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THIRD
Table of Contents

1 Elementary Algebra

1.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 1-2

1.2 Algebraic Equation ............................................................................................................... 3-5
1.3 Quadratic Equation ............................................................................................................... 6-8
1.4 Arithmetic Series…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………9-13

2 Intermediate Algebra

2.1 Matrices and Simultaneous Solution ................................................................................ 14-19

3 Fundamentals of Plane Geometry

3.1 Trigonometric Functions of an Acute Angle ...................................................................... 20-24

Chapter 1
Elementary Algebra

1.1 Introduction

Algebra is the branch of mathematics in which letters of the alphabet represents

number or a set of numbers. Equations are equalities that indicate how some
quantities are related to others. For example, the equation

°C= 5/9(°F-32)

is a relation or formula that en enables us to convert degrees Fahrenheit, °F, to

degrees Celsius, °C. For instance, if the temperature is 77°F, the equivalent
temperature in °C is

°C=5/9 (77-32) = 5/9x45 = 25

We observe that the mathematical operation in parentheses, that is, the

subtraction of 32 from 77, was performed first. This is because numbers within
parentheses have precedence over other operations.

In algebra, the order of precedence, where 1 is the highest and 4 is the lowest, is
as follows:

1. Quantities inside parentheses ()

2. Exponentiation

3. Multiplication and Division

4. Addition or Subtraction Page 1

Example:

Simplify the expression

a= -23/ (8-3)2 x 4

Solution:

This expression is reduced in steps as follows:

Step 1. Subtracting 3 from 8 inside the parentheses yields 5. Then, a= -23/ 52 x 4

Step 2. Performing the exponentiation operations we get a = -8/ 25x4

Step 3. Multiplying 25 by 4 we get a= -8/100

Step 4. Dividing -8 by 100 we get a = -0.08 (Simplest form)

Equality is a mathematical expression where the left side is equal to right side. For
example, 7+3= 100 is an equality since the left and right sides are equal to each
other.

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1.2 Algebraic Equation

An algebraic equation can be defined as a mathematical statement in which two

expressions are set equal to each other. In simple words, equations mean equality
the equal sign. That’s what equations are all about “equating one quantity with
another”.
Equations are like a balance scale. If you’ve seen a balance scale, you would know
that an equal amount of weight has to be placed on either side for the scale to be
considered “balanced”.

Example 1:

Consider an equation 1+1 = 2.

if you want to add a number 5 to one side of the equation you will have to add
the same 5 to the other side of the equation.

1+1=2
1+1+5=2+5
The same goes for subtraction, multiplication, and division. As long as you do the
same thing to both sides of the equation it will remain balanced.
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An equation is simply defined as mathematical statements that express the
relationship between two values. Usually, the two values are equated by an equal
sign in an equation.

Example 2:
2x+3 = 7 is an equation, where 2x+3 and 7 are equated by equal to “=” sign.
2x+3 is at the Left-hand side of the equation and 7 is at the right-hand side. In this
example,

• 2x, 3 and 7 are terms

• x is the variable
• 3 and 7 are the constants
• ‘+’ is the operator

If we write x = 3, then it is also an equation, where we are denoting the value of

variable x equal to 3.

Algebraic equations are of various types. A few of the equations in algebra are:

• Polynomial Equations
• Quadratic Equation
• Cubic Equation
• Rational polynomial Equations
• Trigonometric Equations

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QUESTION:

Solve -10x – 19 = 19 – 8x

Solution: Given,-10x – 19 = 19 – 8x is the algebraic equation.

We need to solve the given equation for x.
First write the terms with x on one side and other terms on the other side. Thus,
we will add 8x to both the sides
-10 x -19 + 8x = 19 – 8x + 8x
Now group the like terms.

-10x + 8x – 19 = 19
-2x – 19 = 19
Now add 19 both the sides.
-2x – 19 + 19 = 19 + 19
-2x = 38
Divide both sides by 2
(-2x)/2 = 38/2
-x = 19
Multiply both sides by -1

-x (-1) = 19 (-1)
x = -19
Therefore, x = -19 is the required solution.
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1.3 Quadratic Equation

Quadratic equations can be defined as a polynomial equation of a second degree,

which implies that it comprises of a minimum of one term that is squared. The
general form of the quadratic equation is:
ax² + bx + c = 0

Where x is an unknown variable and a,b,c are numerical coefficients

Here, a ≠ 0 because if it equals zero then the equation will not remain quadratic
anymore and it will become a linear equation, such as:
bx+c=0

Thus, this equation cannot be called a quadratic equation.

