terminal. In this mode the transistor acts like a resistor
whose resistance is a function of the voltage applied to the gate terminal. Finally, when
sufficient voltage is applied to the gate terminal the transistor enters saturation mode and a
full connection is established between the source and drain terminals.

In the saturation or linear region, the transistor will be biased so that the maximum amount of
gate voltage is applied to the device which results in the channel resistance RDS(on) being as
small as possible with maximum drain current flowing through the MOSFET switch.
Therefore the MOSFET is switched ―Fully-ON‖.

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• The input and Gate are connected to VDD

• Gate-source voltage is much greater than
threshold voltage VGS > VTH
• MOSFET is ―fully-ON‖ ( saturation region )
• Max Drain current flows

Figure 11 Saturation Region ( ID = VDD / RL ) • VDS = 0V (ideal saturation)

• Min channel resistance RDS(on) < 0.1Ω
• VOUT = VDS = 0.2V ( RDS.ID )
• MOSFET operates as a ―closed switch‖
Then we can define the ―saturation region‖ or ―ON mode‖ when using a MOSFET as a
switch as gate-source voltage, VGS > VTH and ID = Maximum. For a P-channel Enhancement
MOSFET, the Gate potential must be more negative with respect to the Source.

By applying a suitable drive voltage to the gate of an FET, the resistance of the drain-source
channel, RDS(on) can be varied from an ―OFF-resistance‖ of many hundreds of kΩ‘s,
effectively an open circuit, to an ―ON-resistance‖ of less than 1Ω, effectively a short circuit.
When using the MOSFET as a switch we can drive the MOSFET to turn ―ON‖ faster or
slower, or pass high or low currents. This ability to turn the power MOSFET ―ON‖ and
―OFF‖ allows the device to be used as a very efficient switch with switching speeds much
faster than standard bipolar junction transistors.
For our design we have Pmax=1.2kw and V=24V, so that we can find the values of voltage and
currents that is used for our circuit.
……………………………………………………………………...Eqn. 3-10

………………………………………………………………………Eqn. 3-11
ID=1200/24=50A
RDS(on) =P/ ID2
=1200w/50A2=0.48Ω

During the switching transition, the voltage and current in the MOSFET will look
approximately like this:

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Figure 12 High side switching losses and QG

The switching losses we are going to calculate are those in periods t2 and t3 due to the
voltage and current in the MOSFET. The way to approach this is to calculate the energy of
each transition, then convert this into an average power according to your switching
frequency.

If you look at just t2, V is nearly constant, and I increases approximately linearly, forming a
triangle. Thus, the power also increases linearly, and the total energy is the time integral of
power. So the energy is just the area of that triangle:

Et2 = t2 (VinIout2) t3 …………………………………………………………….Eqn. 3-12

also forms a triangle. In this case, the voltage is changing instead of the current, but still the
power makes a triangle, and the calculation of energy is the same.

Since the calculation is the same for t2 and t3, then it's not really important how much time is
spent in t2 vs t3; all that really matters is the total time spent switching. The energy losses
from one switch are thus:

Eswitch = (t2+t3)(VinIout2) …………………………………………………Eqn. 3-13

And, your switching frequency is how many times per second you incur this energy loss, so
multiplying the two together gets you the average power loss due to switching:

Pswitch = f(t2+t3)(VinIout2) ………………………………………………..Eqn. 3-14

So, taking your calculation of the switching period being 10ns, and the maximum current
being 50A, and the voltage 24V, and the switching frequency 1MHz, the power losses from
switching are:

Pswitch =1MHz*10ns(24V*50A2)=12W

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So those, the circuit dissipate 12w per mosfet. The total loss in the circuit becomes
4*12w=48w.

