Addis Ababa Science and

Technology University
Collage of Natural and Social Sciences

Technical Report and Research Methodology

Alemshet G/Wold (MA)

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 Unit One

Writing Various Types of Technical Reports

1. Writing Technical Report

In any discipline, one of the major forms of communication is the technical report.
This is the conventional format for reporting the results of your research,
investigations, and design projects. At university, reports are read by lecturers and
tutors in order to assess your mastery of the subjects and your ability to apply your
knowledge to a practical task. In the workplace, they will be read by managers,
clients, and the construction engineers responsible for building from your designs.
The ability to produce a clear, concise, and professionally presented report is,
therefore, a skill you will need to develop in order to succeed both at university
and in your future career.

Reports:

 are designed for quick and easy communication of information

 are designed for selective reading
 use sections with numbered headings and subheadings
 use figures and diagrams to convey data

1.1 Definition of Technical Writing

Communication is part of the life of every creature on this planet. How that
communication is carried out, however, is varied, and different types of
communication are suitable based upon the type of information that needs to be
conveyed. One specific area of communication involves transmitting,
understanding and knowledge of a technical subject to others that need to know the
basics and details of the subject in question. In written form, this communication
type of communication is called technical writing.

Technical Report - Definition

Technical writing refers to straightforward explanations and/or instructions dealing

with a particular technical subject. It is designed to convey technical information in
a clear and easily accessible format; it is divided into sections which allow

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different readers to access different levels of information. The subject being
written about may be abstract or tangible. Regardless, the writing must be easy to
understand and follow. As with any writing project, the audience understanding
level must be considered in the development of the document. When writing about
technical information, it is important to be concise and exact about your subject
matter. The task assigned may be in the form of a help document for a piece of
software or a machine or it may concern a process or way of performing a task.
User manuals, assembly instructions, analysis reports or summaries of lengthy
reports are all types of technical writing.

Technical writing rarely, if ever, is done in a manner that personalizes it. There are
never references to the first person. The structure of the text is always done in a
detached or third party reference point. The text is geared to teach information;
therefore, the tone is that of a teacher instructing a student in the subject. This at
times may appear as simply a list of steps to take to achieve the desired goal or
may be a short or lengthy explanation of a concept or abstract idea.

Most technical writers are experts in the field about which they write about. They
must gather the information about their topic from technical documents, reports,
references and manuals. Upon synthesizing all the information gained, the writers
must gauge their audience and the background that the reader has in the field being
written about. Higher levels of education or experience will allow the document to
be written referring to concepts, abbreviations, acronyms and terms commonly
used in those that work in that field. For audiences that are determined to be
novices or not familiar in the field, the writer must do much more explanation and
education about the basics. He must assume that the audience has no knowledge in
the topic about which s/he is writing. Depending on the type of document, these
considerations may be more or less important. An example is a step-by-step guide
for performing a specific task with a piece of software. As long as a person can
follow written instructions, the document doesn’t require much technical
description to accomplish the job, but for the more knowledgeable the descriptions
can include shortcut keys that can aid in the speed of the task. For audiences that
are experts in their own rights in fields that are closely related to the topic, the
degree of technical terms, acronyms and abbreviations is much broader. Many of
the terms and techniques can be stated instead of explaining them. More than 95%

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of the readers will understand what is described and discussed. Due to this
familiarity of your audience, it makes the job of the writer much simpler.

Technical report writing is devoted to an investigation of some topics in technical

disciplines. A technical report writing example requires the use of specific terms
and definitions, calculations and experiment evidences.

1.2 Different types of reports

During your time at university you may be asked to write different types of reports,
depending upon the subject area which you have chosen. These could include
laboratory reports, technical reports, reports of a work placement or industrial visit,
reports of a field trip or field work.

Reports vary in their purpose, but all of them will require a formal structure and
careful planning, presenting the material in a logical manner using clear and
concise language.

1.3 General Characteristics of Technical Reports

You're probably wondering what this technical report is supposed to look like.
Here is a brief review of some of the chief characteristics of the technical report:

 Graphics: The report should have graphics that illustrate results through
diagram. If you can't think of any graphics for your report project, you may
not have a good topic.
 Factual detail: The report should be very detailed and factual. The point of
the report is to go into details, the kind of details your specific audience
needs.
 Information sources: Your report should make use of information sources.
These may include not only books and articles that can be found in libraries
but also technical brochures, interviews or correspondence with experts, as
well as first-hand inspections.
 Documentation: When you use borrowed information in your technical
report, be sure to cite your sources.
 Realistic audience and situation: The report must be defined for a real or
realistic group of readers who exist in a real or realistic situation. Most

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 students invent an audience and situation. And the audience can't merely be
something like "anybody who might be interested in global warming."
Instead, it has to be real, realistic, and specific: for example, "Real Estate
Developers are interested in reliable information on global warming, to be
used to aid in long-range investment planning."
 Headings and lists: The report should use the format for headings that is
required for the course, as well as various kinds of lists as appropriate.
 Special format: The technical report uses a rather involved format including
covers, binding, title page, table of contents, list of figures, transmittal letter,
and appendixes. These have to be prepared according to a set standard.
 Production: The technical report should be typed or printed out neatly. If
graphics are taped in, the whole report must be photocopied, and the
photocopy handed in (not the original with the taped-in graphics). The report
must be bound in some way.
 Length: The report should be single- or double-spaced typed or printed
pages, counting from introduction to conclusion. This is a minimum; a report
of this length is rather skimpy. There is no real maximum length, other than
what your time, energy, and stamina can handle. But remember that sheer
weight does not equal quality (or better grade). If you get into a bind with a
report project that would take too many pages, contact your instructor—
there are numerous tricks we can use to cut it down to size.
 Technical content: You must design your report project in such a way that
your technical-writing instructor has a chance to understand it—in other
words, you must write for the non-specialist. Also, at some point, you may
get concerned about the technical accuracy of your information. Remember
that this is a writing course, not a course in engineering, nursing, science,
electronics, or the like. Make a good-faith effort to get the facts right, but
don't go overboard.

Technical writing, just as any other form of writing, has certain characteristics
which distinguish it from other types of writing. One of the main characteristics of
technical writing is the fact that it clear and straight forward. If you are interested
in technical writing for professional purposes, it is very important to know that this
type of writing require that the writer stick to the subject matter and relay
information in a clear and concise manner.

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It is very different from writing opinion pieces, essays, prose, non-fiction or
fiction. The language used should be very direct and straight to the point. You
should avoid using words that people do not understand, and you should also avoid
an eloquent writing style.

Another characteristic of technical writing is that it is very detailed and

informative. The perfect example of technical writing is a textbook. The written
content of most textbooks is geared to providing information by describing the
subject matter as fully as possible.

Technical writing is also very structured. This type of writing has a very obvious
composition that makes it easy for the reader to follow along. Solid structure is
needed with technical writing as it allows the audience to easily access the
information as needed.

1.4. Determining purpose and audience

All technical communication is done with a particular end in mind. The purpose is
usually to facilitate the communication of ideas and concepts to the audience, but
may sometimes be used to direct the audience in a particular course of action. The
importance of the audience is in the notion that meaning is derived from the
audience's interpretation of a piece of work. The purpose may be something as
simple as having the audience understands the details of some technological
system, or to take a particular action using that system. For example, if the workers
in a bank were not properly posting deposits to accounts, someone would write the
procedure so these workers might have the correct procedure. Similarly, a sales
manager might wonder which of two sites would be a more appropriate choice for
a new store, so he would ask someone to study the market and write a report with
the recommendations. The sales manager would distribute the report to all parties
involved in making that decision. In each of these instances, the person who is
writing is transferring knowledge from the person who knows to the person who
needs to know. This is the basic definition of technical communication.
The most commonly used form of technical communication is technical writing.
Examples of technical writing include: project proposals, persuasive memos,
technical manuals, and users' guides. A user's guide for an electronic device

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typically includes diagrams along with detailed textual explanations. The purpose
should serve as a goal that the writer strives toward in writing.
The identification of the audience affects many aspects of communication, from
word selection and graphics usage to style and organization. A non-technical
audience might not understand, or worse, not even read a document that is heavy
with jargon, while a technical audience might crave extra detail because it is
critical for their work. Busy audiences do not have time to read an entire
document, so content must be organized for ease of searching, for example by the
frequent inclusion of headers, white space and other cues that guide attention.
Other requirements vary on the needs of the particular audience.

1.4.1. Purpose
Technical reports are designed to quickly alert researchers to recent findings in
scientific and technical research. These reports are issued for a variety of purposes:
to communicate results or describe progress of a research project; as background
information on an emerging or critical research topic; to provide a list of
instructions or procedures for current practices; to determine the feasibility of a
technology and recommend if the research should be continued (and how to
evaluate progress that is made); and finally, to detail technical specifications
(materials, functions, features, operation, market potential, etc.).

In general, you need to develop rhetorical Problem Statements. You, as technical

writer, have an important job in defining the rhetorical purpose of your report, and
each of its parts.

o Ask yourself first, Why Write This Report? The reasons will usually fall into
the following general categories:
To Persuade or Cause Change
To Inform or Report Results
To Support a Decision to be reached
To Obtain Funding or Support for Future Work or Research

From these, select the one that best describes the most important reason you are
writing. That will be the basis of your rhetorical problem statement which should
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appear early in your report and in any cover document you use to transmit it.
Remember that your reader wants to know first, Why Should I take My Valuable
Time to Read this Report? Unless you give him/her an acceptable answer your
report will not be read, period.

1.4.2.. Audience
Are your audience professionals or public: Specialists in the field, non-specialists
but related fields or common people? Analyzing your audience helps you decide
the language you should use and write your report based on the various reader
backgrounds level of understanding your language.

As a student, you might assume that your technical report's audience is your
instructor; however, this may not always be the case. Your instructor may ask you
to produce a report for your peers or for other engineers. However, you shouldn't
always assume that your audience has a strong engineering background or is
familiar with the engineering terminology you use. Always check with your
instructor to know who your audience is.
As an engineer in the field, the most likely audience for the technical reports you
produce is other engineers with a background similar to yours. This audience is
more likely to understand the terminology you use. However, you should always
evaluate who your readers will be before assuming they will understand your
jargon. Consider how your readers will use your report. For instance, you might
submit a technical report to a publication or your technical report may present a
specific design. The audiences in each situation have different needs. Audiences
may read the publication for information and insight while audiences reading about
your specific design may critique your design or make decisions based on its
content.

