Electrical and Computer Engineering Department

WOLLEGA UNIVERSITY
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ANDCOMPUTER ENGINEERING

BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE

Certified that this project report “Three Phase Faults Analysis With Auto reset” the bonafide
work of “ERSTE TELILA, TADELE HAILU, TOLESA EDAE, TAJUDIN MOHAMMED,
TADU ADAMU and YALEW GETNET” a who carried out the project work under my
supervision.

SIGNATURE SIGNATURE
MR. GINBAR ENSERMU Your Advisor name
HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT ADVISOR
Electrical and Computer Engineering Dept, Electrical Engineering Dept,
Wollega University Your Stream
Wollega University

SIGNATURE
Co-advisor name
CO-ADVISOR
Electrical Engineering Dept,
Power Stream
Wollega University

…………………………… …………………………………
Internal Examiner External Examiner

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Abstract
The analysis of Power Systems under fault condition represents one of the most important and
complex task in Power Engineering. The studies and detection of these faults is necessary to ensure
that the reliability and stability of the power system do not suffer a decrement as a result of a
critical event such a fault. This project will conduct a research, analyze the behavior of a system
under fault conditions and evaluate different scenarios of faults.

The project is designed to develop an automatic tripping mechanism for the three
phase supply system. The project output resets automatically after a brief interruption in the even
ttemporary fault while it remains in tripped condition in case of permanent fault.

The electrical substation which supply the power to the consumers i.e. industries or domestic can
have failures due to some faults which can be temporary or permanent.
These faults lead to substantial damage to the power system equipment. In India it is common to
observe the failures in supply system due to the faults that occur during the transmission or
distribution. The faults might be LG (Line to Ground), LL (Line to Line), 3L (Three lines) in
the supply systems and these faults in three phase supply system can affect the power system. To
overcome this problem a system is built, which can sense these faults and automatically
disconnects the supply to avoid large scale damage to the control gears in the grid sub-stations.
This system is built using three single phase transformers which are wired in star inputand star
output, and 3 transformers are connected in delta connections, having input 220 volt and output at
5 volt. This concept low voltage testing of fault conditions is followed as it is not advisable to
create on mains line. 555 timers are used for handling short duration and long duration fault
conditions. A set of switches are used to create the LL, LG and 3L fault in low voltage side, for
activating the tripping mechanism. Short duration fault returns the supply to the load immediately
called as temporary trip while long duration shall result in permanent trip.

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Acknowledgement
First of all, we would like to express our gratitude to God for granting us with wisdom and the
opportunity of an education.

Next we would like to thank our Electrical and Computer engineering department head Mr. Ginbar
Ensermu for his coordination and follow up while we are doing this thesis project. Our sincere
appreciation and gratitude goes to our advisor Mr. Chali Tolesa of this thesis for his advice,
assistance and valuable guidance in the preparation of this work.

We would like to thank our family members and closest friends, who have been a constant source
of inspiration and support throughout our academic career, particularly our team member.

Acknowledgement is extended to our department and all staff member for their help throughout
the course of this thesis.

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Acronyms
 L-G Line to Ground Fault
 L-L Line to Line Fault
 3L-G Three Line to Ground Fault
 M Mutual Inductance
 EMF Electromotive Force
 CT Current Transformer
 VT Voltage Transformer
 AC Alternate Current
 DC Direct Current
 LED Light Emitting Diode
 NO Normal Open Relay
 NC Normal Closed Relay
 COM Common point of relay
 C Capacitor
 NP Number of turns on primary Coil
 NPN Negative positive Negative
 NS Number of turns on Secondary Coil
 R Resistor
 V Voltage
 VCC Voltage control circuit
 VP Primary Voltage
 VS Secondary Voltage

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Table of Figures
FIGURE 1.1.METHODOLOGIES ......................................................................................................... 11

FIG.3.1 BLOCK DIAGRAM OF 3 PHASE FAULT DECTECTION .............................................................. 13

FIGURE 3.2. BLOCK DIAGRAM OF POWER SUPPLY............................................................................ 14

FIGURE 3.3. RELAY DIAGRAM ......................................................................................................... 15

FIGURE 3.4. COMPARATOR DIAGRAM .............................................................................................. 15

FIGURE .4.1. TRANSFORMER ........................................................................................................... 21

FIGURE 4.2. THE SYMBOL OF A P-N JUNCTION ................................................................................ 23

FIGURE 4.3. THE SYMBOL FOR A DIODE COMPARED TO AN ACTUAL DIODE PACKAGE ...................... 24

FIGURE 4.4. (A) FORWARD BIASING CHARACTERISTIC OF DIODE ..................................................... 25

FIGURE 4.4. (B) FORWARD BIASING CHARACTERISTIC OF DIODE ..................................................... 26

FIGURE 4.4. REVERSE BIASING CHARACTERISTIC OF DIODE ............................................................ 26

FIGURE 4.5. V-I CHARACTERISTICS OF REAL DIODE ......................................................................... 28

FIGURE 4.6. BLOCK DIAGRAM OF RECTIFICATION ........................................................................... 29

FIGURE 4.7. HALF WAVE RECTIFICATION (IDEAL DIODE) ................................................................. 31

FIGURE 4.8. FULL WAVE RECTIFICATION ........................................................................................ 32

FIGURE 4.9. CENTER-TAPPED FULL WAVE RECTIFIER ...................................................................... 33

FIGURE 4.10. RECTIFICATION MECHANISM ..................................................................................... 34

FIGURE 4.11. BRIDGE RECTIFIER ..................................................................................................... 35

FIGURE 4.12 PIN OUT DIAGRAM ...................................................................................................... 36

FIGURE 4.12 INTERNAL BLOCK DIAGRAM ....................................................................................... 37

FIGURE 4.13A. SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF 555 TIMER ....................................................................... 39

FIGURE 4.13B. SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF 555 TIMER ....................................................................... 41

FIGURE 4.14. MONOSTABLE ............................................................................................................ 43

FIGURE 4.15. ASTABLE ................................................................................................................... 44

FIGURE 4.16.RELAY DRIVER CIRCUIT .............................................................................................. 45

FIGURE 4.17. THE FORWARD-BIASED JUNCTION IN AN NPN TRANSISTOR......................................... 46

FIGURE 4.18.TOTAL CURRENT FLOW IN THE NPN TRANSISTOR ........................................................ 47

FIGURE 6.1.DESIGN POWER SUPPLY RESULT ................................................................................... 55

FIGURE 6.2 SIMULATED WAVE FORM FOR POWER SUPPLY ............................................................... 56

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FIGURE 6.3 OVERALL TRIP CIRCUIT DIAGRAM ................................................................................. 57

FIGURE 6.4. SIMULATED OVERALL TRIP CIRCUIT DIAGRAM ............................................................. 58

FIGURE 6.5. SIMULATION OF TRIP CIRCUIT WHEN L-G FAULT IS OCCUR (AFTER FAULT PUSH BUTTON

ON) ......................................................................................................................................... 59

FIGURE 6.5. SIMULATION OF TRIP CIRCUIT WHEN L-G FAULT IS OCCUR (AFTER FAULT PUSH BUTTON

OFF) ........................................................................................................................................ 60

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Table of Contents
BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE........................................................................................................ I

Abstract ......................................................................................................................................... II

Acknowledgement ....................................................................................................................... III

Acronyms ..................................................................................................................................... IV

Table of Figures............................................................................................................................ V

CHAPTER ONE ........................................................................................................................... 1

1. Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 1

1.2 Background ......................................................................................................................................... 1

1.3. Statements of the problem.................................................................................................................. 3

1.4. Objectives .......................................................................................................................................... 3

1.4.1 General Objective ............................................................................................................................ 3

1.4.2 Specific Objectives ...................................................................................................................... 3

1.5. Significance of the Study ................................................................................................................... 3

1.6. The Scope of the Project .................................................................................................................... 4

1.7. Limitation of the project .................................................................................................................... 4

CHAPTER TWO .......................................................................................................................... 6

Literature ....................................................................................................................................... 6

2.1 Review of Literature ........................................................................................................................... 6

2.2 Type of Faults ..................................................................................................................................... 7

2.2.1 Series Faults ................................................................................................................................. 8

2.3. Material required ................................................................................................................................ 9

2.4. Methodology .................................................................................................................................... 10

CHAPTER THREE .................................................................................................................... 12

3.1. Block diagram .................................................................................................................................. 12

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3.2. Design of Each Block ...................................................................................................................... 13

3.2.1. Power Supply ............................................................................................................................ 13

3.2.2. Relay ......................................................................................................................................... 14

3.2.3. Comparator ............................................................................................................................... 15

CHAPTER FOUR ....................................................................................................................... 16

4. CIRCUIT DIAGRAM .............................................................................................................. 16

4.1. Components of power supply circuit diagram ................................................................................. 16