Table 1 characteristics of MOSFET

single total

Parameter symbol 2n6660 VQ1004J VQ1004P VQ1004J/P unit

Drain-Source Voltage VDS 60 60
V
Gate-Source Voltage VGS 20 30 20
Continuous TC= 25_C 1.1 0.46 0.46
Drain
Current ID
A
(TJ = TC=
150_C) 100_C 0.8 0.26 0.26
Pulsed Drain Current IDM 3 2 2
Power TC= 25_C 6.25 1.3 1.3 2
w
Dissipation PD 2.5 0.52 0.52 0.8
Thermal Resistance,
Junction-to-Ambient RthJA 170 0.96 0.96 62.5
C/W
Thermal Resistance,
Junction-to-Case RthJc 20
Operating Junction and
Storage Temperature TJ,
Range Tstg -55 to 150 C

3.2.2.2. Circuit Protection and Snubbers

One of the major factors in any electronic device is its ability to protect itself from surges
that could damage the circuitry. In the case of the inverter, inductive loads can cause special
problems because an inductor cannot instantly stop conducting current, it must be dampened

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or diverted so that the current does not try to flow through the open switch. If not dampened
the surges can cause trouble in the MOSFETs used to produce the output sine wave; when a
MOSFET is turned off the inductive load still wants to push current through the switch, as it
has nowhere else to go. This action can cause the switch to be put under considerable stress,
the high dV/dt, dI/dt, V and I associated with this problem can cause the MOSFETs to
malfunction and break. To combat this problem snubber circuits can reduce or eliminate any
severe voltages and currents. Composed of simply a resistor and capacitor placed across each
switch it allows any current or voltage spikes to be suppressed by critically dampening the
surge and protecting the switch from damage. The snubber can become more effective by the
addition of a zener diode so that any large current surge the resistor capacitor snubber cannot
handle gets passed through to ground by the zener diode. The diagram in Figure 9 shows a
simple representation of an inductive load (L) over a switch representation, Figure show how
snubbers can be implemented so that a surge will be suppressed.

Figure 13 Inductive Load Circuit with Snubber

3.2.3. Automatic Charger

The battery charger consists of the following: transformer, bridge rectifier, filter and voltage
regulator. Figure 3.5 shows the block diagram of the battery charger.

Figure 14 block diagram of Automatic Charger

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3.2.3.1. Variable resistor

This type of variable resistor with 2 contacts (a rheostat) is usually used to control current. In
this inverter circuit the variable is used to control the duty cycle. Examples include: adjusting
lamp brightness, adjusting motor speed, and adjusting the rate of flow of charge into a
capacitor in a timing circuit. Figure 3.6 shows the schematic symbol for a variable resistor.

Figure 15 Variable Resistors.

3.2.3.2. Diode IN4007

A diode is a two-terminal electronic component that conducts electric current in only one
direction. The term usually refers to a semiconductor diode, the most common type today.
This is a crystalline piece of semiconductor material connected to two electrical terminals.
The most common function of a diode is to allow an electric current to pass in one direction
(called the diode's forward direction) while blocking current in the opposite direction (the
reverse direction). Thus, the diode can be thought of as an electronic version of a check
valve. This unidirectional behavior is called rectification, and is used to convert alternating
current to direct current, and to extract modulation from radio signals in radio receivers.

Features of 1N4001 diode

 High reliability
 Low leakage
 High current capability

3.2.3.3. LED (light emitting diode)

A light-emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor light source. LEDs are used as indicator
lamps in many devices, and are increasingly used for lighting. Introduced as a practical
electronic component in 1962, early LEDs emitted low-intensity red light, but modern
versions are available across the visible, ultraviolet and infrared wavelengths, with very high
brightness. When a light-emitting diode is forward biased (switched on), electrons are able to
recombine with holes within the device, releasing energy in the form of photons. This effect
is called electroluminescence and the color of the light (corresponding to the energy of the

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photon) is determined by the energy gap of the semiconductor. An LED is often small in area
(less than 1 mm2), and integrated optical components may be used to shape its radiation
pattern. LEDs present many advantages over incandescent light sources including lower
energy consumption, longer lifetime, improved robustness, smaller size, faster switching, and
greater durability and reliability.

LEDs powerful enough for room lighting are relatively expensive and require more precise
current and heat management than compact fluorescent lamp sources of comparable output.
Light-emitting diodes are used in applications, such as replacements for aviation lighting,
automotive lighting (particularly brake lamps, turn signals and indicators) as well as in traffic
signals. The compact size, the possibility of narrow bandwidth, switching speed, and extreme
reliability of LEDs has allowed new text and video displays and sensors to be developed,
while their high switching rates are also useful in advanced communications technology.
Infrared LEDs are also used in the remote control units of many commercial products
[13]
including televisions, DVD players, and other domestic appliances. Figure 3.8 shows the
symbol for an LED.