Unit Two: Basic Structure/Format of a Report

We discussed earlier that there are different types of report such as laboratory
reports or reports on an industrial placement. Always check with the person
commissioning the report (your tutor, your placement supervisor) to find out
precisely what your report should include and how it should be presented.
Technical Reports have an organized format because a majority of your audience

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may not read the entire report in one reading. This specific format allows readers to
quickly locate the information they need. The following common elements can be
found in many different reports:

Generally, basic structure of a report can be classified in to three. These are

2.1. The Front Matter

2.2. The body Matter

2.3 The Back Matter

Each sub contents under each category will be analyzed here under.

2.1. The Front Matter

2.1.1 Title Page

A technical report should always include a title clearly identifying the report. A
title should be descriptive and accurate, but not wordy, verbose or too terse.

This page gives:

 the title of the report

 the authors' names and ID numbers
 the course name and number, the department, and university
 the date of submission.

2.1.2 Abstract

The Abstract is extremely important because it helps readers decide what to read
and what to pass over. The idea of the abstract is to give readers an honest
evaluation of the report's content, so they can quickly judge whether they should
spend their valuable time reading the entire report. This section should give a true,
brief description of the report's content. The most important purpose of the abstract

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is to allow somebody to get a quick picture of the report's content and make a
judgment.

Since an Abstract is a brief summary of your report, its length corresponds with the
report's length. So, for example, if your report is eight pages long, you shouldn't
use more than 150 words in the abstract. Generally, abstracts define the report's
purpose and content.

Abstract provides a brief overview of the substance of the report, usually no more
than half a page. It is not an introduction to the topic; it should contain all the key
features of your report, including the topic, what you did and how you did it, and
the main outcomes of your work. A busy manager who might not have time to read
the full report should be able to get the gist of the whole report by reading it.

This brief report summary:

states the topic of the report

outlines your approach to the task if applicable
gives the most important findings of your research or investigation, or the
key aspects of your design
states the main outcomes or conclusions.

However, it does NOT:

provide general background information

explain why you are doing the research, investigation or design
refer to later diagrams or references.

2.1.3 Table of Contents

The contents page sets out the sections/headings and subsections/subheadings of

the report and their corresponding page numbers. It should clearly show the
structural relationship between the sections and subsections. A good Table of
Contents distinguishes headings from subheadings and aligns these with the
appropriate page numbers. This also means you should pay attention to
capitalization, spacing, and indentation. A reader looking for specific information
should be able to locate the appropriate section easily from the table of contents.
The conventions for section and page numbering are as follows:
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 * Number the sections by the decimal point numbering system:

1. Title of first main section (usually Introduction)

1.1 First subheading

1.2 Second subheading

2 Title of second main section

2.1 First subheading

2.2 Second subheading

2.2.1 First division in the second subheading

2.2.2 Second division in the second subheading

3 Title of third main section

* Number all the preliminary pages (acknowledgement, abstract, table of

contents, list of figures, etc.) in lower-case Roman numerals (i, ii, iii, iv, ...).
Preliminary pages are any which come before the introduction, including the
abstract and, where applicable, acknowledgements.

* Number all the remaining pages of your report with Arabic numerals (1, 2, 3,
4, ...). Thus the report proper begins on page 1 with your introduction, which is
usually Section 1.

* Provide a title in your table of contents to describe the contents of each

appendix (Note: one appendix, two or more appendices). Don't just call them
Appendix 1 or Appendix 2.

2.1.4 List of Figures and List of Tables

These two separate lists assist readers in locating your photos, drawings, tables,
graphs and charts. Like the Table of Contents, you need to present both of these in
an organized, appealing format. Typically, you can shorten a figure or table's title
when you create these lists.

2.2. The body Matter

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2.2.1 Introduction

The introduction provides the background information needed for the rest of your
report to be understood. It is usually half to three-quarters of a page in length, but
its length usually varies according to the length of the report itself. The purpose of
the introduction is to set the context for your report, provide sufficient background
information for the reader to be able to follow the information presented, and
inform the reader about how that information will be presented.

The introduction includes:

the background to the topic of your report to set your work in its broad
context
a clear statement of the purpose of the report, usually to present the results of
your research, investigation, or design
a clear statement of the aims of the project
technical background necessary to understand the report; e.g. theory or
assumptions
a brief outline of the structure of the report if appropriate (this would not be
necessary in a short report)

2.2.2. Report Body

In a technical report, the body typically presents an introduction, various other

sections, depending on your topic, and a Conclusion. Throughout the body, you
should include text (both your own and research from other sources), graphics, and
lists. Whenever you cite information or use graphics from another source, you
must credit these sources within your text by using appropriate reference style-
MLA (Modern Language Association), APA (American Psychological
Association), Chicago Manual Style, etc.

Body of the report is main part of the report, where you present your work. The
introduction and conclusions act as a frame for the body only: therefore all the
details of your work must be included here in the appropriate section. You will
need to put some thought into the ordering of the sections; the presentation of
information should flow logically so that the reader can follow the development of
your project. It is also essential that you choose concise but informative headings

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and subheadings so that the reader knows exactly what type of information to
expect in each section.

The body of the report:

 presents the information from your research, both real world and theoretical,
or your design
 organizes information logically under appropriate headings
 conveys information in the most effective way for communication:
uses figures and tables
can use bulleted or numbered lists
can use formatting to break up large slabs of text

2.2.3. Conclusions

The conclusion section provides an effective ending to your report. The content
should relate directly to the aims of the project as stated in the introduction, and
sum up the essential features of your work. This section:

states whether you have achieved your aims

gives a brief summary of the key findings or information in your report
Highlights the major outcomes of your investigation and their significance.

2.3 The Back Matter

2.3.1. Referencing

Whenever you cite information (this includes graphics) from another source, you
must credit the source in your References. Always check with your instructor to
determine which reference style to use.

Proper documentation involves referencing all of your sources clearly. Different

professional organizations and corporations have developed their own formats for
referencing sources, although most formats include the same information. As a
result, you will see a number of different referencing styles in use professionally.

The two parts to referencing are:

1. citations in the text of the report

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 2. a list of references in the final section

A citation shows that information comes from another source. The reference list
gives the details of these sources. You need to use in-text citations and provide
details in the references section when:

* you incorporate information from other sources; e.g.:

factual material
graphs and tables of data
pictures and diagrams

* you quote word-for-word from another work (when you do this the page number
must be given in the in-text citation)

In Engineering, the most common referencing style is the author-date (Harvard)

system. However, in Electrical Engineering the IEEE system is used. Example of
in-text citation and reference list entry using the Harvard referencing style:

2.3.1.1 In-text citation

Corrosion is defined as a “chemical action which harms the properties of a metal'

(Glendenning 1973, p.12). Because corrosion reduces the life of the material and
protection procedures are expensive, special corrosion-resistant metals have been
developed, including Monel metals which are particularly suited to marine
applications (Glendenning 1973).

Technical writers use signal phrases (reporting verbs) to smoothly integrate the
information they have taken into the running text. These signal phrases introduce
the material being used, include author’s name, allow writers to keep the
parenthesis citation brief and indicate sources the material taken from.

2.3.1.2 Reference list entry:

Reference entries are alphabetically arranged (A, B, C …).

First letters of key words are capitalized.
Second, third, etc. lines in each entry are indented
There is no double space between entries

Referencing Books
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Name of author/s or editor/s using last name, plus initial/s. (Type Ed. or Eds. -
short for editor/s here if referring to a whole edited book). (Year of publication).
Title of Book (Edition number goes here if later than first e.g. 2nd ed.). Place of
publication: Publisher.

Haynes, J. (2005). Comparative politics in a globalizing world. Cambridge: Polity.

Glendenning, E.H. (1973) English in Mechanical Engineering. Oxford: Oxford

University Press.

Referencing Electronic Books

Gordon, P. H., & Shapiro, J. (2004). Allies at war: America, Europe and the crisis
over Iraq
[Electronic version]. New York: McGraw-Hill.

This format is identical to that of a printed book apart from adding “Electronic
version” in
square brackets immediately after the book title.

Chapters in edited books

Evans, T. (1997). Democratization and human rights. In A. McGrew (Ed.), The
transformation of
democracy? (pp. 122-148). Cambridge: Polity Press.

Name of author. (Year of publication). Title of chapter. In Name of editor/s (Ed/s.),

Title of book (pp. Start and end page numbers of chapter). Place of publication:
Publisher.
Journal articles
Foster, C. D. (2001). The civil service under stress: the fall in civil service power
and authority.
Public Administration, 79(3), 725-749.

Name of author/s. (Year of publication). Title of article. Title of Journal, Volume

number (issue number), Start and end page numbers of article.
Magazine articles
Hobsbawm, E. (1998, November/December). The death of neo-liberalism.
Marxism Today, 4-8.

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Name of author/s. (Year of publication, Date of publication – month/s or month
plus day if
weekly). Title of article. Title of Magazine, Page number/s of article.

Newspaper articles
Cowan, R. (2001, October 23). Adams asks IRA to disarm. The Guardian, p. 1.

Name of author/s. (Year of publication, Date of publication – month plus day).

Title of article.
Title of Newspaper, Page number/s of article.

Official publications
Prime Minister’s Office & Cabinet Office. (1999). Modernising Government (Cm
4310).
London: The Stationery Office.
Select Committee on Defence. (1996). Fourth Report, Westland plc: The
Government’s
Decision-Making (HC 519). London: HMSO.

Name of author/s. (Year of publication). Title of Official Publication (Official

publication’s reference number). Place of publication: Publisher.

Conference papers
Newman, J. (2001, September). New Labour and the Politics of Governance. Paper
presented at
the Annual Conference of the European Group of Public Administration,
Vaasa, Finland.

Name of author/s. (Year of publication, Month of conference). Title of Conference

Paper. Paper presented at the Title of Conference or the Name of the Organisation
holding the conference, Location of conference.

Website material
Commission of the European Communities. (2001). Governance in the European
Union: a
White Paper. Retrieved August 21, 2001, from
http://europa.eu.int/governance/white_paper/ index_en.htm
Name of author/s. (Year of publication). Title of web page. Retrieved date
accessed, from World Wide Web address.

