Ship Design Technology (Part 1)

Section 3
Notes on Structural Design and Design
Requirements

Introduction
Ship’s structures have to withstand tremendous forces in all directions for
long periods of time. This requires careful design of the structural members.
Structural stresses at discontinuous sections have to be properly addressed if
cracking and structural failure is to be avoided.

Structural Continuity

A common structural component is a beam. In ships, beams are subjected to

heavy loads and this tends to bend the beam. The resistance to bending is a
function of the material from which it is constructed and its geometrical
property. The factor, which relates to its geometrical form is termed the
‘Moment of inertia’ of the beam. OHT M149/3/01 shows beams of equal
sectional area but different shapes.

The geometrical shape determines the moment of inertia (I). The distance
from the neutral axis to the ends of the flanges is designated ‘Y’ as shown in
OHT M149/3/01. The computed value of I/Y is termed the Section Modulus.
This terminology is constantly used in ship design of structural members.
Section modulus is the ability of a section or beam to withstand bending and
associated stresses.
In design it is necessary to select a beam or girder with a section modulus
equal or greater than that required. In obtaining the scantlings (sizes) of the
various structural beams/girders the section modulus of that particular beam
or girder in association with other structural members has to be calculated.

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Various structural members fitted together make up parts of a vessel. It is

important that to maintain structural continuity beams and girders are
correctly welded on to one another so that stresses are evenly distributed and
within acceptable limits.

The designer is to give consideration to the following:

• the thickness of internals in locations susceptible to rapid corrosion.
• the proportions of built-up members for compliance with established
standards for structural stability
• the design of structural details such as noted below, against the harmful
effects of stress concentrations and notches:
• details of the ends, at the intersections of members and associated
brackets.
• shape and location of air, drainage, and/or lightening holes.
• shape and reinforcement of slots or cut-outs for internals.
• elimination or closing of weld scallops in way of butts, ‘‘softening’’ of
bracket toes, reducing abrupt changes of section or structural
discontinuities.
• proportions and thickness of structural members to reduce fatigue
response due to engine, propeller or wave-induced cyclic stresses,
particularly for higher-strength steels.

Termination of structural members

3-1-2/15.3
Unless permitted elsewhere in the rules, structural members are to be
effectively connected to adjacent structures in such a manner as to avoid hard
spots, notches and other harmful stress concentrations.

Where load-bearing members are not required to be attached at their ends,

special attention is to be given to the end taper, by using a sniped end of not
more than 30°. Where the member has a face bar or flange, it is to be sniped
and tapered not more than 30°. The end brackets of large primary load-
bearing members are to be soft-toed. Where any end bracket has a face bar it
is to be sniped and tapered not more than 30°.

Bracket toes and sniped end members are to be kept within 25 mm (1.0 in.) of
the adjacent member, unless the bracket or member is supported by another
member on the opposite side of the plating. The depth of toe or sniped end is
generally not to exceed 15 mm (0.60 in.). Where a strength deck or shell
longitudinal terminates without an end attachment, the longitudinal is to
extend into the adjacent transversely framed structure, or stop at a local
transverse member fitted at about one transverse frame space, beyond the last
floor or web that supports the longitudinal.

The end attachments of non-load bearing members may, in general, be snipe

ended. The sniped end is to be not more than 30° and is to be kept generally
within 40 mm (1.57 in.) of the adjacent member unless it is supported by a
member on the opposite side of the plating.

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The depth of the toe is generally not to exceed 15 mm (0.6 in.).

Sample stiffened panel

When structural members are welded end to end, in some instances additional
supports may be required to distribute the stresses. Furthermore sharp corners
give rise to cracking under heavy stress condition. OHT M149/3/02 shows
how stiffeners can be used to strengthen the structure as well as distribute the
stresses.

Purpose of class rules and regulations

Typical vessel is not only subjected to continuous stress but usually operates
in a harsh environment such as the sea. In such a dynamic environment ship
components are susceptible to the following:

• corrosion
• metal fatigue
• stress fracture
• failure of structural members

Any one of the above could cause catastrophic damage to the vessel. Even a
well built vessel could sustain severe damage due to poor maintenance or
failure of structural members.

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To reduce the risk of failure to vessels, governments have established

classification societies whose responsibility is to ensure that the design,
construction and operation of vessels are constantly monitored. The
classification societies publish rules which govern all aspects of ship design,
construction and operation.

Finite Element Analysis

FEA is used nowadays on new hull design to predict the high stress areas and
potential connection failure. Most software relies on a sound theoretical
formula derived from pure mathematical formulas. Many new developments
and refinements are constantly being added to FEA programmes. These
programmes are now available on PC based software rather than traditional
main frame computers. To be able to analyse complex structures provides the
engineer with the ability to predict the performance of components and
connections.

These elements are the fundamental building blocks of the much larger ship
assembly. If their performance is accurately predicted there will be a
reduction in the number of component failures throughout the vessel.

Example of structural discontinuity

Hatch openings in cargo ships usually extend across the deck for
approximately one-third of the beam. This opening is an example of
structural discontinuity for the deck, girders and beams.

To compensate for this discontinuity the following have been adopted to

strengthen the vessel:

• deck plating thickness will be increased

• hatch corners are fitted with inset plates
• the hatch corners are rounded to prevent cracking
• the deck girders are integral with the hatch coamings as shown in OHT
M149/3/03
• pillars at each corner will support the deck girders and beams which are in
turn supporting the hatch coaming

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Learning Review questions for

activity

Section 3 – Structural design and

design requirements

Answers are found in the teaching notes

1. Why is structural continuity important?

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2. What are classification rules and why are they important?

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3. Using an example describe how structures can be strengthened where

structural discontinuity occurs.

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