Figure 16 Symbol of LED

3.2.4. Rectifier Circuits and mode of operations

There are three basic types of rectifier circuits:

 The half – wave rectifier

 The full – wave rectifier
 The bridge – wave rectifier

The most commonly used rectifier circuit is the bridge rectifier followed by the full – wave
rectifier. The half – wave rectifier is made up of a diode. When the transformer output
voltage is positive, the diode conducts, and when the transformer output voltage is negative,
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no current flows, so there is zero voltage drops across the load.

The full – wave rectifier consists of two diodes and required a center tapped transformer.
Each diode is connected across the half of the winding to one diode is reverse biases during
one half – cycle of the wave form and the other is reverse biased during the other half –
cycle. At any particular time, therefore, only one half of the transformer is supplying current.
But the diodes are arranged so that the current through the wall resistance is in the same
direction during each half – cycle of the AC waveform. The bridge – wave rectifier consist of
four diodes.

The Bridge Rectifier

The main advantage of bridge rectifier over the full rectifier because it does not require the
use of a center tapped transformer. It also provides a higher peak output voltage than the full
rectifier does. Therefore, it provides a higher DC output voltage from the power supply. The
bridge rectifier consists of four diodes that formed liked a bridge arrangement as show in
Figure 3.9 The bridge rectifier alternates conduction between two diode pairs. When diodes,
D1 and D3 are on, D2 and D4 are off, and vice versa.

Figure 17 Bridge Rectifier

Mode of Operation

a. The positive half cycle

During the positive half cycle of the input, V2 is energized, causing D1 and D3 to conduct
and D2 and D4 to reverse biased. Therefore, the direction of current flow from the positive
terminal through D3, passing the load through D1 and return to the negative terminal. Figure

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Figure 18 Positive half cycle of the bridge rectifier.

b. The negative half cycle

During the negative half cycle of the input, V2 will have reverse polarity. The diodes D2 and
D4 will now conduct and D1 and D3 are reversed biased. Therefore, the direction of current
flow from the positive terminal through D4, passing up through load, through D2 and return
to the negative terminal. Figure 3.11 shows the negative half cycle of the bridge rectifier.

Figure 19 Negative half cycle of the bridge rectifier.

The circuit ensures that, even though the sign of the output voltage from the transformer is
reversed with each half cycle of the AC supply, the voltage across the load has the same
signal. Figure 3.12 shows the waveforms of the input and output voltages for one cycle.

Figure 20 Waveforms of the input and output voltages for one cycle.

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Diode

For most of the power supplies, it requires the use of rectifier diodes that have extremely
high forward current or power dissipation ratings. The commonly used rectifier devices
would be the ultrafast rectifier, single – phase Bridge or the Schottky diode that meet its
requirement and applications. For selection of bridge rectifier, we must ensure that the
minimum requirement and its application must be met. Since for this project, we need the
bridge rectifier to obtain the required 12VDC voltage to supply to the battery.

3.2.5. Filtering Circuits

All waveforms produced by the rectifier circuit alone consist of a sequence and are therefore
quite unstable as a form of DC supply. The filtering circuits described in this section filter
out, in one – way or another, most of the non – zero frequency components of this waveform
and so greatly reduce the amplitude of the undulations until they are no more than a ‗ripple‘.

3.2.6. Smoothing Capacitor

When current flows, it only charges up the capacitor to the peak value of the transformer
output voltage (minus the diodes voltage drops) but also supplies current to the load. But
when the input voltage falls below its peak value, the diodes cuts off, disconnecting the
transformer from the load. The capacitor then discharges into the load, so that between peaks
in the waveform the current is supplied by the capacitor only. The capacitance of the
capacitor must be sufficiently large that it only loses a small fraction of its charge through the
load between each cycle of the waveform.

The ‗droop‘ of the output voltage between each cycle is the exponential decay of the
capacitor voltage as it discharges through the load. The discharge is virtually linear if the
droop is small. Evidently, the bigger the capacitance or the load resistance, or both, the
smaller the voltage droops. The magnitude of the droop or the peak – peak variation in the
output is the ripple voltage.