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Electronic journal articles which are duplicates of the printed version
Mabbett, D. (2005). The development of rights-based social policy in the European
Union: the
example of disability rights [Electronic version]. Journal of Common
Market Studies,
43(1), 97-120.
This format is identical to that of a printed journal article apart from adding
“Electronic
version” in square brackets immediately after the article title.

Articles retrieved from a full-text database e.g. JSTOR, LexisNexis,

Business Source Premier
Hughes, K., & Smith, E. (1998). New Labour – new Europe? International Affairs,
74(1), 93-
104. Retrieved September 12, 2005, from the JSTOR database.
White, M., & Seager, A. (2005, September 5). Blair hopes to unravel textile row at
EU-China
summit. The Guardian, p. 2. Retrieved September 12, 2005, from the
LexisNexis Executive database.
Article reference format follows that of a normal journal, newspaper or magazine
article. You
should then add: Retrieved month day, year, from name of full-text database.
Films
Reed, C. (Director). (1949). The Third Man [Motion picture]. United Kingdom:
British
Lion/London Films.
Name of primary contributor - the director or producer, or both, Initials. (Role of
primary
contributor). (Year). Title of film [Motion picture]. Country of origin – where the
film was
primarily made and released: Name of studio.

Television/Radio programs
Jewhurst, A. (Producer). (2005, September 15). Dispatches: secrets of the
shoplifters [Television
broadcast]. London: Channel 4.
Scott-Brown, A. (Producer). (2005, September 15). Bulawayo boys [Radio
broadcast]. London:
BBC Radio 4.

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Name of primary contributor – the producer or director. (Role of primary
contributor). (Year,
month & day of broadcast). Title of program [Type of broadcast]. Place: Name of
broadcaster.

Single episode from a television series

Di Mambro, A. M. (Writer), & Walker, P. N. (Director). (2005). Holding on
[Television series
episode]. In S. Howells (Producer), Casualty. London: BBC1.

Note that this example is similar to a chapter in an edited book with the producer
being placed in the position used for editor. If details of the writer are unavailable,
begin your reference with the name of the director.

Sample Bibliography Writing

Beer, D.F. (Ed.) Writing and Speaking in the Technology Professions - A

Practical Guide, IEEE Press, 1992.
Byrne, N. (1998) Citing and Referencing - A Guide for Students. Dublin City
University Library.
Gratzer, G. Math into TeX : : A Simple Introduction to AMS-LaTeX,
Birkhauser, 1993.
Hirschorn, R.M. and Miller, G. (1999) Control of Nonlinear Systems with
Sriction. IEEE Trans. on Control System Technology, Vol.7, No.5, Sept.
Kreyszig, E. Advanced Engineering Mathematics (7th Ed.),, Wiley, 1993.
Lamport, L. LaTeX : A Document Preparation System : User's Guide and
Reference Manual (2nd Ed.), Addison-Wesley, 1994.
Murray, F. (1997) Time Series Forecasting Methodologies for Electricity Supply
Systems, PhD Thesis, Dublin City University.
O'Connor, M. Computer-Based Control of Time Delay Systems Using a Smith
Predictor, BEng Project Report, School of Electronic Engineering, Dublin
City University, 1989.
Ringwood, J. and Galvin, G. Artificial Neural Networks - An Introduction,
Available from: http://www.eeng.dcu.ie/~annet/ [Accessed 15th Nov. 1999].
Whitfield, A. and Wallace, F.J. Study of Incidence Loss Models in Radial and
Mixed-Flow turbo-machinery, Proc. Cong. Heat Fluid Flow in Steam and
Gas Turbine Plant, Univ. Warwick, Coventry, UK, April 1973, pp 122-32.

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2.3.2. Appendices

An appendix is added or appended material that may be relevant to your report but
which cannot be placed comfortably in the body of the report. Use it for
supplementary material which, if included in the body of the text, would interrupt
the flow. For example, a lengthy derivation of an equation (unless the derivation is
the subject of your report), a complete computer program, or a laboratory log of an
experiment would be included in the appendix. A bulky folded map or drawing
should also be put in an appendix, as should corporate or commercial material,
such as product specifications or promotional documents.

Content Summary

Section Content Advice

Title page The title page should include the Make sure this is clear
title of the report, the writers and indicates exactly
name, date, etc what you want and have
Acknowledgements List of people who helped you to
Doreport
not include those
research or prepare the report, that doesn’t have direct
including your proofreaders relationship with the
work
Table of Contents Numbers and lists all section and Do not include minor
subsection headings with page sub section and cite
numbers. correct pages
Abstract The whole project in miniature. Do not include,
♦ State main objectives – What references to
did you investigate and why? figures, etc., information
♦ Describe methods – What did in the report,
you do? background information.
♦ Summarize important results – Extract key points and
What did you find out? condense material
♦ State main conclusions – what
do your results mean?

Introduction ♦ Describe the problem Move from general to

investigated. specific – relate
♦ Summarize relevant research to problems in the real

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 provide context, key terms, and world to your research.
concept so the reader can Make clear links
understand the experiment. between the problem
♦ Review relevant past research to and the solution. Be
Provide rational for your work. selective in choosing
♦ Briefly describe your research – studies to cite.
design, research, hypothesis, etc.

Methodology ♦ How you studied the problem Provide enough detail

and what you used – materials, for replication of your
subjects and equipment. work. Order procedures
♦ How you performed the research chronologically.
– methods and procedure. Use past tense to
describe what you did.
Don’t mix results with
procedure.

Conclusions Outline the success of your project Make explanations

when compared to the objectives complete.
that were set. Avoid speculation that
♦ Suggest further work for your cannot be tested in the
research area. foreseeable future.
♦ Summarize the most important Discuss possible reasons
findings. for expected or
unexpected findings.

This includes suggestions for what Order recommendations

Recommendations needs to be done as a result of in priority with the
your findings. major concern of the
report or objectives.
Details of published sources of Follow correct reference
material referred to or quoted in citation for different
the text (including any lecture sources and cite those
resources you used only.
References notes and URL addresses of any
websites used./ Other published
sources of material, including
websites, not referred to in the text
but useful for background or

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 further reading.
If you include
Appendices (if These should add extra but appendices they must be
applicable) relevant information to the report. referred to in the body
of the report and must
have a clear purpose for
being included. Each
appendix must be
named and numbered.

Table 1: Report writing content summary

1.4. Technical Writing Conventions

Convention refers to the common and repeated use of rules, conditions, guidelines
or characteristics for products or related processes and production methods and
related management system practices in report writing. Convention must be
followed when writing prose (conventions of English usage, for example),
conventions for diagrams exist and should also be followed. The hands of a clock
move - usually - in a clockwise direction, and it is surprising if for some reason
they do not. Readers will accept what they are used to, and shock tactics rarely
have a place in report writing.

The format chosen for a diagram should be appropriate to the information which it
presents, for instance, a great many detailed figures should be given in tabular
form. Comparisons of aspects of one item or of two different items are best seen in
bar chart form, while for both general trends and accurate scientific results, graphs
are used.

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Diagrams may be produced and therefore bound into the report in one of two ways,
either as an upright A4 sheet (‘portrait’ position) or turned through an angle of 90°
for greater width (‘landscape’ position). The landscape format is useful and easily
accepted by the eye, provided that the page is turned clockwise through 90°.
Having to turn a book first one way and then the other to see the diagrams is
irritating out of all proportion to the effort involved.

1.5. Technical Writing Layout

Clear layout and presentation will make your report more accessible to your
readers. Some key considerations in layout include headings, illustrations, and
other strategies that could be classified, broadly, as the “mechanics” of report
writing. These latter are not solely layout concerns, but are included in this portion
of form & style for the sake of convenience.

1.5.1. Headings

Headings are the writer's direction signals to the reader. They form a major
contribution to your report’s readability. All headings should be followed by text,
before the next subheading.

Headings should not be part of the text; the text should be able to stand alone. As a
result, you should never refer back to the heading from the text, but rather write the
text so that its meaning does not depend on the heading. Add headings to make the
text more accessible.

Headings:

 Headings are the writer’s direction signals to the reader.

 Help readers to follow a text with ease and understanding.
 Reflect accurately the material that appears beneath them.aid immeasurably
in making a document easy to read and understand.
 Are numbered; form & Style requires the use of a decimal numbering
system to number your headings.

First level (chapter): 1, 2, 3, etc.

Second level: 2.1, 2.2, 2.3, etc.

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Third level: 2.1.1, 2.1.2, 2.1.3, etc.

Fourth level: 2.1.1.1, 2.1.1.2, etc.

1.5.2. Mechanics

The mechanics of document layout include a range of considerations that

contribute to the accessibility and readability of your report. These include
pagination conventions, text spacing conventions, quotation marks and other
punctuation conventions, guidelines for incorporating equations into your text,
capitalization conventions, “widow” and “orphan” problems, typeface and style
considerations, and finally, binding guidelines.

1.5.2.1. Pagination

Pagination of the report can be divided into that for the main body and end matter,
and that for the front matter.

1.5.2.1.1. Main Body Pagination. The pages of the body of the report are
numbered 1, 2, 3, etc., starting with the first page of the introduction and including
all subsequent pages, through the appendices to the topic approval. The number of
the all pages of the body is centered at the bottom of the page; however, all page
numbers may also be placed at the upper or lower right corner of the pages.

1.5.2.1.2. Front Matter Pagination. For the front matter, a different numbering is
used. The front-matter pages but the title page are all numbered with small roman
numerals: iii, iv, v, vi, etc. All front matter pagination is centered at the bottom of
the page. The sections in these pages receive a small Roman numerals centered at
the bottom of the page.

1.5.3. Spacing

The text of the report may be single- or double-spaced, printed on one side of the
page only. Entries on the Reference page should be single-spaced, but each entry
should have a double space before the next entry. See the sample Reference page.

In the text itself, you should leave one space after commas and other forms of
internal punctuation (e.g., colons, semi-colons); leave two spaces after periods and
other forms of end punctuation (e.g., question marks).

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1.5.4. Quotation Marks and Other Punctuation

You should use quotation marks whenever you quote directly from a source.
Punctuation should be placed inside quotation marks; reference numbers, however,
should be placed outside of quotation marks.

1.5.5. Equations in the Text

If you are including equations in your text, you should treat them as part of the
sentence which leads into the equation. That is, you should incorporate equations
smoothly into your sentence structure.