4.1.1. Working principle of transformer operation ............................................................................. 21

4.2.2. Characteristics of diode ............................................................................................................. 25

4.2.3. Diode applications..................................................................................................................... 28

4.3. Rectification ..................................................................................................................................... 29

4.3.1. Half wave rectification .............................................................................................................. 30

4.3.2. Full wave rectifier ..................................................................................................................... 32

4.4. Capacitor .......................................................................................................................................... 35

4.5. Voltage regulator ............................................................................................................................. 36

4.6. Light emitting diode ......................................................................................................................... 37

4.2. Components of three fault analysis (tripping circuit) circuit ........................................................... 39

4.2.1. LM555 Timer Detailed Description .......................................................................................... 39

4.3. Mathematical Analysis..................................................................................................................... 48

C H A P T E R FIVE ................................................................................................................ 51

5.1. Software description ........................................................................................................................ 51

5.2. Working principle ............................................................................................................................ 54

CHAPTER SIX ........................................................................................................................... 55

Results ........................................................................................................................................... 55

6.1. Output Description and wave forms and Screen Shots .................................................................... 55

6.1.1. Simulation result of power supply circuit ................................................................................. 55

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6.2. Simulation result of fault analysis trip circuit (L-G) ........................................................................ 57

6.2. Further improvements and Future scope .......................................................................................... 60

6.3. Further Applications ........................................................................................................................ 61

6.4. Conclusions ...................................................................................................................................... 61

6.5. Recommendations ............................................................................................................................ 62

6. References ................................................................................................................................ 63

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CHAPTER ONE

1. INTRODUCTION
1.2 Background
Faults can be defined as the flow of a massive current through an improper path which could cause
enormous equipment damage which will lead to interruption of power, personal injury, or death.
In addition, the voltage level will alternate which can affect the equipment insulation in case of an
increase or could cause a failure of equipment start-up if the voltage is below a minimum level.
As a result, the electrical potential difference of the system neutral will increase [2].
Hence, People and equipment will be exposed to the danger of electricity which is not accepted.
Not only this but also faults has effect on the reliability of power system.
In order to supports today’s reliable operation of power system. A system can be considered as,
where no breakdown of wire in transmission line and no short circuit of two phases. But it is not
practically happens. Due to variable loading operation of power system, also by lightning contact
with foreign object the short circuit as well as breakdown of wire is occurs. These faults are
temporary or same cases act as permanent fault category. The electrical substation which supply
the power to the consumer. The equipment under operating state and domestic can have failure
due to such faults which can be temporary or permanent. This faults lead to substantial damage to
the power system equipment. In India it is common to obse1rv the failure of supply system due to
faults that occur during transmission and distribution. The frequency of occurrence of faults is L-
G and LL-G type. Thus, transient faults can be cleared by momentarily de-energizing the line, in
order to allow the fault to clear. Auto reclosing can then restore service to the line. The remaining
10 - 30% of faults is semi-permanent or permanent in nature. A small branch falling onto the line
can cause a semi-permanent fault [8].
Also due to some cases a very high transients are occurs in transmission line, and then it is not
possible to operate circuit breaker in short time period. It will take some time delay which may be
harmful or effect on stability of system. It may affect the heavy and relatively costly equipment to
which 3 phase supply is connected. Hence for the instant isolation of this equipment is important.
This proposed paper is used as to immediate disconnected from supply of line and protect the 3
phase load. The output is reset automatically after a brief interruption in event temporary fault

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while it remains in tripped condition in case of permanent fault. A broken wire causing a phase to
open, or a broken pole causing the phases to short together is output is continuously high, which
permanently ON the load relay, until capacitor discharge through reset button. The voltage at
inverting terminal is fixing by using potential divider. 6; Push button. It is used to create fault and
it is placed at secondaries of single phase transformers.
In order to prevent such an event, power system fault analysis was introduced. The process of
evaluating the system voltages and currents under various types of short circuits is called fault
analysis which can determine the necessary safety measures & the required protection system [4].
It is essential to guarantee the safety of public [1].

The analysis of faults leads to appropriate protection settings which can be computed in order to
select suitable fuse, circuit breaker size and type of relay [2].

The severity of the fault depends on the short-circuit location, the path taken by fault current, the
system impedance and its voltage level. In order to maintain the continuation of power supply to
all customers which is the core purpose of the power system existence, all faulted parts must be
isolated from the system temporary by the protection schemes. When a fault exists within the relay
protection zone at any transmission line, a signal will trip or open the circuit breaker isolating the
faulted line. To complete this task successfully, fault analysis has to be conducted in every location
assuming several fault conditions. The goal is to determine the optimum protection scheme by
determining the fault currents & voltages.

The combination of increased renewable energy sources, simultaneous operation of different type
of generating units (conventional, non-conventional, renewables etc.), power transmission over
longer distances under limit load conditions and the influence of electricity markets have presented
new challenges in maintaining and improving the quality of operation and security. It cannot be
assumed that the transmission system will develop and expand at the same rate and there is a need
to maximize the capacity of existing apparatus with reliability and safety, depending upon limit
conditions.
Increased power flow requires advanced and secure methods of protecting transmission systems.
In addition the change in system dynamics due to introduction of electronic converters in new
generation technology can lead to a more stressed system. These new systems may cause

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difficulties or even incorrect operations under the new complex conditions. Main specifications of
the protection schemes are described in the national grid codes or in approved technical documents
and standards
This thesis project describes the best practices for protection schemes considering security of
supply and safety of persons and equipment. The focus is on the protection application for
equipment, at mainly extra high voltage or high voltage and in special cases even other voltage
levels

1.3. Statements of the problem

This project deals with three phase fault analysis with auto reset. Project detects the types of
faults and take the immediate action order to protect the equipment’s from damage. Effect of
three phase faults on power quality, stability and reliability are studied.

This study also investigates the classification performance characteristics three phase faults on
power systems at all.

1.4. Objectives
1.4.1 General Objective
To study the different three phase faults in a power systems

1.4.2 Specific Objectives

To Study method for faults detection in three phase power.

To analysis and investigate the effect of different three phase on transmission line.

To understand the characteristics faults on three-phase transmission line.

To study the performance of three phase power system and fault identification technique.

To design and implement three phase faults analysis using proteus software.

1.5. Significance of the Study

This project is to indicate the order of succession in time off the different voltage peaks of a
multiphase supply. In addition the knop sequence indicator enables one to make continuity tests.
It is valuable instrument in diverse fields involving poly phase power apparatus (three phase),
being employed by line and installations crews for public utility systems and industrial plant

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electrical departments. It is, furthermore, helpful in the testing department of public utility systems
for laboratory and field testing.

Various studies have shown that anywhere from 70%, to as high as 90%, of faults on most
overhead lines are transient. A transient fault, such as an insulator flashover, is a fault which is
cleared by the immediate tripping of one or more circuit breakers to isolate the fault, and which
does not recur when the line is re-energized. Faults tend to be less transient (near the 80% range)
at lower, distribution voltages and more transient (near the90% range) at higher, sub transmission
and transmission voltages. Lightning is the most common cause of transient faults, partially
resulting from insulator flashover from the high transient voltages induced by the lightning.

In general significance study of this project is to study three faults analysis specifically in
transmission line and by solving this problem improving the quality of power for transmission line.

1.6. The Scope of the Project

This project is designed for three phase faults analysis with auto reset for temporary faults
otherwise trip permanently using push button. When a push button pressed short period of time
the system indicate temporary faults while for long period of time the system indicate permanent
faults. The system focus on transmission line fault analysis.

1.7. Limitation of the project

There is different challenge that author face while design three phase fault analysis with auto reset
temporary fault and otherwise trip permanently. This challenge will result the limitation
throughout our project. Some of the limitation are as follows, hence we need to read and take a
note of literature review related to our project title internet access is the most important ways to
achieve the expected goal for our project, but we face challenge to get a needed internet access.
Since the project deal with detail study of power system analysis i.e. three phase fault analysis the
project need long time schedule we hence face the constraint of time. For the project purposes are
the best opportunity to keep the power stability system in transmission line, keep different
industrial machines from damage , transmission line equipment’s become function at normal rate
of their manufacturing design etc. are keep at normal operating from while this system
implemented in transmission line. Since we need to design our project both software and
hardware, in case of software there is problem of components that means some components are

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not found on the proteus software. For example CT, VT and contactor are not available on the
proteus software, for this limitation we are try to design the trip circuit for the system by using 555
timer and comparator. We are searching for on other option to overcome the above limited
components on software such as multism there is no relay on this software, power simulator
software there is no CT and VT. The other limitation of this project is lack of knowledge about the
important software in power system called MATLab. In case hardware there is no transmission
line fault analysis in our workshop. For all of the above reasons we are not simulate the trip circuit
for L-L-G and 3L for this project.