The terms a, b and c are also called quadratic coefficients.
The solutions to the quadratic equation are the values of the unknown variable x,
which satisfy the equation. These solutions are called roots or zeros of quadratic
equations. The roots of any polynomial are the solutions for the given equation.

There are basically four methods of solving quadratic equations. They are:

1. Factoring
2. Completing the square
3. Using Quadratic Formula
4. Taking the square root

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EXAMPLES 1:

• Begin with a equation of the form ax² + bx + c = 0

• Ensure that it is set to adequate zero.
• Factor the left-hand side of the equation by assuming zero on the right-
hand side of the equation.
• Assign each factor equal to zero.
• Now solve the equation in order to determine the values of x.
Suppose if the main coefficient is not equal to one then deliberately, you have to
follow a methodology in the arrangement of the factors.
2x²-x-6=0
(2x+3)(x-2)=0
2x+3=0
x=-3/2
x=2

EXAMPLE 2:

Solve 2x2 – x – 1 = 0.
First, move the constant term to the other side of the equation.
2x2 – x = 1
Dividing both sides by 2.
x2 – x/2 = ½
Add the square of half of the coefficient of x, (b/2a)2, on both the sides, i.e., 1/16
x2 – x/2 + 1/16 = ½ + 1/16 Page 7
Now we can factor the right side,
(x-¼)2 = 9/16 = (¾)2
Taking root on both sides;
X – ¼ = ±3/4
Add ¼ on both sides
X=¼±¾
Therefore,
X = ¼ + ¾ = 4/4 = 1
X = ¼ – ¾ = -2/4 = -½

QUESTION:

Solve the following quadratic equation by factoring.

x2+15x+50=0

x2+15x+50=0
(x+5)(x+10)=0

x+5=0 x+10=0
x=−5 OR x=−10

Therefore the two solutions are : x=−5and x=−10

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1.4 Arithmetic Series

An arithmetic series is the sum of the terms of an arithmetic sequence. For

example, the sum of the first 5 terms of the sequence defined
by an=2n−1an=2n−1 follows:

Adding 5 positive odd integers, as we have done above, is manageable. However,

consider adding the first 100 positive odd integers. This would be very tedious.
Therefore, we next develop a formula that can be used to calculate the sum of
the first n terms, denoted SnSn, of any arithmetic sequence. In general,

Sn=a1+(a1+d)+(a1+2d)+…+an

Writing this series in reverse we have,

Sn=an+(an−d)+(an−2d)+…+a1

And adding these two equations together, the terms involving d add to zero and
we obtain n factors of a1+n: Page 9
Dividing both sides by 2 leads us the formula for the nth partial sum of an
arithmetic sequence:

Sn=n(a1+an) / 2

Use this formula to calculate the sum of the first 100 terms of the sequence
defined by an=2n−1.

Here a1=1and a100=199.

EXAMPLE 1:

Find the sum of the first 50 terms of the given sequence: 4, 9, 14, 19, 24, …

Solution:

Determine whether or not there is a common difference between the given terms.

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 d=9−4=5

Note that the difference between any two successive terms is 5. The sequence is
indeed an arithmetic progression and we can write

Therefore, the general term is an=5n-1. To calculate the 50th partial sum of this
sequence we need the 1st and the 50th terms:

a1=4
a50=5(50)-1=249

Next use the formula to determine the 50th partial sum of the given arithmetic
sequence.

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EXAMPLE 2:

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QUESTION:
The first row of seating in an outdoor amphitheater contains 26 seats, the second
row contains 28 seats, the third row contains 30 seats, and so on. If there are 18
rows, what is the total seating capacity of the theater?

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Page 13
Chapter 2
Intermediate Algebra

2.1 Matrices and System of Linear Equations

A matrix is a rectangular array of numbers arranged in rows and columns. A
matrix with m rows and n columns has order mxn.mxn. The matrix on the left
below has 2 rows and 3 columns and so it has order 2x3.2x3. We say it is a 2 by 3
matrix.

Each number in the matrix is called an element or entry in the matrix.

We will use a matrix to represent a system of linear equations. We write each

equation in standard form and the coefficients of the variables and the constant
of each equation becomes a row in the matrix. Each column then would be the
coefficients of one of the variables in the system or the constants. A vertical line
replaces the equal signs. We call the resulting matrix the augmented matrix for
the system of equations.