1.5.6. Capitalization of Words

As a general rule, you should capitalize only proper names of individuals and
organizations. Words such as “kilograms” and “civil engineering” do not require
capitals (although “department of Civil Engineering” does, as it refers to a specific
organization). All first letters content words in the Table of Contents and every
first letter after a period should be capitalized,

1.5.7. “Widows” and “Orphans”

The terms “widow” and “orphan” refer to typographic anomalies that can occur
when you are preparing a final document for presentation.

An “orphan” is a word or short section of a line isolated at the bottom of a

paragraph or a page. Occasionally reports will have orphan headings - that is,
headings which are at the bottom of the page, with the text that follows them on the
next page.

A “widow” is a word or sentence isolated at the top of a page (especially an

otherwise blank page).

You should try to avoid these, as they disrupt your layout, are unattractive, and can
be confusing.

1.5.8. Typeface and Size

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Use a standard typeface such as Geneva, New York, Palatino, Times New Roman,
Calibri, etc. Avoid using fancy scripts, and use italic or bold type sparingly, for
emphasis.

You should use twelve-point typeface. Ten-point is too small to read comfortably,
and larger sizes make it appear as if you are simply trying to fill up space.

1.5.9. Binding

Submit your report in use spiral binding or plastic-spine binding.

1.5.2. Illustrations

1.5.2.1. Tables

These are the most common form of diagram in technical reports. Tables can give
a great deal of accurate information if they are effectively presented. Vertical and
horizontal rulings can be untidy and confusing: the use of space is a much more
successful alternative.

Headings should be matched at the left hand side, for ease of reading and also of
typing. Horizontal space is obtained by grouping similar items, with a space after,
at most, seven items. For example, an annual financial breakdown could have the
months grouped in quarters (January to March, etc) and no horizontal lines would
be necessary. It is, however, possible to give too much space, so that the reader
loses track across the paper. Colleagues are useful people on whom to test the ease
with which a table can be used!
It is, as always, the need of the reader which is all-important. The report writer
might have data available which are of far greater detail than the reader could
possibly need. In this case, figures should be rounded to the appropriate accuracy,
and perhaps some might be omitted altogether.

1.5.2.2. Graphics

Graphic elements of the report include all illustrations, graphs, charts and tables.
Each graphic must be numbered and titled appropriately.

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All illustrations, drawings, maps, graphs and charts are considered to be figures,
and should be included in the list of figures. Place the number and caption at the
figure’s base.

However, for tables, the number and heading go above the table.

All tables and figures should be referred to in your text at the relevant point. The
textual reference should precede the graphic. If a particular graphic is mentioned
more than once, then the graphic should follow the first textual reference.

Figures and tables should be incorporated into the text. The only exceptions would
be for material best suited for the appendix.

Ensure that all images - figures and tables - are clear and legible. Do not include
poorly photocopied images or images that have been downloaded from the World
Wide Web in a low-resolution format. Finally, ensure that you give each graphic a
comfortable amount of space on the page; graphics should not be crammed
between text or squeezed into the margin.

All figures and tables should be referenced, unless they are your own original
work.

Graphs are used either to show trends or to give accurate technical information. All
graphs must be clearly labeled, and scales identified. If graphs are to be compared,
the same scale must be used for each; as before, the detail needed by the reader
must be included, and not necessarily all that is available to the writer.

1.5.2.3. Space

Sometimes diagrams outgrow their pages, and this is dangerous. Margins must be
sufficient on all sides to allow for clarity, and to carry as appropriate the page
number, figure number and title, and to allow for the binding of the document.

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1.7. Stages of Report Preparation

The technical writing process can be divided into SIX steps:

1. Selecting a topic
2. Determine purpose and audience
3. Collect ideas/ information
4. Organize and outline information
5. Write the first draft
6. Revise and edit

1.7.1. Content creation

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Technical communication is sometimes considered a professional task for which
organizations either hire specialized employees, or outsource their needs to
communication firms. For example, a professional writer may work with a
company to produce a user manual. Other times, technical communication is
regarded as a responsibility that technical professionals employ on a daily basis as
they work to convey technical information to coworkers and clients. For example,
a computer scientist may need to provide software documentation to fellow
programmers or clients.
The process of developing information products in technical communication
begins by ensuring that the nature of the audience and their need for information is
clearly identified. From there the technical communicator researches and structures
the content into a framework that can guide the detailed development. As the
information product is created, the paramount goal is ensuring that the content can
be clearly understood by the intended audience and provides the information that
the audience needs in the most appropriate format. This process, known as the
'Writing Process', has been a central focus of writing theory since the 1970s, and
some contemporary textbook authors have applied it to technical communication.
Technical communication is important to engineers mainly for the purpose of
being professional and accurate. These reports supply specific information in a
concise manner and are very clear in their meaning if done correctly.

1.7.3. Collecting information

The next step is to collect information needed for accomplishing the stated
purpose. Information may be collected through primary research, where the
technical communicator conducts research first-hand, and secondary research,
where work published by another person is used as an information source. The
technical communicator must acknowledge all sources used to produce his or her
work. To ensure that this is done, the technical communicator should distinguish
quotations, paraphrases, and summaries when taking notes.

1.7.4. Organizing and outlining information

Before writing the initial draft, all the ideas are organized in a way that will make
the document flow nicely. A good way of doing this is to write all random thoughts

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down on a paper, and then circle all main sections, connect the main sections to
supporting ideas with lines, and deletes all irrelevant material.
Once each idea is organized, the writer can then organize the document as a whole.
This can be accomplished in various ways:

 Chronological: This is used for documents that involve a linear process, such
as a step-by-step guide describing how to accomplish something.
 Parts of an object: Used for documents which describe the parts of an object,
such as a graphic showing the parts of a computer (keyboard, monitor,
mouse, etc.)
 Simple to Complex (or vice versa): Starts with the easy-to-understand ideas,
and gradually goes deeper into complex ideas.
 Specific to General: Starts with many ideas, and then organizes the ideas
into sub-categories.
 General to Specific: Starts with a few categories of ideas, and then goes
deeper.

Once the whole document is organized, it's a good idea to create a final outline,
which will show all the ideas in an easy-to-understand document. Creating an
outline makes the entire writing process much easier and will save the author time.

1.7.5. Writing the first draft

After the outline is completed, the next step is to write the first draft. The goal is to
write down ideas from the outline as quickly as possible. Setting aside blocks of
one hour or more, in a place free of distractions, will help the writer maintain a
flow. Also, the writer should wait until the draft is complete to do any revising;
stopping to revise at this stage will break the writer's flow. The writer should start
with the section that is easiest for them, and write the summary only after the body
is drafted.
The ABC (Abstract, Body, and Conclusion) format can be used when writing a
first draft. The Abstract describes the subject to be written about, so that the reader
knows what he or she is going to be told in the document. The Body is the majority
of the paper, in which the topics are covered in depth. Lastly, the Conclusion
section restates the main topics of the paper.

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The ABC format can also be applied to individual paragraphs, beginning with a
topic sentence that clearly states the paragraph's topic. This is followed by the
topic, and finally, the paragraph closes with a concluding sentence.

1.7.6. Revising and Editing

Once the initial draft is laid out, editing and revising can be done to fine-tune the
draft into a final copy. Four tasks transform the early draft into its final form:

1.7.6.1. Adjusting and reorganizing content

During this step, the draft is revisited to 1) focus or elaborate on certain topics
which deserve more attention, 2) shorten other sections, and 3) shift around certain
paragraphs, sentences, or entire topics.

 Are the points-content- relevant? Delete irrelevant ones.

 Are ideas put following some logical development?
 Is interlink between sentences, paragraphs, sections, etc. appropriate?

1.7.6.2. Editing for style

Good style makes the writing more interesting, appealing, or readable. In general
the personal writing style of the writer will not be evident in technical writing.
Some changes are made by choice, not for correctness, and may include:

 adding headings, lists, graphics

 changing passive-voice sentences to an active voice
 defining terminology
 rearranging paragraphs
 shortening paragraphs
 shortening sentences

Technical writing is a discipline that usually requires a technical writer to make

particular use of a style guide. These guides may relate to a specific project,
product, company or brand and in general they ensure that technical writing is
devoid of a personal style.

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1.7.6.3. Editing for language grammar
At this point, the document can be checked for grammatical errors, such as comma
usage and common word confusions (for example, there/their/they're).

 Are the sentences grammatical?

 Are the words correctly spelled?
 Are punctuations and capitalizations properly used?
 Are appropriate words and expressions used? Etc.

1.7.6.4. Edit for context

Determining the necessary amount of context is important. There needs to be a
balance between exuberance, which may lead the audience to take unintended
additional meaning from the text, and terseness, which may leave the audience
unable to interpret meaning because of missing words.
Sample Short report

Sample research report

Executive Summary (Summary or Abstract)

The aim of this report was to investigate UniLab staff attitudes to personal mobile
phone use in staff and team meetings. A staff survey on attitudes towards the use
of mobile phones in the staff/team meetings was conducted. The results indicate
that the majority of staff find mobile phone use a major issue in staff meetings. The
report concludes that personal mobile phones are disruptive and should be turned
off in meetings. It is recommended that UniLab develops a company policy
banning the use of mobile phones except in exceptional circumstances.

Introduction

There has been a massive increase in the use of personal mobile phones over the
past five years and there is every indication that this will continue. According to
Black (2002) by 2008 almost 100% of working people in Australia will carry
personal mobile phones. Black describes this phenomenon as ‘serious in the
extreme, potentially undermining the foundations of communication in our society’
(2002, p 167). Currently at UniLab 89% of staff have personal mobile phones.

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Recently a number of staff have complained about the use of personal mobile
phones in meetings and asked what the official company policy is. At present there
is no official company policy regarding phone use. This report examines the issue
of mobile phone usage in staff meetings and small team meetings. It does not seek
to examine the use of mobile phones in the workplace at other times, although
some concerns were raised.

For the purposes of this report a personal mobile phone is a personally funded
phone for private calls as opposed to an employer funded phone that directly
relates to carrying out a particular job.

Methods

This research was conducted by questionnaire and investigated UniLab staff

members’ attitudes to the use of mobile phones in staff / team meetings. A total of
412 questionnaires were distributed with employees' fortnightly pay slips (see
Appendix 1). The questionnaire used Lekert scales to assess social attitudes (see
Smith 2002) to mobile phone usage and provided open ended responses for
additional comments. Survey collection boxes were located in every branch for a
four week period. No personal information was collected; the survey was voluntary
and anonymous.