In general even if there is so many limitation for this project we are try to implement trip circuit
for L-G simulation, power supply circuit and full documentation of this project due to the shortage
of time.

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CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE
2.1 Review of Literature
Electric power is generated, transmitted and distributed via large interconnected power systems.
The generation of electric power takes place in a power plant. Then the voltage level of the power
will be raised by the transformer before the power is transmitted. Electric power is proportional to
the product of voltage and current this is the reason why power transmission voltage levels are
used in order to minimize power transmission losses [4].
The primary objective of all power systems is to maintain the continuous power supply. During
normal operating conditions, current will flow through all elements of the electrical power system
within pre-designed values which are appropriate to these elements’ ratings. However, natural
events such as lightning, weather, ice, wind, heat, failure in related equipment and many other
unpredictable factors may lead to undesirable situations and connection between the phases
conductors of a transmission lines or the phase conductors to ground, these types of events are
known as faults. A falling tree on a transmission lines could cause a three-phase fault where all
phases share a point of contact called fault location. In different occasions, fault could be a result
of insulation deterioration, wind damage or human vandalism [2, 4].
Faults can be defined as the flow of a massive current through an improper path which could cause
enormous equipment damage which will lead to interruption of power, personal injury, or death.
In addition, the voltage level will alternate which can affect the equipment insulation in case of an
increase or could cause a failure of equipment start-up if the voltage is below a minimum level.
As a result, the electrical potential difference of the system neutral will increase. Hence, People
and equipment will be exposed to the danger of electricity which is not accepted [2].
Any power system can be analyzed by calculating the system voltages and currents under normal
& abnormal scenarios [2].
The fault currents caused by short circuits may be several orders of magnitude larger than the
normal operating currents and are determined by the system impedance between the generator
voltages and the fault, under the worst scenario if the fault persists, it may lead to long-term power
loss, blackouts and permanently damage to the equipment. To prevent such an undesirable

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situation, the temporary isolation of the fault from the whole system it is necessary as soon as
possible. This is accomplished by the protective relaying system [4].
The process of evaluating the system voltages and currents under various types of short-circuits is
called fault analysis which can determine the necessary safety measures & the required protection
system to guarantee the safety of public [4].
The analysis of faults leads to appropriate protection settings which can be computed in order to
select suitable fuse, circuit breaker size and type of relay [2].
The severity of the fault depends on the short-circuit location, the path taken by fault current, the
system impedance and its voltage level. In order to maintain the continuation of power supply to
all customers which is the core purpose of the power system existence, all faulted parts must be
isolated from the system temporary by the protection schemes. When a fault exists within the relay
protection zone at any transmission line, a signal will trip or open the circuit breaker isolating the
faulted line [4].
To complete this task successfully, fault analysis has to be conducted in every location assuming
several fault conditions. The goal is to determine the optimum protection scheme by determining
the fault currents & voltages. In reality, power system can consist of thousands of buses which
complicate the task of calculating these parameters without the use of computer software such as
Matlab. In 1956, L.W. Coombe and D. G. Lewis proposed the first fault analysis program [4].
Many exiting texts offer an extensive analysis in fault studies and calculation. Two worth
mentioning are Analysis of Faulted Power System by Paul Anderson and Electrical Power
Transmission System Engineering Analysis and Design by Turan Gonen. In addition to offer a
very illustrative and clear analysis in the fault studies, they also offer an impressive guideline for
the power systems analysis understanding in general.
2.2 Type of Faults
There are two types of faults which can occur on any transmission lines; balanced faults and
unbalanced faults also known as symmetrical and asymmetrical faults respectively. Most of the
faults that occur on power systems are not the balanced three-phase faults, but the unbalances
faults. In addition, faults can be categorized as the shunt faults, series faults and simultaneous
faults [1]. In the analysis of power system under fault conditions, it is necessary to make a

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distinction between the types of fault to ensure the best results possible in the analysis. However,
for this project only shunt faults are to be analyzed.
2.2.1 Series Faults
Series faults represent open conductor and take place when unbalanced series impedance
conditions of the lines are present. Two examples of series fault are when the system holds one or
two broken lines, or impedance inserted in one or two lines. In the real world a series faults takes
place, for example, when circuit breakers controls the lines and do not open all three phases, in
this case, one or two phases of the line may be open while the other/s is closed [1]. Series faults
are characterized by increase of voltage and frequency and fall in current in the faulted phases.
2.2.2. Shunt Faults
The shunt faults are the most common type of fault taking place in the field. They involve power
conductors or conductor-to-ground or short circuits between conductors. One of the most
important characteristics of shunt faults is the increment the current suffers and fall in voltage and
frequency. Shunt faults cab be classified into four categories [5].
2.2.2.1 Line-to-ground fault
This type of fault exists when one phase of any transmission lines establishes a connection with
the ground either by ice, wind, falling tree or any other incident. 70% of all transmission lines
faults are classified under this category [6].
2.2.2.2 Line-to-line fault
As a result of high winds, one phase could touch anther phase & line-to-line fault takes place. 15%
of all transmission lines faults are considered line-to-line faults [6].

2.2.2.3 Double line-to-ground

Falling tree where two phases become in contact with the ground could lead to this type of fault.
In addition, two phases will be involved instead of one at the line-to-ground faults scenarios. 10%
of all transmission lines faults are under this type of faults [6].

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2.2.2.4 Three phase fault

In this case, falling tower, failure of equipment or even a line breaking and touching the remaining
phases can cause three phase faults. In reality, this type of fault not often exists which can be seen
from its share of 5% of all transmission lines faults [6].
2.3. Material required
The material those used all circuits are listed in the following tables including their specification,
rating, amount of quantity and cost estimation.
4.1. Material Required for Supply circuit
No. Name of materials Value/type Quantity Unit Total cost
price(birr)
1. Resistor R1=470 Ώ 1 5 10
R3=3K Ώ 1 5
2. Capacitor C1=220uf 1 5 15
C2=0.27uf 1 5
C3=10uf 1 5
3. Diode 1N4007 1 10 10
4. IC 7805 1 30 30
5. 3ф transformer Step down AC 1 300 300
supply (220V-
12V)
6. LED 1 5 5
7. PSB 1 50 50
8. Bridge 2A 1 40 40
9. Fuse 1A 1 8 8
10. Variable resistor R3=500 Ώ 1 7 7
11. Wire and other 125
12. IC 555 timer 2 20 40
Total 640

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2.4. Methodology
The methodology of this project involves a number of different tasks that are performed to lead
towards completion. The first task is to describe the statement of the problem and define the
objectives of the project. This is followed by the literature review where all the theoretical
information regarding the component of the three phase fault analysis with auto reset for temporary
fault other ways trip permanently is gathered. A comparison of previous similar project is also
presented. A brief description on the on 555 timer and comparator is then presented.
A detail and Mathematical calculation of our project is presented. Using 555 timer, comparator
and relay the three phase fault analysis with auto reset is designed. Also, switch and bush button
is used in this project to made different faults such as L-G, L-L and 3L to ground fault
implementation in our system which uses both temporary and permanent faults of three phase on
transmission line.
Simulation studies are carried out for tripping circuits and Power supply circuits to show the results
matches with calculation and project object. In addition to this the simulation studies are carried
out for Final circuit. The final stage is the conclusion based on our project.

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A block diagram representing the methodology of the paper is shown in Figure 1.1.

Statement of the problem

Objective

Collecting and literature review

System design and development

Power supply circuit Tripping circuit

Simulation 1
Simulation 2

Constructing over all circuit and Simulation Result Analysis

Conclusion

Figure 1.1.Methodologies

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CHAPTER THREE
3.1. Block diagram
To implement the three phase fault analysis with auto reset as above block diagram manner we
follow the following steps. Those are:-

1. Test and construct the proper connection for the three phase step-down transformer.
2. Give the step-down three phase transformers to bridge circuit for full wave rectification
3. Then connect the full wave bridge circuit to voltage regulator which give constant
voltage, here we are using 7805 which give 5 volts. Now the main task is to get variable
output for this we use the pair of voltage divider resistors to increase the output of the
regulator and in which of resistance is variable so when we increase or de c r ea s e t he
val u e o f t h a t r esi st o r t he o ut p ut vol t a g e of t h e r e gul at o r wi l l a l s o change
and we get a range of 5 to 12 v , here we can’t get less than 5 volts because of this is the
output of the regulator In this circuit we use three capacitor , c1 and c2 are used to get
constant input to the regulator moreover it also help to reduce the sharp peaks
in the output.

