ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

First, we would like to give Our gratitude to

U Zaw Win Tun, the Principle of Myanmar Mercantile Marine

College and U Tun Linn Oo, the Head of the Engine Department.

For giving as such an opportunity to create this topic” The

Optimization of Ship Hull Design for Improved Efficiency and
Performance”, which helped us doing a lot of researching and we
come to know about so many new knowledges.

Second of all, Special Thanks to Sayar U Win Htike Aung,

For Sharing us reference materials to finish this project. Thanks to

his lecture about Ship Construction, we get to understand ship
structure and it helps a lot in writing this paper work. His guidance
has significantly enriched our understanding of ship structures,
contributing to the depth of our paper.

We would also like to thanks various Instructors from all the

Department for the Knowledge we got from them.

Thanks everyone for your support!

1
 ABSTRACT
The hull is a ship’s watertight enclosure, engineered to
provide sufficient protection for the cargo, machinery, and
passenger accommodations. Its most basic purpose is to safeguard
against weather, flooding, and/or structural damage.
The Process of Hull Form Optimization includes the evaluation of
fluid flow patterns and hydrodynamic resistance around the ship's
hull so as to identify the optimal hull design features. CFD
(Computational Fluid Dynamics) is an effective tool in simplifying
the hull form optimization process through effective simulation.
An increased hull roughness will inevitably lead to increased
resistance to movements of the vessel, causing lower service speed
or increased fuel consumption, reduced stability and performance
lead to increased risk of sinking. Proper maintenance and repair of
the boat hull are essential to keep it in good condition. This
includes regular inspections of the hull, cleaning, and painting or
recoating as needed. It's also important to address any issues that
are found as soon as possible before they become more serious and
costly to fix.

2
 Our Contents
▪ Introduction To Ship Hull Structure
Page (5) to (9)
▪ Stresses Affecting The Hull Structure
Page (10) to (18)
▪ Corrosion Problems and How to minimize it
Page (19) to (21)
▪ Hull form variation
Page (22) to (30)
▪ Anti-fouling System
Page (31) to (34)
▪ Choosing a Hull form for ship
Page (35) to (39)
▪ Conclusion
Page (41)

3
Our Group Members
Group 7
Aung Thu E-2867
Htay
Arkar E-2868

Han Phone E-2869

Myat
Yair Min Bo E-2870

Htoo Khant E-2871

Linn
Min Myat E-2872
Hlaing
Ye Marn Moe E-2873

Khun Zwe E-2874

Marn Hein

4
 Introduction To Ship
Hull Structure
A hull is the watertight body of a ship, boat, or flying boat. The
hull may open at the top or it may be fully or partially covered with
a deck. At the top of the deck may be a deckhouse and other
superstructures, such as a funnel, derrick, or mast. The line where
the hull meets the water surface is called the waterline.

There is a wide variety of hull types that are chosen for suitability
for different usages, the hull shape being dependent upon the needs
of the design. Shapes range from a nearly perfect box in the case of
scow barges to a needle-sharp surface of revolution in the case of a
racing multihull sailboat. The shape is chosen to strike a balance
between cost, hydrostatic considerations (accommodation, load
carrying, and stability), hydrodynamics (speed, power
requirements, and motion and behavior in a seaway) and special
considerations for the ship's role, such as the rounded bow of an
icebreaker or the flat bottom of a landing craft.

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In a common steel ship, the hull has watertight decks and
important parts called bulkheads. There are also other parts like
girders, stringers, and frames, depending on how it's built. The top
deck can be called the "upper deck," "weather deck," or "main
deck," depending on the type of ship and where it sails.

In a regular wooden sailboat, the hull is made of wooden planks

supported by frames and bulkheads. These are connected by
stringers or ceiling. Sometimes, there's a central keel. Fiberglass or
composite hulls may look like wooden or steel vessels or have a
monocoque arrangement. Often, composite hulls are built by
layering thin, fiber-reinforced skins over a lightweight, yet sturdy
core of materials like foam or balsa wood.