Results

There was an 85% response rate to the questionnaire. A breakdown of the

responses is listed below in Table 1. It can be clearly seen from the results that
mobile phones are considered to be disruptive and should be turned off in
meetings.

Table 1: Personal mobile phone usage in staff and team meetings

Personal mobile phone usage in Strongl Agree Disagre Strongly
staff and team meetings is… y % e% disagree
Not a problem 5
agree% 7 65 % 23
An issue 40 45 10 5
Disruptive 80 10 7 3
Phones should be permissible 6 16 56 22
Phones should be turned off 85 10 3 2
Allowed in some 10 52 24 14
circumstances
The survey also allowed participants to identify any circumstances where mobile
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phones should be allowed in meetings and also assessed staff attitudes towards
receiving personal phone calls in staff meetings in open ended questions. These
results showed that staff thought that in some circumstances, eg medical or
emergencies, receiving personal phone calls was acceptable, but generally
receiving personal phone calls was not necessary.

Discussion / Interpretation of Results

It can be seen from the results in Table 1 that personal mobile phone use is
considered to a problem; however it was acknowledged that in some situations it
should be permissible. 80% of recipients considered mobile phones to be highly
disruptive and there was strong support for phones being turned off in meetings
(85%). Only 12% thought that mobile phone usage in staff and team meetings was
not a problem, whereas 85% felt it was an issue. The results are consistent
throughout the survey. Many of the respondents (62%) felt that in exceptional
circumstances mobile phones should be allowed, eg medical, but there should be
protocols regarding this.

These findings are consistent with other studies. According to Smith (2005) many
companies have identified mobile phones as disruptive and have banned the use of
mobile phones in meetings. Havir (2004) claims that 29% of staff meeting time is
wasted through unnecessary mobile phone interruptions. This affects time
management, productivity and team focus.
Conclusion
The use of mobile phones in staff meetings is clearly disruptive and they should be
switched off. Most staff felt it is not necessary to receive personal phone calls in
staff meetings except under certain circumstances, but permission should first be
sought from the team leader, manager or chair.

Recommendations
It is recommended that UniLab develops an official policy regarding the use of
mobile phones in staff meetings. The policy should recommend:
• mobile phones are banned in staff meetings
• mobiles phone may be used in exceptional circumstances but only with the
permission of the appropriate manager or chair

Finally, the policy needs to apply to all staff in the company.

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Unit Three: The Fundamental Elements of Good Writing

1.1.1 Purpose

 Writing is driven by a purpose.

 So the initial step to writing well is knowing the purpose of writing.

 In the case of scientific writing, the purpose is to get across an idea, a

finding, etc. across to a wider readership.

 Once you become fully aware of the purpose of your writing, the quality of
the paper you write will show substantial improvement

 Hence, a poorly written paper is either a consequence of deficiency in

understanding the purpose of writing, or lack of proper implementation.

The purpose of writing a scientific report is to communicate an idea or set of ideas

to people who want to understand the level of scientific progress in a specific area
of specialization, and many a times to even carry the idea(s) further.

1.1.2 The Target Audience

“Who is the relevant target audience?”.

Having properly identified the relevant reader of the scientific paper, we need to
understand this audience.

Anyone who picks up to read your writing is either interested in acquiring new
information or achieving a better understanding.

 Therefore, in order to serve the reader, your paper should have pertinent
information. Moreover, the information you would like to convey must be
presented in an arrangement such that the reader will not spend an inordinate
amount of time in extracting the information.

Clarity
It is essential that the technical writer understands the reader's background and
needs. Making the documentation too technical can confuse the reader. The
document is meaningless if the intended audience does not understand what the
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writer wants to communicate. Writers who are well aware of their audiences are in
a position to give a solution to their problems. The profession of technical writing
demands simplicity of language and clarity of expression. One must avoid
unnecessary words that may put the readers in a quandary. The written document
must be clear and concise so that the text becomes easier to grasp and understand.

Descriptiveness

Electronic products such as digital cameras or VCRs often come with manuals that
tell how to operate it. As the customers may come from a non-technical
background, care must be taken that the manual is not difficult to understand.
Certain key concepts to operate the product must be explained as easily as possible
for the targeted readers. If you use pure jargons, the customer will possibly never
know what you want to say. Explaining the product in layman's terms is absolutely
necessary. Good technical writing conveys ideas in the most effective manner. A
well-written technical document always contains answers to anticipated problems
in the product or application. This aspect of technical writing is commonly seen in
articles that are related to trouble shooting a particular software or product.

Accuracy
Accuracy is an important characteristic of any technical document. A slight
mistake can have grave consequences. For instance, if you forget to mention some
important features of a new mobile phone, the customers may think that there is
nothing special in that phone and will not prefer to buy it. Effective
communication requires quality content and language that is accurate and readable.
Technical writing does not mean that you translate information unquestioningly. In
this profession, one must know for whom the document is being written and
whether it is accurate.

Correctness
The grammatical structure of your technical document should be correct and free
from any kind of ambiguities. The intended meaning will not be communicated to
the reader if the document has ambiguous sentences. A well-organized document
that makes use of headings and sub-headings is not only pleasing to the eye but
will also help the reader to find specific information in a short time.

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Plagiarism

“Plagiarism” refers to the unacknowledged use of other people’s work, whether

this work is in the form of ideas taken without acknowledgment, or sentences
copied without documentation. Plagiarism is intellectual theft.

Plagiarism is an offence under the University’s Code of Conduct (Academic). In

the Faculty of Engineering and Computer Science, first offences have typically
been sanctioned with a failing grade for the course and the requirement to take
extra credits in ethics.

Sexist Writing

If you write “An engineer's writing skills may determine the success of his career,”
you are implying that all engineers are male. If you advertise for a “draughtsman,”
you are implying that all persons who do draughting are male. The use of the
pronouns “he” or “his” as generic terms to include both male and female pronouns
is not professionally acceptable, and neither is the use of occupational terms which
imply maleness exclusively.

The occasional use of "he or she" or "his or her" is acceptable, but their systematic
use is awkward and hence should be avoided. Sentences can often be written to
avoid the need for the singular male pronoun. Writing in the plural will often work,
but you need to avoid creating new problems - remember that a singular subject
requires a singular pronoun. For instance, writing “Everybody raised his hand" is
sexist, but writing “everybody raised their hands,” while not sexist, is
ungrammatical, since “everybody” is a singular subject. “They all raised their
hands” solves both problems.

Unit Four: The nature of research and Research methods

Definition and Purposes of Research

People have long strived to come to grips with their environment and to understand
the nature of the phenomena it presents to their senses. In the field of science, it is
important to move away from the looser meaning and use it only in its proper
context. Scientific research adheres to a set of strict protocols and long established
structures. Research is defined as human activity based on intellectual application

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in the investigation of matter. In other words, research is the systematic process of
collecting and analyzing information to increase our understanding of the
phenomenon under study. It is the function of the researcher to contribute to the
understanding of the phenomenon and to communicate that understanding to
others. It may be said that the general aims of research are to observe and describe,
to predict, to determine causes and explain

2.4Goals of Scientific Research

The purpose of scientific research is problem solving. The problem could be of an

immediate and practical value or they could be of the theoretical nature. That is,
research focuses on answering various questions and acquiring new knowledge.

 It is the primary tool used in virtually all areas of science to expand the frontiers
of knowledge.

 In addition, by conducting research, researchers attempt to reduce the

complexity of problems, discover the r/p b/n seemingly unrelated events, and
ultimately improve the way we live.

 On the whole, across all types of science, research is frequently used for
describing a thing or event, discovering the relationship b/n phenomena, or
making predictions about future events.

In short, research can be used for the purposes of description, explanation,

prediction, and control all of which make important and valuable contributions in
solving practical problems and also in the expansion of what we know and
discovery of new knowledge. Seeking solutions to practical or theoretical problems
involves describing phenomena, explaining phenomena, predicting phenomena,
controlling phenomena and comparing phenomena

1.1. Classification of Research based on the Goal of Research

The nature of the problem that the research attempts to solve could be theoretical
or practical – building a theory or solving immediate practical problems. These two
types of problems that the research tries to solve leads to two broad classifications
of research: Basic and Applied research.

Distinction between Basic and Applied Research

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  difficult to draw a clear boundary between these two types of research.

 Researchers believe that basic and applied types of research should not be
thought of as two mutually exclusive categories

 A matter of emphasis than as representing a true dichotomy

1.2. Classification of Research based on the Specific Objectives of Research

Research also addresses specific purposes. Your interest could be describing a

phenomenon of interest or explaining causal link b/n two variables, or you may be
interested in comparing two or more groups on the basis of a particular
phenomenon. Research, therefore, can be classified differently when the issues at
hand are specific objectives of research. Hence, according to the specific objectives
research can be classified as:

 Descriptive research,

 Explanatory research, or

 Exploratory research

Descriptive, Explanatory and Exploratory Research

Descriptive research: sets out to describe and to interpret what is. It looks at
individuals, groups, institutions, methods and materials in order to describe,
compare, contrast, classify, analyze and interpret the entities and the events that
constitute the various fields of inquiry. It aims to describe the state of affairs as it
exists. On the other hand, explanatory research, aims at establishing the cause and
effect relationship between variables

3.1Descriptive Research

Goal: describe some aspect of a phenomenon, i.e., the status of a given

phenomenon helps understand a topic and leads to causal analysis. It involves a
variety of research methods to achieve its goal. The methods that come under
descriptive research are: surveys, correlation studies, observation studies and case
studies.

3.2 Explanatory Research

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  The desire to know "why," to explain, is the purpose of explanatory
research.

 It is a continuation of descriptive research and builds on exploratory and

descriptive research and goes on to identify the reasons for something that
occurs.

 Goes beyond merely describing the characteristics, to analyze and explain

 why or how something is happening

 explanatory or analytical research aims to understand phenomena by

discovering and measuring causal relations among them

 Explanatory research looks for causes and reasons

3.3 Exploratory research

 Conducted when there are few or no earlier studies to which references can
be made for information

 Provides insights into and comprehension of an issue or situation for more

rigorous investigation later

 is a type of research conducted because a problem has not been clearly

defined

 Its purpose is to gain background information and better understand and

clarify a problem

 Exploratory research helps to:

• determine the best research design,

• develop hypotheses, develop questions to be answered,

• understand how to measure a variable,

• determine data collection method, and

• determine selection of subjects.