The capacitors involved in this kind of smoothing usually have very large capacitance – often
greater than 10nF (i.e. 10000µF) – so they are electrolytic capacitors and must be connected
the right way round. They are likely to claim only within +50% and -30% of their nominal
value, so allowance should be made for this wide tolerance in the smoothing circuit design.
Note that it is usually a good idea to connect a resistor (e.g. an indicator lamp or a light –
emitting diode) across the capacitor whose resistance is automatically discharged when the

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power unit is on open circuit. An unexpected residual change on such capacitors can
sometimes cause change to other equipment.

Figure 21. capacitor smoothing circuit

3.2.7. Voltage Regulator

The IC voltage regulator is a device that is used to hold the output voltage from a DC power
supply relatively constant over a wide range of line and load variations. The most commonly
used IC voltage regulators are three – terminal devices. The schematic symbol for a three –
terminal regulator

Figure 22 Simple three -terminal regulator

There are basically four types of IC voltage regulators:

Fixed positive

 Fixed negative
 Adjustable and
 Dual tracking

The fixed – positive and fixed – negative IC voltage regulators are designed to provide

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specific output voltages. The adjustable regulator can be adjusted to provide any DC output
voltage that is within its two specific limits.

The dual – tracking regulator provides equal positive and negative output voltages. The IC
voltage regulators are series regulators. It contains internal pass transistors and transistor
control components. The input/output voltage regulator differential rating indicates the
maximum difference between input and output voltage that occur without damaging the
device.

3.2.8. Battery Technology

The selections of batteries are based on the power rating and their input voltages. Within the
different types of batteries available, Lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries offered more powerful
technology as compared to the other battery. The Lion batteries store more energy in smaller
spaces than the traditional lead acid and nickel metal hydride batteries. It also has the most
energy density and electrochemical potential of all.

3.2.9. Relay
A relay is an electrically operated switch. Relays are used where it is necessary to control a
circuit by a low-power signal (with complete electrical isolation between control and
controlled circuits), or where several circuits must be controlled by one signal. The figure
shown below shows the internal structure of relay.

Figure 23 Relay.

A simple electromagnetic relay consists of a coil of wire surrounding a soft iron core, an iron
yoke which provides a low reluctance path for magnetic flux, a movable iron armature, and
one or more sets of contacts (there are two in the relay pictured). The armature is hinged to
the yoke and mechanically linked to one or more sets of moving contacts. It is held in place
by a spring so that when the relay is de-energized there is an air gap in the magnetic circuit.

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In this condition, one of the two sets of contacts in the relay pictured is closed, and the other
set is open.

When an electric current is passed through the coil it generates a magnetic field that attracts
the armature and the consequent movement of the movable contact either makes or breaks
(depending upon construction) a connection with a fixed contact. If the set of contacts was
closed when the relay was de-energized, then the movement opens the contacts and breaks
the connection, and vice versa if the contacts were open. When the current to the coil is
switched off, the armature is returned by a force, approximately half as strong as the
magnetic force, to its relaxed position.

A solid-state relay uses a transistor or other solid-state switching device, activated by the
control signal, to switch the controlled load, instead of a solenoid. An optocoupler (a light-
emitting diode (LED) coupled with a photo transistor) can be used to isolate control and
controlled circuits.

Since relays are switches, the terminology applied to switches is also applied to relays. A
relay will switch one or more poles, each of whose contacts can be thrown by energizing the
coil in one of three ways:

3.2.4. Transformer
Transformer is a device, or a machine, that transfers electrical energy from one electrical
circuit to another electrical circuit through the medium of magnetic field and without a
change in the frequency. The electric circuit which receives energy from the supply mains is
called primary winding and the other circuit which delivers electric energy to the load is
called the secondary winding.

Actually, the transformer is an electromagnetic energy conversion device. The energy

received by the primary is first converted to magnetic energy and it is then reconverted to
useful electrical energy in the other circuits (secondary winding circuit, third winding circuit
etc.). Thus primary and secondary windings of a transformer are not connected electrically,
but are coupled magnetically. This coupling magnetic field allows the transfer of energy in
either direction, from high – voltage to low – voltage circuits or from low – voltage to high –
voltage circuits.