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 The structural
The main longitudinal and transverse strength of any vessel
can be defined from the hull girder strength.
This means that all form of loading is directly acted upon the hull.
Thus, the structural design of this is the main determinant in
assessing the load-absorption capacity of the ship structure.
The superstructure or deckhouse contributes to the structural
strength of a vessel but mainly in a local way.
In other words, all local effects on the structure arising from direct
load or vibrational effects are evident on the superstructure or
deckhouse.
However, from a global load point of view, most of the effects are
based on the response of the hull structure itself.

When a ship faces pressure from different directions, like bending

or sagging, we can think of it like a simple beam. Longitudinal
loading, which is pressure along the length of the ship, is like
forces pushing or pulling on this imaginary beam.

For side-to-side loading, the ship reacts based on the size and type
of the forces hitting it sideways. Strengthening parts and various
layers inside and outside the ship work together to handle these
forces.

The ship's shape affects how it responds to these pressures. Longer

ships feel more impact from forces along their length, while
shorter ones feel it more from side forces.

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 Strengthening
members
The longitudinal strength members consist Principally of keel,
stem and stern posts, keelsons, bottom longitudinal, margin plates,
and stringers.

The transverse strength members consist of floors, frames and

reversed frames, tank side brackets, beams, beam knees and pillars.

Primary member,

These members are the main members that contribute to the

strength. Though separately categorised, the structural plates
(shells), decks, and bulkheads are primary members themselves.
The different kinds of primary members are basically the deep
members, like deck beams, bottom shell girders, side frames,
vertical beams, and so on. They are directly responsible for
absorbing most of the global loads to the vessel structure.

Secondary member,

These basically include the stiffening members. They are the

transverse, longitudinal or vertical stiffeners or other beams like
pillars or stanchions. They essentially take the loads transferred
from the primary members and, at the same time, also support the
primary members.

Tertiary Member,

They include entities like brackets, flat plates, bars, insert plates,
and so on. These are strengthening members which are associated
with the secondary members, often providing them with support
and connectivity.

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9
 Stresses Affecting
The Hull Structure
The ship at sea or lying in still water is constantly being
subjected to a wide variety of stresses and strains, which result
from the action of forces from outside and within the ship. Forces
within the ship result from the structural weight, cargo, machinery
weight and effects of operating machinery. Exterior forces include
the hydrostatic pressure of the water on the hull and the action of
wind and waves. The ship at all the time be able to resist and
withstand these stresses and strains throughout its structure. It must
therefore be constructed in a manner, and of such materials, that
will provide the necessary strength. The ship must also be able to
function efficiently as a carry-carrying vessel.t

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Longitudinal stresses.
There are 2 main types of longitudinal stresses:

Sagging. Sagging stresses are caused by the uneven distribution of

weight and buoyancy in the length of the hull. If a ship is
supported on either end by the crest of a wave, the stress exerted
by the waves on the buoyancy of the vessel would tend to lift the
ends, whilst the center of the vessel would suffer a loss of
buoyancy and tend to sag. This type of stress is known as sagging.

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Hogging; When the wave passes the reverse situation results, ie
the middle of the vessel is supported on the crest whilst the two
ends hang over the crest on either side. This action is known as
hogging.

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Transverse stresses.
There are three main types of transverse stresses:

Racking; When a vessel is rolling in a seaway the transverse

section will try to distort at the corners due to racking stresses.

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Water pressure. Water acts perpendicular to the surface of the
submerged hull and increases with depth. This produces collapsing
stresses which must be resisted.

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Docking stresses. When a ship is drydocked the thrust from the
water is removed. The hull on either side of the keel strake tends to
sag downwards and the beams are in tension. Keel blocks, bilge
blocks and side shores are needed to support the ship. The
arrangements of keel and bilge blocks are different for each class
of ship. Side shores (wooden baulks of timber) also differ from
ship to ship.

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Local stresses.
there are three main types of local stress:

Panting. When the ship is under way in a seaway, she is subjected

to changes in pressure caused by the waves and the pitching if the
ship. The variation of pressure at the ends causes the ship to
vibrate due to panting stresses. Panting has a concertina type of
effect on the hull.