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Notice the first column is made up of all the coefficients of x, the second column
is the all the coefficients of y, and the third column is all the constants.

EXAMPLE 1
Multiply matrices A and B.

To save work, we check first to see if it is possible to multiply them.

We have (2×3) × (3×2) and since the number of columns in A is the same as
the number of rows in B (the middle two numbers are both 3 in this case), we
can go ahead and multiply these matrices. Our result will be a (2×2) matrix.

The first step is to write the 2 matrices side by side, as follows:

We multiply the individual elements along the first row of matrix A with the
corresponding elements down the first column of matrix B, and add the results.
This gives us the number we need to put in the first row, first column position
in the answer matrix.

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Following that, we multiply the elements along the first row of matrix A with the
corresponding elements down the second column of matrix B then add the
results. This gives us the answer we'll need to put in the first row, second
column of the answer matrix.

We continue on along the rows and columns as follows:

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EXAMPLE 2
Page 18
QUESTION:

Solve the matrix equation for X (X will be a matrix):

Solution:

Check it back:

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Chapter 3
Fundamentals of Plane Geometry

3.1 Trigonometric Functions of an Acute Angle

A right triangle is composed of a right angle, the angle at C, and two acute angles,
which are angles less than a right angle. It is conventional to label the acute
angles with Greek letters. We will label the angle at B with the letter θ ("THAY-
ta"). And we will label the angle at A with the letter φ ("fie"). As for the sides, the
side AB, opposite the right angle, is called the hypotenuse ("hy-POT'nyoos"). Each
acute angle is formed by the hypotenuse and the side adjacent to the angle. Thus,
angle θ is formed by the hypotenuse and side BC. Angle φ is formed by the
hypotenuse and side AC. With respect to angle θ, though, side AC is
its opposite side. While side BC is the side opposite φ.

The ratios of sides

Any two sides of the triangle will have a ratio a relationship to one
another. It is possible to form six such ratios: the ratio of the opposite side to
the hypotenuse; the adjacent side to the hypotenuse; and so on. Those six
ratios have historical names and abbreviations, with which the student will
have to make peace. They are the following.
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 Notice that each ratio in the right-hand column is the inverse, or
the reciprocal, of the ratio in the left-hand column.
The reciprocal of sin θ is csc θ ; and vice-versa.
The reciprocal of cos θ is sec θ.
And the reciprocal of tan θ is cot θ.
Each ratio moreover is a function of the acute angle. That is, one quantity
is a "function" of another if its value depends on the value of the other. The
circumference of a circle is a function of the radius, because the size of the
circumference depends on the size of the radius, and when the radius changes,
the circumference also will change.

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EXAMPLE 1

Find c in the figure below.

We are given angle A and the side opposite to it with c the hypotenuse. The sine

ratio gives a relationship between the angle, the side opposite to it and the

hypotenuse as follows

sin A = opposite / hypotenuse

Angle A and opposite side are known, hence

sin 31 o = 5.12 / c

Solve for c Page 22

c = 5.12 / sin 31 o
and use a calculator to obtain

c (approximately) = 9.94

EXAMPLE 2

Find the exact values of x and y.

The sine function involves x and the hypotenuse as follows.

sin 30 o = x / 10

Use sin 30 o = 1 / 2 ( see table of special angles) to find x

x=5

We now use Pythagora's theorem and write

10 2 = 5 2 + y 2 Page 23

We now solve for y to obtain

y = √(75) = 5 √ (3)
QUESTIONS:

Given the right triangle below, find sin A, cos A, tan A, sec A, csc A and cot A.

First we need to find the hypotenuse using Pythagora's theorem.

(hypotenuse) 2 = 8 2 + 6 2 = 100
and hypotenuse = 10

We now use the definitions of the six trigonometric ratios given above to find
sin A, cos A, tan A, sec A, csc A and cot A.

sin A = side opposite angle A / hypotenuse = 8 / 10 = 4 / 5

cos (A) = side adjacent to angle A / hypotenuse = 6 / 10 = 3 / 5
tan (A) = side opposite angle A / side adjacent to angle A
=8/6=4/3
sec (A) = hypotenuse / side adjacent to angle A = 10 / 6
=5/3
csc (A) = hypotenuse / side opposite to angle A
= 10 / 8 = 5 / 4
cot (A) = side adjacent to angle A / side opposite angle A
=6/8=3/4

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