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If the transfer of energy occurs at the same voltage, the purpose of the transformer is merely
to isolate the two electric circuits and this use is very rare in power applications. If the
secondary winding has more turns than the primary winding, then the secondary voltage is
higher than the primary winding and the transformer is called a step – up transformer. In case
the secondary winding has less turns than the primary winding, then the secondary voltage is
lower than the primary voltage and the transformer is called a step – down transformer. A
step – up transformer can be used as a step – down transformer, in which the secondary of
step – up transformer becomes the primary of step – down transformer. Actually a
transformer can be termed a step – up or step – down transformer only after it has been put
into service. Therefore, when referring to the windings of a particular transformer, the terms
high – voltage winding and low – voltage winding should be used instead of primary and
secondary windings.

The Power Transformer

The transformer is either to step – up or step – down the AC supply voltage to suit the
requirement of the solid state electronic devices and circuits fed by the DC power supply.
One of the important features of a transformer is the electrical isolation offered between the
primary and the secondary. The voltages in the primary and secondary windings are directly
proportional to the turn‘s ratio of the two windings. If V1 is the voltage applied to the
primary, V2 is voltage induced in the secondary, N1 is the number of turns in the primary and
N2 is the number of turns in the secondary, then the relationship between them is given by the
expression. The main drawback of the centre-tapped configuration is that it needs a center-
tapped transformer/supply and higher voltage rating of switch. This limitation can be
overcome by bridge inverter. The circuit diagram and v-i wave form is shown in Fig.
For square output when S1, S2, S3, & S4 are on (For 0 ≤ ωt ≤ π) +Vs appear across the load
and when S5, S6, S7 & S8 are on For (π≤ωt≤2π) -Vs appear across the load.
The rms output voltage is given by;

Vrms= √ ∫ = ……………………………………………………..Eqn. 3-15

= 24v

Vo= ∑ sin(n(ωt)) ; for odd harmonic

= 0 for even number ……………………………………………………………Eqn. 3-16
The fundamental rms component is

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V1rms= = 0.9Vs

=0.9x24=21.6v

Turns ratio:

=144turns

…………………………………………………………………..Eqn. 3-17

= =1380turns

= =5.22A

……………………………………………………………….Eqn. 3-18

= = 50.025A

=6turns/volt

= 6 turns/volt

At standard load factor value 1200w inverter is 0.85 pf .then based on this given pf to
calculate the primary VA.

Primary VA= = = 1411.7VA

Finally to calculate the efficiency of our designing inverter is

Efficiency= = = 85% ………………………………………Eqn.

3-19
A common topology for DC-AC power converter circuits uses a pair of transistors to switch
DC current through the center-tapped winding of a step-up transformer. In electronics, a
center tap is a connection made to a point half way along a winding of a transformer or
inductor, or along the element of a resistor or a potentiometer. Taps are sometimes used on
inductors for the coupling of signals, and may not necessarily be at the half- way point, but
rather, closer to one end. A common application of this is in the Hartley oscillator.

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Inductors with taps also permit the transformation of the amplitude of alternating current
(AC) voltages for the purpose of power conversion, in which case, they are referred to as
autotransformers, since there is only one winding. An example of an autotransformer is an
automobile ignition coil. Potentiometer tapping provides one or more connections along the
device's element, along with the usual connections at each of the two ends of the element,
and the slider connection. Potentiometer taps allow for circuit functions that would otherwise
not be available with the usual construction of just the two end connections and one slider
connection.

3.2.4.1.Common applications of center-tapped transformers

In a rectifier, a center-tapped transformer and two diodes can form a full-wave rectifier that
allows both half-cycles of the AC waveform to contribute to the direct current, making it
smoother than a half-wave rectifier. This form of circuit saves on rectifier diodes compared
to a diode bridge, but has poorer utilization of the transformer windings. Center-tapped two-
diode rectifiers were a common feature of power supplies in vacuum tube equipment.
Modern semiconductor diodes are low-cost and compact so usually a 4-diode bridge is used
(up to a few hundred watts total output) which produces the same quality of DC as the
center-tapped configuration with a more compact and cheaper power transformer. Center-
tapped configurations may still be used in high-current applications, such as large automotive
battery chargers, where the extra transformer cost is offset by less costly rectifiers.