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Fig.3.1 block diagram of 3 phase fault dectection

3.2. Design of Each Block

3.2.1. Power Supply
To start up trip circuit for fault analysis 555 timer, push button, voltage regulator and Relay the
power supply is needed. The ideal voltage for comparator is 5V (Direct Current). It should not
be higher than 5.5V because it going to blow up. It also should not be less than 2V because it not
going to be operates.
For the circuit LM 7805 is used, which gives the required output of 5V. The voltage regulator
regulates above its required output voltage. The output voltage below required output would be
passed without being regulated. For LM7805, if the unregulated input voltage is greater than 5V,
it will be regulated to 5V. If it is less than 5V, output would be passed without being regulated.
Power supply section can be broken down into a series of blocks, each of which performs a
particular function.

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Step-down Rectifier Compensating Voltage

AC 220V transforme diodes capacitor regulator
r

Figure 3.2. Block diagram of Power Supply

Each of the blocks is described in more detail below:

 Transformer- steps down high voltage AC mains to low voltage AC.
 Rectifier- converts AC to DC, but the DC output is varying.
 Smoothing- smoothes the DC from varying greatly to a small ripple.
 Regulator- eliminates ripple by setting DC output to a fixed voltage.

A 220/9 volts transformer was used to step down voltage from the mains and given to the power
section of the project prototype. A unidirectional (DC) bridge circuit received the 9V AC from the
power section and rectified it into 9V DC. The 9V DC signal was then filtered by the capacitor
and given to 7805 voltage regulator. The 7805 voltage regulator had a constant output of 5V DC,
which was the required voltage to power comparator.
3.2.2. Relay
A relay is an electrically operated switch. Current flowing through the coil of the relay creates a
magnetic field which attracts a lever and changes the switch contacts. Relays are used where it is
necessary to control a circuit by a low-power signal with complete electrical isolation between
control and controlled circuits, or where several circuits must be controlled by one signal.
Relays may be normally open, or normally closed. One pair of contacts is classed as normally open
or makes contacts and another set which are classed as normally closed or break contacts. In the
normally open position, the contacts are closed only when the field current is ON and the switch
contacts are pulled towards the inductive coil. [7]
In the normally closed position, the contacts are permanently closed when the field current is OFF
as the switch contacts return to their normal position. The relays contacts are electrically
conductive pieces of metal which touch together completing a circuit and allow the circuit current
to flow, just like a switch. When the contacts are open the resistance between the contacts is very

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high in the Mega-Ohms, producing an open circuit condition and no circuit current flows. When
the contacts are closed the contact resistance should be zero, a short circuit. [7]

Figure 3.3. Relay diagram

3.2.3. Comparator
The op amps & comparators look very similar but a comparator gives a logic output indicating the
relative potentials on its two inputs. An op amp amplifies the differential voltage between its two
inputs – and is designed always to be used in closed-loop applications.
Potential dividers are connected to the inverting and non-inverting inputs of the op-amp to give
some voltage at these terminals. Supply voltage is given to +V and –V is connected to ground.
The output of this comparator will be logic high (i.e., supply voltage) if the non-inverting terminal
input is greater than the inverting terminal input of the comparator. If the inverting terminal input
is greater than the non-inverting terminal input then the output of the comparator will be logic low
(i.e., gnd).

Figure 3.4. Comparator diagram

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CHAPTER FOUR

4. CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
4.1. Components of power supply circuit diagram
Transformer

An electrical device that used to step up or step down voltage or current level. A transformer is a
device which is use to convert high alternate voltage to a low alternate voltage and vice versa.
A transformer is also a device which uses the phenomenon of mutual induction to change the
values of alternating voltages and currents. In fact, one of the main advantages of a.c. transmission
and distribution is the ease with which an alternating voltage can be increased or decreased by
transformers.
TYPES AND APPLICATIONS OF TRANSFORMERS
The transformer has many useful applications in an electrical circuit. A brief discussion of some
of these applications will help you recognize the importance of the transformer in electricity and
electronics.
POWER TRANSFORMERS
Power transformers are used to supply voltages to the various circuits in electrical equipment.
These transformers have two or more windings wound on a laminated iron core. The number of
windings and the turns per winding depend upon the voltages that the transformer is to supply.
Hence in our case stepping down 220V to 5V providing that with 50Hz frequency. Their
coefficient of coupling is 0.95 or more.

You can usually distinguish between the high-voltage and low-voltage windings in a power
transformer by measuring the resistance. The low-voltage winding usually carries the higher
current and therefore has the larger diameter wire. This means that its resistance is less than the
resistance of the high-voltage winding, which normally carries less current and therefore may be
constructed of smaller diameter wire.

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IMPEDANCE-MATCHING TRANSFORMERS
For maximum or optimum transfer of power between two circuits, it is necessary for the impedance
of one circuit to be matched to that of the other circuit. One common impedance-matching device
is the transformer. To obtain proper matching, you must use a transformer having the correct turn’s
ratio. The number of turns on the primary and secondary windings and the impedance of the
transformer have the following mathematical relationship:

𝑁𝑃 𝑍𝑃
= √
𝑁𝑆 𝑍𝑆

Because of this ability to match impedances, the impedance-matching transformer is widely used
in electronic equipment.
BASIC OPRATION OF TRANSFORMER
In its most basic form a transformer consists of:
 A primary coil or winding.
 A secondary coil or winding.
 A core that supports the coils or windings.
The primary winding is connected to a 50 hertz ac voltage source. The magnetic field (flux) builds
up (expands) and collapses (contracts) about the primary winding. The expanding and contracting
magnetic field around the primary winding cuts the secondary winding and induces an alternating
voltage into the winding. This voltage causes alternating current to flow through the load. The
voltage may be stepped up or down depending on the design of the primary and secondary
windings.

The basic transformer is an electrical device that transfers alternating-current energy from one
circuit to another circuit by magnetic coupling of the primary and secondary windings of the
transformer. This is accomplished through mutual inductance (M). The coefficient of coupling (K)
of a transformer is dependent upon the size and shape of the coils, their relative positions, and the
characteristic of the core between the two coils. An ideal transformer is one where all the magnetic
lines of flux produced by the primary cut the entire secondary. The higher the K of the transformer,
the higher is the transfer of the energy. The voltage applied to the primary winding causes current
to flow in the primary. This current generates a magnetic field, generating a counter emf (cemf)

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which has the opposite phase to that of the applied voltage. The magnetic field generated by the
current in the primary also cuts the secondary winding and induces a voltage in this winding.
THE COMPONENTS OF A TRANSFORMER
Two coils of wire (called windings) are wound on some type of core material. In some cases the
coils of wire are wound on a cylindrical or rectangular cardboard form. In effect, the core material
is air and the transformer is called an air-core transformer. Transformers used at low frequencies,
such as 50 hertz require a core of low-reluctance magnetic material, usually iron. This type of
transformer is called an iron-core transformer. Most power transformers are of the iron-core type.
The principle parts of a transformer and their functions are:
 The core, which provides a path for the magnetic lines of flux.
 The primary winding, which receives energy from the ac source?
 The secondary winding, which receives energy from the primary winding and
delivers it to the load.
 The enclosure, which protects the above components from dirt, moisture, and
mechanical damage.
CORE CHARACTERISTICS
The composition of a transformer core depends on such factors as voltage, current, and frequency.
Size limitations and construction costs are also factors to be considered. Commonly used core
materials are air, soft iron, and steel. Each of these materials is suitable for particular applications
and unsuitable for others. Generally, air-core transformers are used when the voltage source has a
high frequency (above 20 kHz). Iron-core transformers are usually used when the source frequency
is low (below 20 kHz). A soft-iron-core transformer is very useful where the transformer must be
physically small, yet efficient. The iron-core transformer provides better power transfer than does
the air-core transformer. A transformer whose core is constructed of laminated sheets of steel
dissipates heat readily; thus it provides for the efficient transfer of power. The majority of
transformers you will encounter in fleet equipment contain laminated-steel cores. These steel
laminations are insulated with a no conducting material, such as varnish, and then formed into a
core. It takes about 50 such laminations to make a core an inch thick. The purpose of the
laminations is to reduce certain losses which will be discussed later in this chapter. An important