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Pounding. As the ship pitches into a head sea excessive pounding
may occur in the forward section of the hull if the vessel is not
fully loaded.

Middle weight stresses. The concentration of heavy weights along

the center line of the hold causes the sides to tend to collapse
inwards.

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18
 Corrosion problems on ship and
How to minimize it

Causes of corrosion-
The oxidizing or rusting as it is commonly termed, will take
place whenever steel is exposed to oxygen and moisture.
A ship is almost constantly in sea water enables an electro-
chemical reaction to take place on unprotected steel surfaces and
forming a corrosion cell (galvanic cell). A potential difference
between two metals (not necessarily different) in a solution such as
sea water occur a current flow. This current flow results in metal
being removed from the anode metal or positive electrode. Such a
wastage is called corrosion.
Galvanic corrosion can also occur at the cracks which are caused
by stress set up in the material. The combined action of the two has
a considerable effect on the material.

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Methods to minimize the effect of corrosion-
1- Apply protective coating (painting) for the ship’s structural
steel and its continuous maintenance. Materials typically used
in protective coatings are: polymers, epoxies, and
polyurethanes for non-metallic coatings. zinc, aluminum, and
chromium for metallic coatings.
2- The electric currents flow between the high and low potential
points, with the result that metal is corroded where the current
leave the metal (anode). At the point where the current re-enter
the metal (cathode) the metal is protected.
Two Methods of cathodic protection for poorly painted hull-
1- Install aluminum or zinc anodes at the bottom of the ship hull
where always in touch with sea water. Only anodes are wastage
instead of steel and prevent from corrosion of steel plates.
2- Impressed current system provides the electrical potential
difference from ship’s power supply through an anode of a
long-life highly corrosion-resistant material such as platinized
titanium.

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21
 Hull form variations
Hull form variations are a critical aspect of ship design,
encompassing several key components that significantly influence
a vessel's performance, efficiency, and stability. There are several
key components to achieve those performances. Researchers and
naval architects continuously investigate and refine these
variations to optimize maritime engineering. Key elements of hull
form variations that are improved by the researchers and naval
architects are-

1.Bulbous Bows:

Advanced Shapes: Researcher explores not only the traditional

bulbous bow designs but also more advanced shapes, such as X-
bows and inverted bows, which was designed to push the
boundaries of wave resistance reduction (causing less
hydrodynamic drag), to improve handling in rough seas.

Material Innovation: Material science is playing a role in

optimizing bulbous bows, with the investigation of lightweight yet
durable materials that contribute to improved overall efficiency

Figure: X-bow

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2.Stern Shapes:

Significance: The stern or, or back end of the ship, plays a crucial
role in stability,

Maneuverability, and drag reduction. The stern is like the tail of the
ship. Its shape is important for how the ship moves in the water.
Different ships have different stern shapes to help them do their
jobs better. Stern designs are being explored for adaptability,
allowing ships to autonomously adjust their stern shape based on
current conditions, optimizing performance in real-time.

Variety: In the early 20th century, cargo ships mostly had a

counter stern for more deck space and buoyancy. The cruiser stern,
designed for steering gear placement, is more hydrodynamic. Some
ships have a flat transform stern for simplicity, while others use a
curved cruiser stern for speed. Different stern shapes are studied
for their impact on ship performance. In naval use, specific stern
shapes improve maneuverability, reduce wake, and enhance
stealth. Some designs also minimize cavitation effects for high-
speed vessels.

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.

Figure: Stern Diagram

Figure: Specific kinds of sterns

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 Figure: Different types of sterns

3.Overall length
Impact: Altering the vessel's length can have significant effects on
its speed, cargo capacity, and stability. Through comprehensive
testing and simulations, efforts are underway to determine the ideal
balance that aligns with the unique requirements of different
operational scenarios

Components to be included when measuring

overall length:

• Hull
• Decks
• Bulwarks
• Fixed fenders/belting
• Permanent components attached to hull, deck, deckhouse/
superstructure, or bulwark.
• Structural elements forming part of the hull and affecting its
design, capacities, and properties (e.g. bow port, loading ramp,
etc.)
• Structural element for storage of appliance and/ tools irrespective
of attachment method

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• Parts of functioning as hydrostatic or dynamic support when the
vessel is stationary or underway.
• Volumes, such as bulb, appended “crate” for mounting of steering
gear, connected to hull, deck, bulwark or deckhouse /
superstructure, irrespective of fixing method.