In an audio power amplifier center-tapped transformers are used to drive push-pull output
formers must tolerate a small amount of direct current that may pass through the winding.

 In analog telecommunications systems center-tapped transformers can be used to

provide a DC path around an AC coupled amplifier for signaling purposes.
 In electronic amplifiers, a center-tapped transformer is used as a phase splitter in
coupling different stages of an amplifier.
 Power distribution. A center-tapped rectifier is preferred to the full bridge rectifier
when the output DC current is high and the output voltage is low.

Here in our design of inverter circuit, DC power is connected to a transformer through the
center tap of the primary winding. A switch is rapidly switched back and forth to allow
current to flow back to the DC source following two alternate paths through one end of the

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primary winding and then the other. The alternation of the direction of current in the primary
winding of the transformer produces alternating current (AC) in the secondary circuit.

The figure shown below can clarify what the center tap transformer works for an inverter
circuit.

Figure 24 Simple inverter circuit Connected to a transformer through the center tap
transformer

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CHAPTER FOUR

4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1. Results
The final result from our project only shows wave form from simulation result. The results
from our designing project are divided into three portions wave form:

i. Multi-vibrator stage
ii. Inverter stage.
iii. Bridge rectifier(charger)
iv. The overall design.

4.1.1. Waveform Analysis for multi-vibrator stage

Figure 4.1 shows the output waveform of one stage of the Astable multi-vibrator. The pulses
produced are square waves which are continuous as the Astable multi-vibrator switches
between the two stages of states.

Figure 25 Output of multi-vibrator stage wave form.

4.1.2. Waveform Analysis for multi-vibrator and inverter stage

Figure 4.2 shows the output waveform of the inverter after being step-up by the center tapped
transformer. The harmonics produced are high frequencies switching that are relatively more
than the 50Hz frequency. The displayed output waveform is distorted with noise and
interference.

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Figure 26 wave form of multi-vibrator and inverter stage.

4.1.3. Waveform Analysis for overall system design

Figure 4.3 shows the output waveform of the overall system design from the oscilloscope.
The design is no different from the above multi-vibrator inverter stage. The difference is
shown on simulation proteus software. The horizontal axis displays the time scale in seconds
while the vertical axis displays the different voltage levels from the oscilloscope displayed.

Figure 27 overall system design waveform

4.1.4. Waveform analysis for the charger

Figure 5.3 shows the output waveform of the charger obtained from the oscilloscope. The
horizontal axis displays the time scale in seconds while the vertical axis displays the different
voltage levels from the oscilloscope displayed.

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Figure 5.3 Charger output waveform

The battery needs a rough waveform in other to charge effectively. The abov waveform is the
unfiltered waveform produced after rectification of the AC into DC voltage.

Discussion and conclusion

The design of the circuitry and the proper selection of the electronics components were
presented. The simulation run and tested to obtain the targeted output wave form. The
evaluations of the calculation process in the design phase were fairly analyzed. The
schematic and design was also presented so as to provide a better simulation.

However, there were many problem is happened during simulation some of this are selection
of the electronic equipment, capacity of filtering material when using the protues simulation
software to obtain the required waveform.

Certain sensitive devices run erratically or not at all due to high frequencies spikes and
distortions generated in the production of the AC voltage.

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CHAPTER FIVE

5. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

5.1. Conclusion and Scope of future work

There was no limitation in the use of an electronic tool or gadget at a fixed location due to
power limitations and unreliable power supply. The design which can make power supply
more accessible to everyone, even those in the remote and rural areas, of DC to AC power
inverter was produced. From the test carried out and results obtained the system as performed
to the desired design specification. Hence, the set out objective was realized.

In the inverter stage, the distortion due to high switching effect of MOSFET Is somehow,
difficult to produce pure sine wave voltage. Even though we try to use minimize the
switching effect by using snuber circuit and also resistors connecting with the gates of the
MOSFET to share the high switching.

As we seen from our simulation result, it is so interesting to advance the design into
fabrication. This is because every things of the design was satisfactory and has good
performance, as well as it require less coast to develop into hard ware.