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point to remember is that the most efficient transformer core is one that offers the best path for the
most lines of flux with the least loss in magnetic and electrical energy.
PRODUCING A COUNTER EMF
When an alternating current flows through a primary winding, a magnetic field is established
around the winding. As the lines of flux expand outward, relative motion is present, and a counter
emf is induced in the winding. Flux leaves the primary at the North Pole and enters the primary
at the South Pole. The counter emf induced in the primary has a polarity that opposes the applied
voltage, thus opposing the flow of current in the primary. It is the counter emf that limits exciting
current to a very low value.
INDUCING A VOLTAGE IN THE SECONDARY
To visualize how a voltage is induced into the secondary winding of a transformer, we must refer
producing a counter EMF. As the exciting current flows through the primary, magnetic lines of
force are generated. During the time current is increasing in the primary, magnetic lines of force
expand outward from the primary and cut the secondary. As you remember, a voltage is induced
into a coil when magnetic lines cut across it. Therefore, the voltage across the primary causes a
voltage to be induced across the secondary.
TRANSFORMER CONSTRUCTION
A transformer consists of two coils of insulated wire wound on a core. The primary winding is
usually wound onto a form, and then wrapped with an insulating material such as paper or cloth.
The secondary winding is then wound on top of the primary and both windings are wrapped with
insulating material. The windings are then fitted onto the core of the transformer. Cores come in
various shapes and materials. The most common materials are air, soft iron, and laminated steel.
The most common types of transformers are the shell-core and the hollow-core types.
The type and shape of the core is dependent on the intended use of the transformer and the voltage
applied to the current in the primary winding.
PRIMARY AND SECONDARY PHASE RELATIONSHIP
The secondary voltage of a simple transformer may be either in phase or out of phase with the
Primary voltage. This depends on the direction in which the windings are wound and the
arrangement of the connections to the external circuit (load). Simply, this means that the two
voltages may rise and fall together or one may rise while the other is falling. Transformers in which

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the secondary voltage is in phase with the primary are referred to as like-wound transformers,
while those in which the voltages are 180 degrees out of phase are called unlike-wound
transformers. Dots are used to indicate points on a transformer schematic symbol that have the
same instantaneous polarity (points that are in phase). Both the primary and secondary windings
are wound from top to bottom in a clockwise direction, as viewed from above the windings. When
constructed in this manner, the top lead of the primary and the top lead of the secondary have the
same polarity. This is indicated by the dots on the transformer symbol. A lack of phasing dots
indicates a reversal of polarity.
COEFFICIENT OF COUPLING
The coefficient of coupling of a transformer is dependent on the portion of the total flux lines that
cuts both primary and secondary windings. Ideally, all the flux lines generated by the primary
should cut the secondary, and all the lines of the flux generated by the secondary should cut the
primary. The coefficient of coupling would then be one (unity), and maximum energy would be
transferred from the primary to the secondary. Practical power transformers use high-permeability
silicon steel cores and close spacing between the windings to provide a high coefficient of
coupling. Lines of flux generated by one winding which do not link with the other winding are
called leakage flux. Since leakage flux generated by the primary does not cut the secondary, it
cannot induce a voltage into the secondary. The voltage induced into the secondary is therefore
less than it would
be if the leakage flux did not exist. Since the effect of leakage flux is to lower the voltage induced
into the secondary, the effect can be duplicated by assuming an inductor to be connected in series
with the primary. This series leakage inductance is assumed to drop part of the applied voltage,
leaving less voltage across the primary.
Three major areas in which we use transformers are in
(a) power distribution,
(b) converting AC voltage to DC voltage, and
(c) Electronics.
Of these three, the power transformers used for stepping-up and stepping-down voltage are the
most familiar and the most widely used application of this device. Power transformers can be very
large. Most of us have seen the giant transformers in substation yards. These require using special

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cooling fans and a circulating fluid. At the next level we find transformers used in distributing
power to industry and residential areas. We have all seen transformers mounted on power poles
and in more modern subdivisions, mounted in a metal housing at ground level. For this project we
will focus on the transformers used in electronics.
In electronics, small transformers (compared to power transformers) are frequently used for
converting AC to DC. In addition to AC to DC conversion, transformers are also used for isolating
one circuit from another and for impedance matching.
A transformer is represented in Fig 4.1 (a) as consisting of two electrical circuits linked by a
common ferromagnetic core. One coil is termed the primary winding which is connected to the
supply of electricity, and the other the secondary winding, which may be connected to a load. A
circuit diagram symbol for a transformer is shown in Fig.1 (b)

Figure .4.1. Transformer

4.1.1. Working principle of transformer operation

When the secondary is an open-circuit and an alternating voltage V1 is applied to the primary
winding, a small current – called the no-load current I0 – flows, which sets up a magnetic flux in
the core. This alternating flux links with both primary and secondary coils and induces in them
e.m.f.’s of E1 and E2 respectively by mutual induction. The induced e.m.f. E in a coil of N turns
d d
is given by E   N ( )volts , where is the rate of change of flux. In an ideal transformer, the
dt dt

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E1 E2
rate of change of flux is the same for both primary and secondary and thus  i.e. the
N1 N 2

induced e.m.f. per turn is constant.

Assuming no losses, E1 =V1 and E2 = V2

V1 V V N1
Hence  2 or 1 
N2 N2 V2 N2 [4.1]
(V1/V2) is called the voltage ratio and (N1/N2) the turn’s ratio, or the ‘transformation ratio’ of
the transformer. If N2 is less than N1 then V2 is less than V1 and the device is termed a step-
down transformer. If N2 is greater than N1 then V2 is greater than V1 and the device is termed a
step-up transformer. When a load is connected across the secondary winding, a current I2
flows. In an ideal transformer losses are neglected and a transformer is considered to be 100 per
cent efficient. Hence input power = output power, or V1I1 = V2I2 i.e. in an ideal transformer, the
primary and secondary ampere turns are equal
V1 I 2
Thus  [4.2]
V2 I1
Combining equations (4.1) and (4.2) gives:

V1 N1 I 2
  [4.3]
V2 N 2 I1

The rating of a transformer is stated in terms of the volt-amperes that it can transform without
overheating. With reference to Fig. 4.1. (a), the transformer rating is either V1 I1 or V2 I2, where
I2 is the full-load secondary current.
4.2. Diode
A diode is simply a p-n junction, but its applications are extensive in electronic circuits and it is a
simple electrical device that allows the flow of current only in one direction. So it can be said to
act somewhat like a switch. . A specific arrangement of diodes can convert AC to pulsating DC;
hence it is sometimes also called as a rectifier. It is derived from "di-ode” which means a device
having two electrodes. The symbol of a p-n junction diode is shown below, the arrowhead points
in the direction of conventional current flow.

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Figure 4.2. The symbol of a p-n junction

The p-n junction is a basic building block in any semiconductor device. It formed by joining a p
type (intrinsic semiconductor doped with a trivalent impurity) and n type semiconductor (intrinsic
semiconductor doped with a pentavalent impurity) together with a special fabrication technique
such that a p-n junction is formed. Hence it is a device with two elements, the p-type forms anode
and the n-type forms the cathode. These terminals are brought out to make the external
connections.

Generally, the diode is a device formed from a junction of n-type and p-type semiconductor
material. The lead connected to the p-type material is called the anode and the lead connected to
the n-type material is the cathode. In general, the cathode of a diode is marked by a solid line on
the diode.

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Figure 4.3. The symbol for a diode compared to an actual diode package

4.2.1. Working principle of diode operation

What happens inside the p-n Junction Diode?
The n side will have large number of electrons and very few holes (due to thermal excitation)
whereas the p side will have high concentration of holes and very few electrons. Due to this a
process called diffusion takes place. In this process free electrons from the n side will diffuse
(spread) into the p side and combine with holes present there, leaving a positive immobile (not
moveable) ion in the n side. Hence few atoms on the p side are converted into negative ions.
Similarly few atoms on the n- side will get converted to positive ions. Due to this large number of
positive ions and negative ions will accumulate on the n-side and p-side respectively. This region
so formed is called as depletion region. Due to the presence of these positive and negative ions
a static electric field called as "barrier potential" is created across the p-n junction of the diode. It
is called as "barrier potential" because it acts as a barrier and opposes the flow of positive and
negative ions across the junction.

To make use of this p-n junction diode we have to apply an external DC voltage to it. Applying an
external DC voltage to the diode is called as biasing. If the p-side (anode) is connected to the
positive terminal of the supply and the n-side (cathode) to the negative terminal of the supply, the
diode is said to be forward biased. In the same way if the n-side is connected to the positive
terminal of the supply and the p-side to the negative terminal of the supply, the diode is said to be

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reversed biased. Most of the times a resistance has to be connected in series with it to limit the
current flowing through the diode.

4.2.2. Characteristics of diode

Semiconductor materials (Si, Ge) are used to form variety of electronic devices. The most basic
device is diode. Diode is a two terminal P-N junction device. P-N junction is formed by bringing
a P type material in contact with N type material. When a P-type material is brought in contact
with N- type material electrons and holes start recombining near the junction. This result in lack
of charge carriers at the junction and thus the junction is called depletion region.

Biased i.e. when voltage is applied across the terminals of P-N junction, it is called diode. Diode
is unidirectional device that allows the flow of current in one direction only depending on the
biasing.

Figure 4.4. (a) Forward Biasing Characteristic of Diode

Forward Biasing Characteristic of Diode

When P terminal is more positive as compared to N terminal i.e. P- terminal connected to positive
terminal of battery and N-terminal connected to negative terminal of battery, it is said to be forward
biased.