Dynamic length alternation: Beyond static length adjustments,

dynamic hulls are being researched, enabling vessels to change
their length while in motion. This adaptability proves beneficial for
vessels operating in variable-speed scenarios.

Eco friendly: Lengthening considerations also extend to eco-

friendly practices, with an exploration of modular extensions that
enable ships to increase cargo capacity without compromising fuel
efficiency.

Container Ship Trends: The trend in container ships involves

increasing their length to accommodate larger cargo loads, with the
largest container ships exceeding 400 meters in length

Speed-Length Ratio: Vessels optimized for speed often have

longer hulls, with the speed-length ratio being a key factor in
determining optimal length for a given operational profile.

Bulk Carrier-Considerations: Vessels optimized for speed often

have longer hulls, with the speed-length ratio being a key factor in
determining optimal length for a given operational profile.

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 Figures: Overall Length Diagram

4.Hydrodynamic Performance

Focus: The primary goal of hull form variations is to enhance

hydrodynamic efficiency, minimizing resistance and improving the
vessel's overall performance in varying sea conditions. Therefore,
advanced computational methods, including machine learning
algorithms, are being integrated to predict and optimize hull forms
based on historical performance data, enhancing the precision of
hydrodynamic predictions.

Simulation and Testing: Advanced computational fluid dynamics

simulations and model testing in water tanks aid in evaluating and
refining hull form variations.

Real-time Monitoring: Sensor technologies are employed to

enable real time-monitoring of hydrodynamic conditions, allowing
for dynamic adjustments to the hull
form during a voyage to optimize performance.

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Numerical Simulation: Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD)
simulations play a crucial
role in predicting and optimizing the hydrodynamic performance
of hull variations.

Wind Tunnel Testing: In addition to water tank tests, wind tunnel

testing is conducted to understand how hull shapes interact with
wind, especially for high-profile vessels like cruise ships.

Virtual Testing: Computers are used to simulate how the hull

moves in the water before building the actual ship. Different
designs are tried out virtually to find the one that works best.
Observing Waves: Miniature ships are placed in large water tanks
to observe how waves interact with them. This helps ensure that
the actual ships will not experience excessive turbulence during
navigation.

Real-world Assessments: Physical models of ships are sometimes

built and tested in large water basins. These tests involve creating
waves and measuring the ship’s performance, ensuring a
comprehensive evaluation in controlled environment.

Figure: Hydrodynamic performance

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5.Operational Profiles

Customization: Hull form variations are tailored to specific

operational profiles, ensuring that ships are optimized for their
intended use, whether it be cargo transport, naval operations, or
passenger cruises. The customization of hull design includes a
focus on environmental compatibility, consideration factors such as
reduced emissions, fuel consumption, and impact on marine
ecosystems.

Figure: Naval Vessel

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Multi-Mission Adaptability: The ability to customize hull designs
allows for versatility, ensuring that ships can meet the diverse
demands of the maritime industry. Hull variations are researched
for multi-mission adaptability, enabling vessels to efficiently
switch between different operational profiles without
compromising performance.

Naval Vessel Adaptation: Naval vessels often have hull designs

tailored for specific missions, such as stealthy profiles for
reconnaissance or agile designs for patrol craft.

Cruise Ship Customization: Cruise ships are designed with a

focus on passenger comfort, with hull variations accommodating
features like stabilization systems to minimize ship roll in rough
seas.

Bulk Carrier: Bulk carriers often have versatile hull designs to

handle a variety of dry bulk cargoes, allowing them to adapt to
different trade routes.