Finally, depending on the availability of further advance technologies, we would like to

informers that, this type of power inverter with automatic charger could be further improved
on the efficiency and reduced size.

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5.2. Recommendation

This project has successfully been demonstrated by converting a 24VDC to 230VAC with an
automatic charger. Further work on this project may include:

The harmonics that are produced, using the high frequency switching can be isolated using a
small low-pass filter.

Better PCB software should be used in other to simulate the circuit diagram before building
the hardware. This will ensure high efficiency of the inverter.

Microcontroller can also be used as the voltage comparator and switch between the two
batteries.

When the input falls to 19VDC, the relay automatically switches to the normally open contact,
and recharges the battery.

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REFERENCES
 http://www.wikipedia.inverters(electrical).htm
 Marcus, M. P, switching circuits for engineers, 3rd edition, pretence – hall. 1995.
 Belli‘s Mary, Stanley Jr. William. Retrieved from
http://www.inverters.about.com/library/inverters/stanley.htm
 Alanskan ABS. (2006) DC to AC power inverters. Retrieved from
http://www.absak.com/basic inverters.html

 http://www.wikipedia.org/wiki/bipolar-junction_transistor

 Complementary enhancement MOSFET(2N6660), retrieved from

http://www.datasheetcatalog.com/2N6660

 Light Emitting Diode, retrieved from http://www.wikipedia.org/wiki/light-

emittingdiode ,

 Multivibrators, retrieved from

http://www.wikipedia.org/wiki/multivibratorBattery, retrieved from
http://auto.howstuffworks.com/lithium-ion-battery.car1.htm

 Relays, retrieved from http://www.wikopedia.org/wiki/relay

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GLOSSARY
AC Alternative Current

DC Direct Current

Hz Hertz

KHz Kilo Hertz

µF Micro Farad

Ω Ohms

KΩ Kilo Ohms

V Volt

I Ampere

W Watts

BJT Bipolar Junction Transistor

LED Light Emitting Diode

PCB Printed Circuit Board

NO Normally Open

NC Normally Close

CO Change Over

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Appendix-A

Multi-vibrator stage

Fig A.1 Multi-vibrator circuit and its wave diagram

Fig A.2 inerter circuit and its wave diagram

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Figure.A.3 automatic charger

Used Components and Working Principles of Main Charger Circuit

Transformer (160/31Vrms), bridge rectifier and smoothing capacitor are used in main charger
circuit to obtain DC voltage. LM723 is used as voltage regulator with external transistor which is
2N3055 to obtain controlled charge. The reasons which we use these components are as follows:

31V Transformer: Our battery voltage is 24V plus 3V regulator drop plus 1.4V rectifier drop (2
diodes) plus 10% safety. 24+3+1.4+ (24x0.1) = 30.8V ~ 31V

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Figure.A. 4.overall circuit diagram

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Table A 1.components of the whole system

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Table A 2 datasheet of Mosfet 2N6660

single total

Parameter symbol 2n6660 VQ1004J VQ1004P VQ1004J/P unit

Drain-Source Voltage VDS 60 60
V
Gate-Source Voltage VGS 20 30 20
Continuous TC= 25_C 1.1 0.46 0.46
Drain
Current ID
A
(TJ =
150_C) TC= 100_C 0.8 0.26 0.26
Pulsed Drain Current IDM 3 2 2
Power TC= 25_C 6.25 1.3 1.3 2
w
Dissipation PD 2.5 0.52 0.52 0.8
Thermal Resistance,
Junction-to-Ambient RthJA 170 0.96 0.96 62.5
C/W
Thermal Resistance,
Junction-to-Case RthJc 20
Operating Junction and TJ,
Storage Temperature Range Tstg -55 to 150 C

MAXIMUM RATINGS
Table A 3.Datasheet of transistor 2N697

Ratings Symbol(2N697) Value Units

Collector-Base Voltage VCBO 60 Vdc
Emitter-Base Voltage VEBO 5.0 Vdc
Total Power @ TA = 250C (1) 0.6 W
Dissipation @ TC = 250C (2)
PT 2.0 W
Operating & Storage Junction
TJ, Tstg -65 to +200 0C
Temperature Range

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