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Figure 4.4. (b) Forward Biasing Characteristic of Diode

Positive terminal of the battery repels majority carriers, holes, in P-region and negative terminal
repels electrons in the N-region and push them towards the junction. This result in increase in
concentration of charge carriers near junction, recombination takes place and width of depletion
region decreases. As forward bias voltage is raised depletion region continues to reduce in width,
and more and more carriers recombine. This results in exponential rise of current.

Reverse Biasing Characteristic of Diode

In reverse biasing P- terminal is connected to negative terminal of the battery and N- terminal to
positive terminal of battery. Thus applied voltage makes N-side more positive than P-side.

Figure 4.4. Reverse Biasing Characteristic of Diode

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Negative terminal of the battery attracts majority carriers, holes, in P-region and positive terminal
attracts electrons in the N-region and pull them away from the junction. This result in decrease in
concentration of charge carriers near junction and width of depletion region increases. A small
amount of electric current flow due to minority carriers, called as reverse bias current or leakage
current. As reverse bias voltage is raised depletion region continues to increase in width and no
current flows. It can be concluded that diode acts only when forward biased.

Hence, ideally the reverse biased resistance of the diode is infinite and no current flows from the diode when it
is reversed biased. Due to large reverse biased voltage, suddenly large current will flow through the reverse
biased voltage. Due to this large power gets dissipated in the diode which may damage it permanently.

Operation of diode can be summarized in form of I-V diode characteristics graph.

For reverse bias diode, V<0, ID = IS
Where, V = supply voltage
ID = diode current
IS = reverse saturation current
For forward bias, V > 0, ID = IS (eV/NVT - 1)
Where, VT = volt’s equivalent of temperature = KT/Q = T/11600
Q = electronic charge = 1.632 X 10 - 19 C
K = Boltzmann’s constant = 1.38 X 10 - 23
N = 1, for Ge
= 2, for Si

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Figure 4.5. V-I characteristics of real diode

As reverse bias voltage is further raised, depletion region width increases and a point comes when junction
breaks down. This results in large flow of current. Breakdown is the knee of diode characteristics curve.

4.2.3. Diode applications

Basic DC Power Supply

 A DC power supply is one of the most important part of an electronic circuit.

 It converts the supply line AC voltage to an appropriate DC voltage which can be used
to power up the electronic circuit inside various electronic appliances.

A common application for diodes is converting AC to DC. There are two converting most
commonly using diode:

1. Half-wave rectifier
2. Full-wave rectifier

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4.3. Rectification
One of the very important applications of diode is in DC power supply as a rectifier to convert AC
into DC. DC Power supply is the important element of any electronic equipment. This is because
it provides power to energize all electronic circuits like oscillators, amplifiers and so on. In
electronic equipment’s, D.C. Power supply is must. For example, we can’t think of television,
computer, radio, telephone, and mobile as well as measuring instruments like multi-meter etc.
Without DC power supply. The reliability and performance of the electronic system proper design
of power supply is necessary. The first block of DC power supply is rectifier. Rectifier may be
defined as an electronic device used to convert ac voltage or current into unidirectional voltage or
current. Essentially rectifier needs unidirectional device. Diode has unidirectional property hence
it suitable for rectification.

Figure 4.6. Block diagram of rectification

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 Rectifier broadly divided into two categories:

 Half wave rectifier and
 Full wave rectifier

4.3.1. Half wave rectification

In half wave rectifier only half cycle of applied AC voltage is used. Another half cycle of AC
voltage (negative cycle) is not used. Only one diode is used which conducts during positive cycle.
The circuit diagram of half wave rectifier without capacitor is shown in the following figure.
During positive half cycle of the input voltage anode of the diode is positive compared with the
cathode.
Diode is in forward bias and current passes through the diode and positive cycle develops across
the load resistance RL. During negative half cycle of input voltage, anode is negative with
respected to cathode and diode is in reverse bias. No current passes through the diode hence output
voltage is zero.

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Figure 4.7. Half Wave Rectification (Ideal Diode)

Average Value of Half Wave Output Voltage

- The average value of the output would the value measured on a DC millimeter.
- The average output is 31.8% of 𝑽𝒑 and is given by
𝑽𝑨𝑽𝑮= 𝑽𝒑/𝝅

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Vrms= Vp/2
4.3.2. Full wave rectifier
For each complete cycle of the input voltage, the full wave rectifier produces two cycles at the
output that are both in the same direction.

The frequency of the output doubles compared to the input, i.e. 𝑓𝑜𝑢𝑡=2𝑓𝑖𝑛.

 There are two types of full wave rectifier circuit:

Center – tapped Full Wave Rectifier

Bridge Full Wave Rectifier

Figure 4.8. Full Wave Rectification

Center-Tapped Full-Wave Rectifier

A center-tapped rectifier uses two diode connected to the secondary of the transformer.

Half of the total secondary voltage appears at the two ends of the winding.

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Figure 4.9. Center-Tapped Full Wave Rectifier

Rectification Mechanism
 The rectification mechanism of the center-tapped rectifier can be described as follows
In the positive half cycle of the input, diode D1 is forward biased and diode D2 is reverse
biased. The flow of current is shown in the following Figure. This results in a positive
cycle at the output.
During the negative cycle of the input, D2 is forward biased while D1 is reverse.
The flow of current again results in a positive cycle at the output.

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Figure 4.10. Rectification Mechanism

Bridge Full-Wave Rectifier

First note that the transformer is not center-tapped therefore the secondary voltage will not be divided
in half.
Rectification Mechanism
The rectification mechanism of the bridge rectifier can be described as follows
 In the positive input cycle, D1 and D2 are forward biased and conduct current in the direction
shown in Figure 4.10(a).
 This produces a positive output at the load resistance RL.
 During the negative input cycle, D3 and D4 are forward biased and conduct current in the
direction shown in Figure 4.10 (b).
 As this direction is also the same as in the positive cycle, it produces positive output at R L.

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Figure 4.11. Bridge Rectifier

4.4. Capacitor
 What is capacitor?

A circuit device that conducts AC current and doesn’t conduct DC current.

The symbol of capacitor

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 Their Use:
 As a temporary store of DC electric charge – almost like a battery.
 As a timing element in DC circuits.
 As a phase shifting element in AC circuits.
 As an RMS voltage support element in AC power circuits.
 As a block of DC signals and a passageway for AC signals.
 As an AC circuit filter element.
4.5. Voltage regulator
Description
The LM7805 series of three terminal positive regulators are available in the TO-220/D-PAK
package and with several fixed output voltages, making them useful in a wide range of
applications. Each type employs internal current limiting, thermal shut down and safe operating
area protection, making it essentially indestructible. If adequate heat sinking is provided, they can
deliver over 1A output current. Although designed primarily as fixed voltage regulators, these
devices can be used with external components to obtain adjustable voltages and currents.

Figure 4.12 pin out diagram

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Internal Block Diagram

Figure 4.12 Internal Block Diagram

4.6. Light emitting diode

The first known report of a light-emitting solid-state diode was made in 1907 by the British
experimenter H. J. Round.
Light-emitting diodes (LEDs) are semiconductor devices that can produce infrared, visible, or
ultraviolet radiation. Their remarkable properties make them ideal sources for many applications
ranging from indicator lights, displays, and optical communication systems to solid-state lighting.
Although LEDs are widely applied in several areas of science and technology, there is not a
realistic radiometric model for the emitted radiation distribution. LEDs are small extended sources
with extra optics added to the chip, resulting in a complex intensity distribution difficult to model.
Currently, the optical design of LEDs is carried out by means of Monte Carlo ray tracing methods.

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These techniques randomly simulate from 1 to 10 million light rays and the output ray-density
distribution serves as an indirect value for the radiant intensity. In addition to the time consumed
by these techniques, the lack of an analytic expression for the output intensity and irradiance
reduces the optimization process to a trial and error procedure.

A Light emitting diode (LED) is essentially a pn junction diode. When carriers are injected across
a forward-biased junction, it emits incoherent light. Most of the commercial LEDs are realized
using a highly doped n and a p Junction.

Schematic:

An LED is a device that emits light when electrically biased. Similar to any electronic component,
LEDs also have electrical parameters that need to be taken into consideration when designed into
a system.

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4.2. Components of three fault analysis (tripping circuit) circuit

4.2.1. LM555 Timer Detailed Description
The LM555 is a highly stable device for generating accurate time delays or oscillation. Additional
terminals are provided for triggering or resetting if desired. In the time delay mode of operation,
the time is precisely controlled by one external resistor and capacitor. For a stable operation as an
oscillator, the free running frequency and duty cycle are accurately controlled with two external
resistors and one capacitor. The circuit may be triggered and reset on falling waveforms, and the
output circuit can source or sink up to 200mA circuits. The LM555 are available in 8-pin PDIP,
SOIC, and VSSOP packages and is a direct replacement for SE555/NE555.