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  Exploratory research often relies on secondary

research such as reviewing available literature and/or data, or qualitative

approaches such as informal discussions with consumers, employees, management
or competitors, and more formal approaches through in-depth interview, focus
groups, projective methods, case studies or pilot studies.

Qualitative and Quantitative Research

Each method derives from contrasting academic and philosophical traditions.

Quantitative methods are identified with the so-called ‘‘hard science’’ disciplines,
whereas qualitative methods, with the social sciences.

4.1Qualitative Research

This involves studies that do not attempt to quantify their results through statistical
summary or analysis. And they seek to describe various aspects about behavior and
other factors studied in the social sciences and humanities. Data are often in the
form of descriptions, not numbers. Its goal is to look for meaning. That is, stress is
laid on the socially constructed nature of reality, the intimate relationship between
the research and researched and situational constraints that shape the enquiry. It is
a type of empirical enquiry that entails purposive sampling for gathering data. It
typically involves in-depth interviews, group discussions, artifact studies,
projective techniques, and observations without formal measurement. A case
study, which is an in-depth examination of one person, is a form of qualitative
research. Qualitative research is much more time consuming, but provides more
richness to the data. In epistemological terms, qualitative research is identified with
phenomenological and interpretative research.

4.2Quantitative Research

Quantitative research is the systematic and scientific investigation of quantitative

properties and phenomena and their relationships. Its objective is to develop and
employ mathematical models, theories and hypotheses pertaining to natural
phenomena. The process of measurement is central to quantitative research
because it provides the fundamental connection between empirical observation and
mathematical expression of an attribute. It usually starts with a theory or a general
statement proposing a general relationship between variables. With this approach it

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is likely that the researchers will take an objective position and their approach will
be to treat phenomena as hard and real. As a result proponents of such studies
claim that quantitative research is undertaken in a value free framework.
Quantitative researchers favor methods such as surveys and experiments, and will
attempt to test hypotheses or statements with a view to infer from the particular to
the general. This approach typically concentrates on measuring or counting and
involves collecting and analyzing numerical data and applying statistical tests.

Unit Five: Methods, Material and Procedures

It is really the heart of the research. The activities should be described with as
much detail as possible, and the continuity between them should be apparent.
Indicate the methodological steps you will take to answer every question, to test
every hypothesis illustrated in the Questions/Hypotheses section or address the
objectives you set. The methodology you will use for the research allow the reader
to assess the believability of your approach.

• Information needed by another researcher to replicate your experiment.

• Description of your materials, procedure, theory.

• Calculations, technique, procedure, equipment, and calibration plots.

• Limitations, assumptions, and range of validity.

• Description of your analytical methods, including reference to any specialized

statistical software

2.9.1 Study design

The type of research design chosen depends on:

 the type of problem;

 the knowledge already available about the problem; and

 the resources available for the study.

2.9.2 Sampling

Sampling for quantitative studies

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Sampling is the process of selecting a number of study units from a defined study
population.

The study population has to be clearly defined.

 The key reason for being concerned with sampling is that of validity—the
extent to which the interpretations of the results of the study follow from the
study itself and the extent to which results may be generalized to other
situations with other people or situation

 Sampling is critical to external validity—the extent to which findings of a

study can be generalized to people or situations other than those observed in the
study

 To generalize validly the findings from a sample to some defined

population requires that the sample has been drawn from that population
according to one of several probability sampling plans.

 By a probability sample it is meant that the probability of inclusion in the

sample of any element in the population must be given a priori.

 All probability samples involve the idea of random sampling at some stage.

 Probability sampling requires that a listing of all study units exists or can
be compiled.

 This listing is called the sampling frame.

 Another reason for being concerned with sampling is that of internal

validity—the extent to which the outcomes of a study result from the variables
that were manipulated, measured, or selected rather than from other variables
not systematically treated

 Without probability sampling, error estimates cannot be constructed

 Perhaps the key word in sampling is representative

Types of Probability Sampling

Simple random sampling

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  each element must have an equal and nonzero chance of being selected

 This can be achieved by applying a table of random numbers or a computer

 generated random numbers to a numbered sampling frame.

 Another approach involves drawing numbers from a container.

 The product of this technique is a sample determined entirely by chance

Systematic sampling

 begins with selecting one element at random in the sampling frame as the
starting point; however, from this point onward, the rest of the sample is
selected systematically by applying a predetermined interval.

Stratified sampling

 begins with the identification of some variable, which may be related

indirectly to the research question and could act as a confounder (such as
geography, age, income, ethnicity, or gender).

 This variable is then used to divide the sampling frame into mutually
exclusive strata or subgroups

 Once the sampling frame is arranged by strata, the sample is selected from
each stratum using simple random sampling or systematic sampling
techniques. It is important that the sample selected within each stratum
reflects proportionately the population proportions; thus, you can employ
proportionate stratified sampling.

Cluster sampling

It may be difficult or impossible to take a simple random sample of the units of the
study population at random, because a complete sampling frame does not exist.

 However, when a list of groupings of study units is available (e.g., villages

or schools) or can be easily compiled, a number of these groupings can be
randomly selected.

 Then all study units in the selected clusters will be included in the study.

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Multistage sampling

 Multistage cluster sampling is used when an appropriate sampling frame

does not exist or cannot be obtained.

 Multistage cluster sampling uses a collection of preexisting units or clusters

to “stand in” for a sampling frame.

 The first stage in the process is selecting a sample of clusters at random from
the list of all known clusters.

 The second stage consists of selecting a random sample from each cluster.

 Because of this multistage process, the likelihood of sampling bias increases.

 This creates a lack of sampling precision known as a design effect.

Qualitative research methods are typically used when focusing on a limited number
of informants, whom you select strategically so that their in-depth information will
give optimal insight into an issue about which little is known. This is called
purposeful sampling

2.9.3. Sample Size

Sample size in quantitative studies

The research proposal should provide information and justification about sample
size

Generally, the actual sample size of a study is a compromise between the level of
precision to be achieved, the research budget and any other operational constraints,
such as time

 In order to achieve a certain level of precision, the sample size will depend,
among other things, on the following factors:

 The variability of the characteristics being observed

 The population size

 The sampling and estimation methods

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  Sample size in qualitative studies

There are no fixed rules for sample size in qualitative research.

The size of the sample depends on what you try to find out, and from what
different informants or perspectives you try to find that out.

2.9.4. Analysis Plan

Analysis techniques (methodologies) should be described in detail. If coding

procedures are to be used, describe reasonable detail. If you are triangulating,
carefully explain how you are going to do it. Each research question will usually
require its own analysis. Thus, the research questions should be addressed one at a
time followed by a description of the type of statistical tests (if necessary) that will
be performed to answer that research question.

Be specific. State what variables will be included in the analyses and identify the
dependent and independent variables if such a relationship exists.

Unit Six: Research Methods – data collection and analysis

 There are a number of different research methods available

 research is often broken down into two different approaches:

1. Quantitative research: research involving numerical or statistical data.

 Emphasis is on the quantifiable observations of the research i.e. numbers

involved.

 This type of research is mainly objective.

2. Qualitative research: an approach to gather non-numerical data and related

ways of analysis where emphasis is on the qualitative results.

 Words and observations are used to express the reality where 'getting close
to the data' and an 'in-depth' approach are key concerns.

 This type of research is mainly subjective.

The Research Processes Described

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2.1 Observation studies

 Observation refers to the process of observing and recording events or

situations.

 The technique is particularly useful for discovering how individuals or

groups of people or animals behave, act or react.

 two main types of observation - participant and nonparticipant:

Participant observation: The researcher becomes part of the group studied and
participates in their daily life and activities: observing their everyday situations
and their behavior in these situations.

In non-participant observation the researchers simply observe the activities

without taking part themselves. Whilst this has the advantage of preventing the
researcher from unduly influencing or becoming involved in activities they may
not wish to take part in (for example dangerous or criminal actions), they are less
likely to understand fully the meanings behind behavior in the group studied.

 In human observation studies the observer can remain covert, hiding their
true identity as a researcher, or overt, where their identity is revealed to
those studied.

 It is argued that covert research will lead to a more valid study as the
subjects are less likely to modify their behavior if they do not know they are
the subjects of research.

Advantages and disadvantages of observation studies

 Data collection: It is impossible to keep a record of everything and you

must decide at the outset where your interests lie.

 You may decide to film or tape record events, although the cost of this may
be quite substantial.

 Data is often recorded through writing up notes in private after the event or
you could set up your own complex system with specific categories of
behavior for post-observation recordings using graphs, charts and plans.

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  What is important is careful preparation before observation begins;

Unit Six: Research data collection Methods and analysis

Data collection methods

Primary and Secondary Data Collection Methods

3.2. Types of Data

Section Objectives

Dear student! By the time you complete this section, you will be able to:

 classify data into their different types.

Dear student! What does Review of Related Literature Mean? Write your answer
in the space given.

__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
____________________________________

Very good attempt! The data needed for a social science research may be broadly
classified in to:

(a) Data pertaining to human beings,

(b) Data relating to organizations,

(c) Data pertaining to territorial areas

Personal data or data related to human beings consist of:

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 (1) Demographic and Socio- economic characteristics of individuals: Age,
sex, race, social class, religion, marital status, education, occupation,
income, family size, location of the household, life style etc.
(2) Behavioral Variables: Attitude, opinions, awareness, knowledge, practices,
intentions, etc. Organizational data consist of data relating to an
organization’s origin, ownership, objectives, resources, functions,
performance and growth.
(3) Territorial Data are related to geographical characteristics, resource
endowments, population, occupational pattern, infrastructure, degree of
development, etc. of spatial divisions like villages, cities, districts, state and
the nation.

3.3. Sources of Data

Section Objectives

Dear student! By the time you complete this section, you will be able to:

 mention the possible sources of data;

 explain the difference between primary and secondary sources of data;
 state the appropriate methods that are used to collect data from primary
and secondary sources;
 explain the concept of observation as a method of data collection;
 define the concept interview as a method of data collection and explain
its importance;
 define mail survey and tell its importance in collecting data for a research
project;
 give the definition of experimentation in research work; and

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  explain the roles of simulation and projective techniques for data
collection.