Warship Missions: Warships have different shapes for different

jobs, like being stealthy or moving quickly.

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Figure: Vessel with different hulls

31
 Anti Fouling System
What is Anti fouling?
Antifouling systems involve coatings, paint, and treatments applied
to surfaces like ship hulls to prevent unwanted organism
attachment. It's a crucial task for boat owners, protecting vessels
from fouling that can be difficult to remove once established.
Applying antifouling paint helps prevent attachment of organisms
like barnacles, weeds, and slime, avoiding serious hull problems.
Prevention is key in maintaining a clean and efficient boat.

Initially, lime and later arsenic were used to coat ship hulls during
the early days of sailing. The modern chemical industry later
introduced effective anti-fouling paints with metallic compounds.
However, these compounds, while preventing marine life
attachment, have been found to persist in the water, causing harm
to sea life, the environment, and entering the food chain.

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The International Convention on the Control of Harmful Anti-
fouling Systems on Ships (AFS Convention), which was adopted
on 5 October 2001, prohibits the use of harmful organotin
compounds in anti-fouling paints used on ships and establishes a
mechanism to prevent the potential future use of other harmful
substances in anti-fouling systems.

The Convention's Annex 1 lists anti-fouling systems restrictions,

which may change. Initially, it banned organotin compounds, and
ships can't apply them. Later, ships must avoid having them on
hulls or use a coating to prevent leaching from non-compliant anti-
fouling systems.

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Anti-fouling for ship hulls requires applying coatings/paints
containing substances that discourage marine organism growth,
preventing attachment to the ship's surface. Regular maintenance
and reapplication are necessary for sustained effectiveness.
To implement effective antifouling coating on a hull, follow these
steps:

1. Surface Prep: Clean, dry, and contaminant-free hull is crucial.

Sand or blast for an appropriate substrate.

2. Coating Selection: Choose a quality antifouling coating based on

vessel type, operating conditions, and local regulations (consider
copper-based or biocide-free options).

3. Proper Application: Apply coating evenly as per manufacturer’s

guidelines, focusing on critical areas like waterline and leading
edges.

4. Timing: Apply in suitable weather conditions (dry, mild

temperatures, no direct sunlight), following recommended intervals
between coats.

5. Regulatory Compliance: Ensure the chosen coating meets local

environmental regulations to minimize impact on marine
ecosystems.

Controlling antifouling and biofouling on a ship's hull offers

several advantages, including improved fuel efficiency due to
reduced drag, increased speed and performance, extended lifespan
of the vessel, lower maintenance costs, and compliance with
environmental regulations by minimizing the use of toxic
antifouling agents.

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35
 Choosing a hull form for ship
The hull is the most exposed part of a ship to the water. It’s
generally waterproof in most cases and dictates the various
components in ship’s motion. Some of these components are
displacement, resistance, speed, stability (intact and also during
flooding), cargo on board, seakeeping, manoeuvrability, etc. So, in
order to optimize at a very early stage, one needs to start with the
hull shape. Nowadays, shape optimization is becoming quite
popular in many areas concerning academic research and often this
experience comes handy along with the recent advances in
computational and simulation methods. Imagine if you could control
certain quantities such as drag, wave making resistance in early
stages of the design process, you would save a lot of money from
reduction in fuel consumption and carbon footprints.

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Vessel hulls are broadly classified as being hard-chined or smooth
shaped ones. The basic difference between them lies in the
construction methodology which shows abrupt discontinuity along
the bottom. The chining mentioned here may be ‘soft’ or ‘hard’
based on their roundedness and angle of meeting of these distinct
planes. Most high-speed vessels, especially motorboats, are of hard
chine construction.
Other popular hulls in use today are the round bilge hulls which are
used in both mono and multi-hull configuration. Speaking in terms
of the type of lift used, hulls may be classified as displacement,
semi-displacement and planing hulls.