Figure 4.13a. Schematic diagram of 555 timer

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Pin Description:

Pin No Function Name

1 Ground (0V) Ground

2 Voltage below 1/3 Vcc to trigger the pulse Trigger

3 Pulsating output Output

4 Active low; interrupts the timing interval at Output Reset

5 Provides access to the internal voltage divider; default 2/3 Vcc Control Voltage

6 The pulse ends when the voltage is greater than Control Threshold

7 Open collector output; to discharge the capacitor Discharge

8 Supply voltage; 5V (4.5V - 16 V) Vcc

Table 4.1. Pin Description 555 timer

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Figure 4.13b. Schematic diagram of 555 timer

Feature Description
Direct Replacement for SE555/NE555
The LM555 timer is a direct replacement for SE555 and NE555. It is pin-to-pin compatible so that
no schematic or layout changes are necessary. The LM555 come in an 8-pin PDIP, SOIC, and
VSSOP package.
Timing from Microseconds through Hours
The LM555 has the ability to have timing parameters from the microseconds range to hours. The
time delay of the system can be determined by the time constant of the R and C value used for

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either the monostable or astable configuration. A nomograph is available for easy determination
of R and C values for various time delays.
Operates in Both Astable and Monostable Mode
The LM555 can operate in both astable and monostable mode depending on the application
requirements.
Monostable mode: The LM555 timer acts as a “one-shot” pulse generator. The pulse beings when
the LM555 timer receives a signal at the trigger input that falls below a 1/3 of the voltage supply.
The width of the output pulse is determined by the time constant of an RC network. The output
pulse ends when the voltage on the capacitor equals 2/3 of the supply voltage. The output pulse
width can be extended or shortened depending on the application by adjusting the R and C values.
Astable (free-running) mode: The LM555 timer can operate as an oscillator and puts out a
continuous stream of rectangular pulses having a specified frequency. The frequency of the pulse
stream depends on the values of RA, RB, and C.
Device Functional Modes
Monostable Operation
In this mode of operation, the timer functions as a one-shot (Figure 4.14). The external capacitor
is initially held discharged by a transistor inside the timer. Upon application of a negative trigger
pulse of less than 1/3 VCC to pin 2, the flip-flop is set which both releases the short circuit across the
capacitor and drives the output high.

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Figure 4.14. Monostable

Astable Operation
If the circuit is connected as shown in Figure 15 (pins 2 and 6 connected) it will trigger itself and
free run as a multivibrator. The external capacitor charges through RA + RB and discharges
through RB. Thus the duty cycle may be precisely set by the ratio of these two resistors.

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Figure 4.15. Astable

In this mode of operation, the capacitor charges and discharges between 1/3 VCC and 2/3 VCC.
As in the triggered mode, the charge and discharge times, and therefore the frequency are
independent of the supply voltage.
Applications LM555
 Precision Timing
 Pulse Generation
 Sequential Timing
 Time Delay Generation

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 Pulse Width Modulation the end of the datasheet.

 Pulse Position Modulation
 Linear Ramp Generator

4.2.2. Relay driver circuit

Relays can be used to allow low power electronic or computer type circuits to switch a relatively high
currents or voltages both ON and OFF. One of the more important parts of any relay is the coil. This
converts electrical current into an electromagnetic flux which is used to operate the relays contacts. If the
coil is energized with DC, a diode is frequently installed across the coil, to dissipate the energy from the
collapsing magnetic field at deactivation, which would otherwise generate a spike of voltage and might
cause damage to circuit components. Relay coil produce brief high voltage 'spikes' when they are switched
off and this can destroy transistors and ICs in the circuit. To prevent damage we must connect a protection
diode across the relay coil. Transistors and ICs must be protected from the brief high voltage spike produced
when the relay coil is switched off.

Figure 4.16.Relay driver circuit

The diagram shows how a signal diode (e.g. 1N4007) is connected across the relay coil to provide this
protection. Note that the diode is connected 'back wards' so that it will normally not conduct. Conduction
only occurs when the relay coil is switched off, at this moment current tries to continue flowing through
the coil and it is harmlessly diverted through the diode. Without the diode no current could flow and the
coil would produce a damaging high voltage spike in its attempt to keep the current flowing.

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4.2.3. BC547 transistor

NPN general purpose transistors. It consists three pin

Figure 4.17. The forward-biased junction in an npn transistor

NPN (BC547)-Trasistors Operation In This Circuit

A forward-biased pn-junction is comparable to a low resistance circuit element because it passes

high current for a given voltage. In turn a reverse pn-junction is comparable to a high resistance
circuit element. By using Ohm’s law formula for power (P=I2R) and assuming current is held
constant, you can conclude that the power developed across a high resistance is greater than that
developed across a low resistance. Thus, if a crystal was to contain two pn-junctions (one
forward biased and the other reverse biased), a low power signal could be injected into forward
biased junction and produce a high-power signal at the reverse biased junction. In this manner, a
power gain would be obtained across the crystal. With this information fresh in your mind, let's
proceed directly to the npn transistor.1

 Emitter

 Base
 Collector

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To further improve on the efficiency of the transistor, the collector is made physically larger than
the base for two reasons:

 To increase the chance of collecting carriers that diffuse to the side as well as directly
across the base region, and
 To enable the collector to handle more heat without damage

Figure 4.18.total current flow in the npn transistor

In summary, total current flow in the npn transistor is through the emitter lead. Therefore, in
terms of percentage, IE is 100 percent. On the other hand, since the base is very thin and lightly
doped, a smaller percentage of the total current (emitter current) will flow in the base circuit than
in the collector circuit. Usually no more than 2 to 5 percent of the total current is base current
(IB) while the remaining 95 to 98 percent is collector current (IC). A very basic relationship exists
between these two currents:

IE = IB + IC

In simple terms this means that the emitter current is separated into base and collector current.
Since the amount of current leaving the emitter is solely a function of the emitter-base bias, and
because the collector receives most of this current, a small change in emitter-base bias will have
a far greater effect on the magnitude of collector current than it will have on base current. In

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conclusion, the relatively small emitter-base bias controls the relatively large emitter-to-collector
current. 1, 2

In general the function of transistors in this circuit as switching communication with timer when
fault push button is on.
4.3. Mathematical Analysis
TURNS AND VOLTAGE RATIOS CALCULATION
The total voltage induced into the secondary winding of a transformer is determined mainly by the
ratio of the number of turns in the primary to the number of turns in the secondary, and by the
amount of voltage applied to the primary. We know that as lines of flux generated by the primary
expand and collapse, they cut both the ten turns of the primary and the single turn of the secondary.
Since the length of the wire in the secondary is approximately the same as the length of the wire
in each turn in the primary, EMF induced into the secondary will be the same as the emf induced
into each turn in the primary. This means that if the voltage applied to the primary winding is
220volts, the counter emf in the primary is almost 220 volts. Thus, each turn in the primary will
have an induced counter emf of approximately one-twelfth of the total applied voltage, or one volt.
Since the same flux lines cut the turns in both the secondary and the primary, each turn will have
an emf of one volt induced into it.
TURNS AND CURRENT RATIOS OF TRANSFORMER
The number of flux lines developed in a core is proportional to the magnetizing force (in ampere-
turns) of the primary and secondary windings. The ampere-turn (I ×N) is a measure of magneto
motive force; it is defined as the magneto motive force developed by one ampere of current flowing
in a coil of one turn. The flux which exists in the core of a transformer surrounds both the primary
and secondary windings. Since the flux is the same for both windings, the ampere-turns in both
the primary and secondary windings must be the same.

NS ES
= (𝟒. 𝟒)
NP EP

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IP NS
= ( 𝟒. 𝟓)
IS NP
From equation (3.1) and (3.2) we have the following relationship.

ES IP
= (𝟒. 𝟔)
EP IS

Where:
NS = The number of turn ratio at the secondary side
NP = The number of turn ratio at the primary side
ES = Voltage across the secondary in volts
EP = Voltage applied at the primary in volts
IP = current in the primary in ampers
IS = current in the secondary in ampers

Notice the equations show the current ratio to be the inverse of the turn’s ratio and the voltage
ratio. This means, a transformer having less turns in the secondary than in the primary would step
down the voltage, but would step up the current.

Therefore for our project the primary voltage 220V providing the turn ratio at the primary side 100
and the voltages across the secondary side 5V. Calculate the turn ratio at the secondary side.7

Given NP =400 Required

VP =220V NS =?
VS =5V
Solution
From the relation
ES
NS = N
EP P

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12𝑉
𝑁𝑆 = × 100
220𝑉

𝑁𝑆 = 6

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C H A P T E R FIVE
5.1. Software description

ISIS has been created with this in mind. It has evolved over twelve year’s research and
development and has been proven by thousands of users worldwide. The strength of its architecture
has allowed us to integrate first conventional graph based simulation and now - with PROTEUS
VSM - interactive circuit simulation into the design environment. For the first time ever it is
possible to draw a complete circuit for a micro-controller based system and then test it
interactively, all from within the same piece of software. Meanwhile, ISIS retains a host of features
aimed at the PCB designer, so that the same design can be exported for production with ARES or
other PCB layout software.