The sources of data can be classified into:-

A) Primary Sources
B) Secondary Sources

A) Primary Sources

Primary sources are original sources from which the researcher directly collects
data that have not been previously collected. Primary data are first- hand
information collected through various methods such as observation, interviewing,
mailing, etc.

B) Secondary Sources

These are sources containing data which have been collected and compiled for
another purpose. The secondary sources consists of readily available compendia
and already compiled statistical statements and reports whose data may be used by
researchers for their studies, e.g. census reports, annual reports and financial
statements of companies etc.

Secondary sources consist of not only published records and reports, but also
unpublished records. The latter category includes various records and registers
maintained by firms and organizations, e.g., accounting and financial records,
personnel records, register of members, minute of meetings, inventory records, etc.

Secondary sources have the following characteristics:

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  They are ready made and readily available. They do not require the
trouble of constructing tools and administering.
 They consist of data over which a researcher has no original control
over collection and classification. Both the form and the content of
secondary sources are shaped by others.
 Secondary sources are not limited in time and space. That is, the
researcher using them need not have been present when and where
they were gathered.

3.3.1. Methods of Collecting Primarily Data

Primarily data are directly collected by the research from their original sources. In
this case, the researcher can collect the required data precisely according to his
research needs, he can collect them when he wants them and in the form he needs
them. But the collection of primary data is costly and time consuming. Yet, for
several types of researches, required data may not available from secondary
sources and they have to be directly gathered from the primary sources.

There are various methods of data collection. A ‘Method’ is different from a

‘Tool’. While a method refers to the way or mode of gathering data, a tool is an
instrument used for the method. For example, a schedule is used for interviewing.
The important methods are (a) Observation (b) Interviewing (c) Mail Survey, (d)
Experimentation, (e) Simulation, and (f) Projective Technique.

3.3.2. Choice of Methods of Data Collection

Which of the above methods of data collection should be selected for a proposed
research project? This is one of the questions to be considered while designing the

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research plan. One or more methods has/have to be chosen. The choice of a
method/s depends upon the following factors.

A) The nature of the study or the subject- matter: If it is a study of opinions/

preferences of persons, interviewing or mailing may be appropriate
depending on the educational level of the respondents. On the other hand an
impact study may call for experimentation; and a study of behavioral pattern
may require observation.
B) The unit of enquire: The unit of enquire may be an individual, household,
institution or community.
C) The size and spread of the sample: If the sample is small and the area
covered is compact interviewing may be preferable, but a large sample
scattered over a wider area may require mailing.
D) Scale of the survey: A large scale may require mailing or interviewing
through trained investigators.
E) The educational level of respondents: For a simple survey among educated
persons concerned with the subject-matter of study, a mail survey may be
appropriate. But for a survey of less educated / illiterate persons like
industrial workers, slum dwellers, rural people, interviewing is the only
suitable method.
F) The type and depth of information to be collected: for collection of
general, simple, factual and non-emotional data, interviewing or mailing is
appropriate. For an in-depth survey of personal experiences and sensitive
issues, depth interview is essential. For collection of data on behavior,
culture, customs, life style etc., observation method is required.

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 G) The availability of skilled and trained manpower: In this case, even for a
large general survey entailing many complicated questions, interviewing can
be adopted.
H) The rate of accuracy and representative nature of the data required:
Interviewing is the most appropriate for collecting accurate data from a
representative sample of population. Interview can achieve a higher response
rate.

A researcher can select one or more of the methods keeping in view the above
factors. No method is universal. Each method’s unique features should be
compared with the needs and conditions of the study and thus the choice of the
methods should be decided.

2.2. Questionnaires

 is a type of survey where respondents write answers to questions posed by

the researcher on a question form.

 A number of respondents are asked identical questions, in order to gain

information that can be analyzed, patterns found and comparisons made.

 The commonest type of questionnaire involves closed choice or fixed

questions where the respondent is required to answer by choosing an option
from a number of given answers, usually by ticking a box or circling an
answer.

 The open-ended questionnaire differs in that it allows the respondent to

formulate and record their answers in their own words.

 These are more qualitative and can produce detailed answers to complex
problems.

 There are advantages and disadvantages associated with each type of

method.

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  Open ended questions give a greater insight and understanding of the topic
researched but may be difficult to classify and quantify and must be
carefully interpreted.

 Fixed choice questions are easy to classify and quantify, require less time,
effort and ingenuity to answer but do not allow the respondents to qualify,
develop or clarify their answers.

 General tips for constructing questionnaires: Get the beginning right - this
will encourage respondents to read on.

 One should state what the survey is about and roughly how long it will take
to complete.

 Make the questionnaire look attractive - use space well and avoid a
cramped appearance.

 Use a large enough type size and avoid block capitals so that questions can
be easily read.

 Keep sentences short and sentence construction simple – the wording of

the questionnaire is very important.

 Avoid leading questions which direct the respondent in a particular way e.g.
isn’t it true to say that...

 Avoid jargon and technical terms - make sure the question is unambiguous
- each question should only have a single interpretation.

 Watch out for double questions - that is those asking two separate
questions at once

2.3 Interviews

 Interviews are limited to cases where the subjects of study are humans.

 Interviews are a type of survey where questions are delivered in a face-to-

face encounter by an interviewer

 is like a conversation and has the purpose of obtaining information relevant

to a particular research topic.
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  It is initiated by the researcher and is focused on specific content.

 Structured interviews maximize reliability and are easier to classify and

quantify.

 unstructured interviews can give a greater insight and more in-depth

understanding of the topic researched, but need more expertise to control
and more time for analysis

 General tips for carrying out interviews:

• Begin with an explanation of who you are and what the survey is about and
ensure confidentiality.

 • Try to achieve rapport with the respondent: be friendly and look as if you
are enjoying the interview and are interested in what they have to say.

 • Be aware of the importance of body language in face-to face interviews.

2.4 Focus Groups

 is a type of interview that involves carefully selected individuals who

usually do not know each other.

 They generally consist of 7-10 members alongside the researcher.

 These individuals are selected as they hold particular characteristics which

 the researcher believes are necessary to the topic of focus.

 Focus groups are extremely useful in providing qualitative data which gives
an insight into attitudes and perceptions difficult to obtain using other
procedures.

 The researcher acts as a moderator and listener posing predetermined open

ended questions which the respondents answer in any way they choose.

2.5 Document Analysis

 refers to the process of using any kind of document, films, television

programs and photographs as well as written sources, such as books, papers
and letters, for analysis in relation to a particular research question. It can be
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 used as the singular method of research or as a supplementary form of
inquiry.

 Document analysis, also referred to as content analysis, differs from the

majority of research methods in two major ways.

 - It is an indirect form of research; it is something that has been produced, so

the investigator is not generating original data.

- It is an 'unobtrusive', or 'non-reactive' method. This refers to the fact that the

document will not be affected in any way by your research; it cannot react as a
human can.

 Reliability and validity are central concerns in document analysis.

Reliability: means dependability or trustworthiness

Validity: refers to the degree to which an instrument measures what it is supposed

to measure and permits appropriate interpretation of information

 Data collection: a recording unit must be defined.

 General guidelines for carrying out document analysis:

• Decide initially on categories for research,

• Keep focused; do not let your research become too wide.

2.6 Mathematical Modeling

 Mathematical modeling can be used to analyze relationships between

different variables and to predict possible outcomes, or causal effects.

 Experiments can be designed from models of systems, which aim to define

links between variables and outcomes.

2.7 The experimental method

 involves setting up an experiment in order to test a particular theory or

hypothesis.

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  is concerned with seeing what changes occur if something new is tried out
and with the effects of these changes on something else

 The researcher should deliberately alter at least one particular element or

factor of the study, known as variables, in order to assess the effects of this
change on behavior.

 The effect of this alteration is assessed. Measurement is required before,

during and after the experiment.

 The experiment has to be replicable and produce more or less the same
results if it is to have any significance.

 two different types of experiment, the laboratory experiment and the field
experiment.

1. Laboratory experiments

 the researcher will conduct a small-scale study where subjects can be

manipulated, observed and tested in a highly controlled environment.

 the data obtained is often subjected to statistical analysis

2. A field experiment

 takes place outside the laboratory.

 leads to a decrease in researcher control, which may hide the effects of

changes made, but the results gained can be still be generalized to the real
world

 Research into human behavior tested by experimentation is subject to much

criticism for ethical reasons.

Experimental Research is often used where:

• There is time priority in a causal relationship (cause precedes effect),

• There is consistency in a causal relationship (a cause will always lead to the same
effect), and

• The magnitude of the correlation is great.

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  General tips for carrying out experiments:

 • Careful preparation is essential and experienced researchers should be

consulted before experimentation begins.

 • Project design, sample selection and measurement of dependent variables

are crucial to the success of the research.

Research Ethics

 Ethics is one of the most crucial areas of research, with deception,

misconduct and abuses in research increasingly becoming a crucial area of
discussion

 Research ethics deals primarily with the interaction between researchers and
the people they study

Reporting Research Findings

Writing a Scientific Report

One of the most basic means of communication in our professional life is written
presentation, such as scientific paper, technical report, assignment report, abstract,
theses, conference report, etc.

Written presentations have one striking characteristics which is different from that
of verbal presentations, that is, written they are exposed to readers.

The communication between author(s) and readers are in indirect way.

In contrast, verbal presentations are exposed to an audience, Poster is a kind of

combination of written presentation and verbal representation. Thus,

 to avoid any confusion on the part of the reader, written

 presentations demand logic, clarity and precision.

1.2 The Organization

The organization of the paper refers to the structure, i.e. the sequence in which you
present each type of information. The scientific report should have distinctive and
clearly evident component parts. It is always desirable for you to create an outline
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of the paper based on the component parts and filling in the major points you want
to cover in each part.

 Title
 Acknowledgement
 Abstract
 Introduction (background, objective, statement of the problem, significance,
scope, etc)
 Materials and methods
 Results
 Discussion/Conclusion
 References
 Appendices, where applicable

1.2.1 Title

The title is a short statement that encapsulates the main thrust of the paper. The
title should accurately reflect the content of the paper. A specific and concise title
is crucial to persuade the reader to continue reading the paper. As a general
guideline, avoid overtly general terms, idiosyncratic abbreviations. And always
pay proper attention to syntax that may convey unintended meanings. Title should
accurately reflect the content of the paper. Abbreviations usually should not appear
in the title. The list of authors is the next important item on the title page.
Authorship represents honor and responsibility; the list of authors should include
only those who made significant contribution to the work. Conventionally, the first
author is the person who made the major contribution to the work and is
responsible for most of the data presented in the paper. The last author is the
principal investigator who initiated the idea and supported the study. The authors
whose names are listed in between the first and the last are the people who
contributed intellectually to the research significantly in the order of the list.