Displacement Hull
When a ship is placed in water, it displaces an amount of water
equal to its weight, known as displacement according to
Archimedes' Principle. Displacement hulls, commonly found in
ships, cut through water with minimal propulsion but are limited to
lower speeds. The maximum speed of displacement hulls is
determined by the vessel's length, known as speed-length ratios.
Ships with round-bottomed shapes often exhibit displacement
hulls, playing a crucial role in our economy.

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Semi Displacement /Semi Planing Hull
Some displacement hulls achieve higher speeds using both buoyant
force (hydrostatic lift) and hydrodynamic lift. They're classified as
Semi Displacement/Semi Planing based on whether hydrostatic or
hydrodynamic force dominates. These hulls provide a comfortable
ride in rough seas at moderate speeds, offering excellent sea-
keeping properties. They surpass speed length ratios, making them
commercially appealing. Common in trawlers and yachts, these
hulls provide superior mileage, positive stability, and high
survivability in extremely rough seas.

Planing
Planing hulls in ships can lift the vessel by increasing the
hydrodynamic lift. At lower speeds, they act like regular
displacement ships, gradually shifting to "ploughing water" as speed
and power increase. While ships with planing hulls can skim on the
water at high speeds, they may slam, especially in very high-speed
vessels. However, using planing hulls in all water conditions (calm
or rough) is currently impractical due to slamming. Examples of
planing hulls include flat-bottomed and V-shaped hulls, commonly
used in small recreational vessels. Designers must ensure these
vessels can efficiently operate in both planing and displacement
modes.

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 Advantages and Disadvantages

Hull
Shapes Hull Type Advantages Disadvantages

Flat- Planing Has a shallow draft, Rides roughly in

Bottomed which is good for choppy waters.
Hull fishing in small
lakes and rivers.

Deep-Vee Planing Gives a smoother Takes more power to

Hull ride than a flat- move at the same speed
bottomed hull in as flat-bottomed hulls.
rough water. May roll or bank in
sharp turns.

Round- Displacement Moves easily Has a tendency to roll

Bottomed through the water unless it has a deep
Hull even at slow keel or stabilizers.
speeds.

Multi-Hull Displacement Has greater stability Needs a large area

because of its wide when turning.
beam.

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 Flat-bottomed hull

Deep-vee hull

Round-bottomed hull

Multi-hull

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 Conclusion
Hull design is one of the most important factors that affect the
performance, efficiency, and safety of cargo ships. A well-designed
hull can reduce drag, increase stability, and enhance maneuverability,
while a poorly designed hull can increase fuel consumption, cause
structural problems, and compromise navigation. In this article, you
will learn how to optimize hull design for cargo ships using some
basic principles and tools of mechanical engineering.Our
exploration of "The Optimization of Ship Hull Design for Improved
Efficiency and Performance" has covered crucial aspects such as
hull structure, stresses affecting the hull, corrosion problems, hull
form variations, anti-fouling systems, and the selection of hull forms.
The content of this paper has been organized meticulously,
providing insights into each element that contributes to the overall
efficiency and safety of maritime operations. The hull, being the
watertight enclosure of a ship, plays a pivotal role in safeguarding
cargo, machinery, and passengers. The optimization of hull design
involves considerations of fluid flow patterns, hydrodynamic
resistance, and the implementation of advanced technologies. Hull
form variations, including bulbous bows, stern shapes, overall
length adjustments, hydrodynamic performance, and operational
profiles, are explored to enhance efficiency and adaptability.The
paper also addresses the critical issue of corrosion, emphasizing the
causes and methods to minimize its impact. The role of anti-fouling
systems in preventing unwanted organism attachment on ship hulls
is discussed, highlighting the importance of environmental
considerations. Finally, the selection of hull forms, whether
displacement, semi-displacement, or planing, is examined, with an
exploration of their advantages and disadvantages. The conclusion
emphasizes the significance of well-designed hulls in influencing
the performance, efficiency, and safety of cargo ships.

In summary, the comprehensive exploration of ship hull

optimization presented in this paper underscores the importance of
integrating advanced technologies, maintaining structural integrity,
and considering environmental factors for the sustainable and
efficient operation of maritime vessels. Thanks to everyone for their
support throughout this project.

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