For the educational user and engineering author, ISIS also excels at producing attractive
schematics like you see in the magazines. It provides total control of drawing appearance in terms
of line widths, fill styles, colors and fonts. In addition, a system of templates allows you to define
a ‘house style’ and to copy the appearance of one drawing to another.

Other general features include:

 Runs on Windows 2k onwards.

 Automatic wire routing and dot placement/removal.
 Powerful tools for selecting objects and assigning their properties.
 Total support for buses including component pins, inter-sheet terminals, module ports and
wires.
 Bill of Materials and Electrical Rules Check reports.
 Netlist outputs to suit all popular PCB layout tools.

For the ‘power user’, ISIS incorporates a number of features which aid in the management of large
designs. Indeed, a number of our customers have used it to produce designs containing many
thousands of components.

 Hierarchical design with support for parameterized component values on sub-circuits.

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 Design Global Annotation allowing multiple instances of a sub-circuit to have different

component references.
 Automatic Annotation - the ability to number the components automatically.
 ASCII Data Import - .this facility provides the means to automatically bring component
stock codes and costs into ISIS design or library files where they can then be
incorporated or even totaled up in the Bill of Materials report.

ISIS provides the development environment for PROTEUS VSM, our revolutionary interactive
system level simulator. This product combines mixed mode circuit simulation, micro-processor
models and interactive component models to allow the simulation of complete micro-controller
based designs.

ISIS provides the means to enter the design in the first place, the architecture for real time
interactive simulation and a system for managing the source and object code associated with each
project. In addition, a number of graph objects can be placed on the schematic to enable
conventional time, frequency and swept variable simulation to be performed.

Major features of PROTEUS VSM include:

 True Mixed Mode simulation based on Berkeley SPICE3F5 with extensions for digital
simulation and true mixed mode operation.
 Support for both interactive and graph based simulation.
 CPU Models available for popular microcontrollers such as the PIC and 8051 series.
 Interactive peripheral models include LED and LCD displays, a universal matrix keypad,
an RS232 terminal and a whole library of switches, pots, lamps, LEDs etc.
 Virtual Instruments include voltmeters, ammeters, a dual beam oscilloscope and a 24
channel logic analyzer.
 On-screen graphing - the graphs are placed directly on the schematic just like any other
object. Graphs can be maximized to a full screen mode for cursor based measurement and
so forth.

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Hence we are use this software to develop and implement the system called three phase fault
analysis with auto reset for temporary fault and permanently trip other ways. Therefore from this
software we took the wave form of the system and analysis it in the result part of this document.

 Graph Based Analysis types include transient, frequency, noise, distortion, AC and DC
sweeps and Fourier transform. An Audio graph allows playback of simulated waveforms.
 Direct support for analogue component models in SPICE format.
 Open architecture for ‘plug in’ component models coded in C++ or other languages. These
can be electrical, Graphical or a combination of the two.
 Digital simulator includes a BASIC-like programming language for modelling and test
vector generation.
 A design created for simulation can also be used to generate a netlist for creating a PCB -
there is no need to enter the design a second time.

Because of different features of protues application we are used to design power supply circuit and
trip circuit for three phase fault analysis in this project.

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5.2. Working principle

These 3 transformers are connected in star connection of both primary as well as secondary side
of transformer. The output of that 3 transformer is given to the 3 relay coils with rectified and
filtered individually. The 3 push buttons are used to create a fault condition and they are connected
across the each relay coils. These 3 push buttons are created a single L-G fault and LL-G fault
simultaneously. The NC contact is connected in parallel and all the common points are connected
to ground. The parallel connected NC output is given to the pin 2 through a resister R5 to a timer
IC 555 i.e. wired in mono stable mode. The output of that timer is given to the reset pin 4 of another
timer 555 wired it is having in actable mode. The input of op-amp LM 358 is taken from pin 3 and
which is the output of U3 timer 555 through wire 1 and 2 to the non-inverting input pin 3, the
inverting input is kept at a fixed voltage by a potential divider. The input voltage at pin 2 is coming
from the potential divider is having greater than the pin 3 of op-amp used as a comparator. So that
pin 1 produces zero logic in that condition the relay gets fails through the transistor Q1.

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CHAPTER SIX

Results
6.1. Output Description and wave forms and Screen Shots
6.1.1. Simulation result of power supply circuit

Figure 6.1.design power supply result

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Figure 6.2 Simulated wave form for power supply

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6.2. Simulation result of fault analysis trip circuit (L-G)

Figure 6.3 overall trip circuit diagram

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Figure 6.4. Simulated overall trip circuit diagram

In the above figure 6.4 we analysis the line into ground fault before the interruption of the system
i.e. at fault free time. During this time the system show that the normal wave form.

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Figure 6.5. Simulation of trip circuit when L-G fault is occur (after fault push
button ON)

Three phase fault analysis trip circuit diagram after L-G fault is getting clear i.e. when fault push
button is ON. This indicates that when short circuit raised in power system the voltage is getting
zero and the current of the system become increasing we called this fault current in the power
system. This fault current disturb the wave form the circuit as it analyzed in above the figure 6.5.

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Figure 6.5. Simulation of trip circuit when L-G fault is occur (after fault push
button OFF)

6.2. Further improvements and Future scope

GSM based protections system is a reliable technique for monitoring and controlling the electric
power transmission line system, the microcontroller works up to 100 ⁰C temperature. For long
distance data transmission, GSM technology is a reliable and robust one. Any kind of fault
occurring in the transmission system results the GSM modules to send instant messages
automatically to the base station. Frequent fault occurrence can be a problem; in this case the cost
of sending SMS will increase resulting in account recharge in the GSM SIM number.
Nonetheless, GSM based microcontroller protection system will serve as a reliable, easy and cost
effective solution for monitoring and controlling the electric power system.

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6.3. Further Applications

The auto reset and tripping technique for temporary and permanent fault analysis has further
application rather than transmission line such as in generation, distribution system, substation, in
the industries etc.
6.4. Conclusions
The purpose of this paper is to find an effective technique suitable for the three phase fault analysis
with auto reset i.e. automatic tip circuit mechanism for L-G, L-L and 3L on transmission line.

Due to some cases a very high transients are occurs in transmission line, and then it is not possible
to operate circuit breaker in short time period. It will take some time delay which may be harmful
or effect on stability of system. It may affect the heavy and relatively costly equipment to which 3
phase supply is connected. Hence for the instant isolation of this equipment is important. This
proposed paper is used as to immediate disconnected from supply of line and protect the 3 phase
load. The output is reset automatically after a brief interruption in event temporary fault while it
remains in tripped condition in case of permanent fault. A broken wire causing a phase to open, or
a broken pole causing the phases to short together is output is continuously high, which
permanently ON the load relay, until capacitor discharge through reset button. It is used to create
fault and it is placed at secondaries of single phase transformers. This design and implement in the
form of software simulation for three single phase transformers 2320v to 5V of output for to
develop an automatic tripping mechanism for the three phase supply system while temporary fault
and permanent fault occurs. Here we used 555 timers with relay for the fault is temporary or
permanent. Short duration fault returns the supply to the load immediately called as temporary trip
while long duration shall result in permanent trip.

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6.5. Recommendations

Power system fault in three phase fault analysis is the main problem, which need a significant
concern to everyone power system special in transmission line. For example, when fault is occur
in three phase on transmission line many equipment in transmission line, distribution equipment
and many industrial machines are get damage due to this three fault. Hence it is necessary for
everyone to give a great attention to utilize the power system stability properly by using this
automatic trip circuit for three fault analysis with auto reset temporary fault and otherwise
permanently in every area of power system special in transmission line.

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6. References
[1] Wikipedia’s.

[2] Turan Gonen, “Electric Power Transmission System Engineering, Analysis and Design”, Crc
Press Taylor and Francis Group.

[3] Paul M. Anderson, “Analysis of Faulted Power Systems”, the Institute of Electrical and
Electronics Engineers.

[4] Jun Zhu. “Analysis of Transmission System Faults the Phase Domain”.

[5] C.L. Wadhwa, “Electrical Power Systems”, pp 306, New Age International, 2006

[6] Hadi Saadat. Power System Analysis. Milwaukee Scholl of Engineering. WBC McGraw-Hill.

[7] http: //www.embed4u.com.

[8] http://www.kitsrus.com/projects/cds.pdf.

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