 Depending on the type of publication, the month and year, institutional

identifiers, etc will also make up part of the title page.

1.2.2 Acknowledgement

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Generally, those persons who have professionally contributed to the work be it in
kind or in ideas must be acknowledged. Next, you also need to acknowledge the
institutions that have provided funding, research space, manpower, etc towards
your research project. Finally, you may want to mention those individuals who
have provided personal support and assistance that is separate from professional
help. Avoid using the publication from making political or religious declarations.
Your scientific report is the result of a scientific endeavor; it is best to keep it that
way

1.2.3 Abstract

The abstract is a summary of the information in the paper. It enables the readers to
identify the basic content of the document quickly and accurately. Therefore, in
less than 250 words (may extend to 500 words, see specific guidelines), an abstract
should include:

(1) the principal objective and scope of the investigation;

(2) describe the methodology employed;

(3) summarize the results; and

(4) state the principal conclusion.

1.2.4 Introduction

The introduction starts the paper itself. The purpose of the introduction should be
to provide sufficient background information to allow the readers to understand
and evaluate the results of the present study without needing to refer to previous
publications on the topic.

Your aim is to guide readers to understand your research; the introduction should
present the nature and scope of the problem you studied.

Readers are interested in knowing why you chose the research project and why it is
that important.

In this section, definitions of problem should be given with some explanations.

Also, the necessary information related to the problem to be solved should be
provided here. This part shows specific background of the project to readers.
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1.2.5 Materials and methods

You will describe in detail on how and with what means you accomplished your
project The materials and methods section answers the question: “how did you
study the problem?”. The contents of this component are discipline specific. In the
social sciences, you may not have laboratory equipment, but you may list the
questionnaire you used. It is also important to describe the experimental design
used, and how the data was analyzed. This will allow the reader to assess whether
you have properly planned and executed the research project. The information
provided should be as detailed as possible.

1.2.6 Results

This component is the core section of the scientific report and will be heavy on
tables, figures, charts, etc. The results component answers the question: “What did
you obtain from the experiments you conducted?”.

If your research was quantitative, then it is best to present your results in tables and
figures instead of words. However, make sure that you properly label your tables
and note the legends of your figures. Accompany each table or figures are to
provide further elaboration of the results. The results component is the body of
your entire work.

1.2.7 Discussion/Conclusion

It basically answers the question: “What do the results mean?”. The results you
obtained are not isolated from previous scientific knowledge. Therefore, you not
only provide the reader with interpretation of the results, but you are also expected
to put your interpretation in context of the existing body of scientific knowledge. A
common mistake by graduate students is to make overreaching generalizations that
go beyond the scope of the results you obtained. In totality, the results component
should contain the following considerations: summing the work in the output of the
work accomplished; give further research direction or suggestions. In this way, the
paper leaves the readers with a clear impression about your work

1.2.8 References

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The references section lists all the previously published sources of information that
you have cited in the body of the paper.

Only the papers cited, not all the papers that you have read or consulted, are
referenced.

The format in which the references are cited various from one discipline to the
next.

It is best to consult the conventional format pertinent in your area of study

However, generally, you include the authors, the title of the article, the journal
name, the year of publication, the volume and number of the journal and finally the
page numbers in which the article cited is found

When the source of information is a book, a newspaper article, web page, etc. the
manner in which they are references may be different

1.2.9 Appendices

The written scientific report may also include appendices where you may present
forms used, a more detailed presentation of your results, etc. The inclusion of an
appendix is decided on a case-by case basis and is not essential to make the report
technically complete.

Unit Seven: Audiovisual Support

Audiovisual (AV) aids (e.g., posters, overhead transparencies, computer

presentation graphics, audio recordings, etc.) have many advantages.
• They help listeners understand the material better.
• They can make a speech more interesting.
• If attractively designed, they enhance the speaker’s credibility.
• They provide something for the audience to see besides the speaker and can thus
reduce speaker nervousness.
• They can serve as a memory aid for the speaker.

When preparing AV support for your speech, you need to decide first which parts
of your speech would best be reinforced through AV aids. Don’t use too many AV
aids. Select wisely. Rather than simply projecting a copy of your outline on a

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screen, choose segments that are abstract or complex and would gain from
audiovisual representation.

Comparative statistics, for instance, are more easily understood when presented
through a graph than just with words. A map can facilitate the discussion of
geographical features. And an audio recording of a piece of music can illustrate its
qualities much better than a verbal description. Using AV Aids Effectively. In the
design of your AV support, strive for the most professional look possible. Use
quality materials and color when possible. It may take some time to create your
aids, but the effort is well worth it. Here are some tips on how to use AV aids
effectively.

Audiovisual Aids

1. Audio recordings
• Audio recordings are ideal for music or spoken examples that can’t easily be
replicated (e.g., foreign languages).
• Select clips that illustrate rather than replace your words.
• Cue the tape or CD in advance.
• Plan your start and stop carefully.
• Limit audio recordings to short excerpts.
2. Black- or Whiteboards
• Boards are good for brainstorming with the audience.
• They are suitable for working out unfolding problems (e.g., math).
• Turn around frequently to maintain eye contact with the audience and keep on
talking when you write on a board.
• Make sure your handwriting is legible.
3. Computerized Presentation Graphics
• Keep your graphics simple and uniform throughout your speech (e.g., use the
same organizational format on each slide).
• Don’t put too much text on a slide; a few lines are enough.
• Use high contrast (dark on light or light on dark) on your slides.
• Adjust room lighting so that the audience can see you as well as your slides.
• Make sure you use colors and contrast visible even in well-lit rooms.
• During the presentation, make sure you don’t obscure the audience’s view of the
screen.
4. Drawings
• Drawings are a great substitute for illegal objects or objects that are too large or
small.
• Drawings can show processes (e.g., acid rain).
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• Make sure your drawing looks professional and is effectively designed.
5. Handouts
• Distribute handouts face down before your speech and ask the audience to turn
them over only at the appropriate time.
• Mark points with a letter or number to refer to later.
6. Maps
• Maps are best displayed as transparencies or handouts (remember to mark
points).
• Show the larger context of a detailed map (e.g., show where an island is located
in relation to the next continent and where a city is located in relation to its home
country or state).
7. Models
• Models are ideal for scaled-down versions of larger objects (e.g., buildings),
enlarged versions of small objects (e.g., atoms), and objects that are difficult to
bring (e.g., a skeleton).
• Don’t pass models around; by the time everyone has seen it, your speech may be
over (= time lag effect).
8. Overhead Projectors (OHP)
• Make sure the letters and images on the transparency are big enough. (Rule of
thumb: You should be able to read the transparency without the help of a projector
from 10 feet away.)
• Make sure the projector is focused and the projected image visible to all audience
members.
• Uncover each new point gradually.
• Use a pointer on the transparency (not the screen).
• Don’t obscure the audience’s view of the screen.

9. Objects
• Objects are ideal for certain types of demonstration speeches (e.g., how to make a
kite).
• Avoid illegal objects (e.g., firearms) and objects that are difficult to manage (e.g.,
animals).
• Don’t pass objects around (time lag effect).
10.People
• People are ideal for certain types of demonstration speeches (e.g., how to dance
the samba).
• Rehearse well and make sure your human AV aid is on time and knows where to
go.
• Ask the person to sit in the front row so that he or she can get up and sit down
quickly.

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 11.Photographs
• Enlarge photos so that everyone can see them or transfer them onto a handout,
overhead transparency, or slide.
• Don’t show photos that may offend the audience.
• Don’t pass photos around (time lag effect).
12.Posters
• Mount your poster on sturdy backing so that it doesn’t bend and use an easel for
display.
• Use stick-on letters rather than handwriting to make the poster look as
professional as possible.
13.Slides
• Make sure the room can be darkened to ensure visibility.
• Show several slides at a time.
• Put a black slide between sections of content (to avoid keeping slides on display
for too long and to avoid the glare of a white screen).
14.Video recordings
• Video recordings are ideal when movement and sound are important.
• Select clips that illustrate rather than replace your words.
• Cue the tape or DVD in advance.
• Plan your start and stop carefully.
• Limit videorecordings to short excerpts.

There are some general guidelines that apply to the use of all AV aids.
• Everyone in the audience must be able to see or hear well without strain.
• Use large font sizes. Don’t use all capital letters; they are hard to read.
• Sans serif fonts (e.g., Arial or Helvetica) are easier to read than serif fonts
(e.g., Times or Times New Roman).
• Look at the audience, not at your aid.
• Point to the part of your aid that you are discussing in your speech.
• Cover or turn off your aid when you don’t use it.
Warning
When using technology, make sure you arrive early to set up and check the
equipment. Prepare an alternative way of presenting your material in case of power
or equipment failure.

15.Illustrating Statistics. Often visual aids show statistical information that

can be displayed in a variety of ways. Use the following guidelines to select
the most appropriate mode.

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 Line graphs are best for showing fluctuations (e.g., stock market gains and
losses).
 Bar graphs are best for comparing data from groups (e.g., average regional
salaries).
 Pie graphs are best for showing divisions of a population or parts of a whole
(e.g., ethnic groups in a country).
 Tables are best when data can be arranged in columns and rows (e.g., film
awards per category and year).
 Flow charts show the order in which processes occur (e.g., the metamorphosis
of a caterpillar into a butterfly).
 Organizational Charts show hierarchies and relationships (e.g., the different
employees of a company from CEO to assembly line worker).
 Pictographs are best for data that relate to objects or people (e.g., map showing
African nations with the highest fertility rates per woman from 2000 to 2005—
an average of 6 children per woman in a number of countries, including Chad
and Ethiopia; 7 children per woman in Mali, Angola, Uganda, and Somalia; and
8 children per woman in Niger, the world’s highest fertility rate) (Wright,
2004).
 Lists are best for things that are done in stages or occur in steps (e.g., preparing
for a wedding).

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