1.

Binary Operation

A binary operation on a set is a rule for combining two elements of the set. More precisely, if S is a
non-empty set, a binary operation on S is a mapping f : S ´ S ® S. Thus f associates with each ordered
pair ( x , y ) of elements of S an element f (x , y ) of S. It is better notation to write x y for f (x , y ),
referring to * as the binary operation.

2. Algebraic Structure

A non-empty set A equipped with one or more binary operations is called an algebraic structure.

3. Groupoid

An algebraic structure in which the non-empty set, say G is equipped with only one binary operation
is called a groupoid.

4. Semigroup

A groupoid (G, *) is said to be a semigroup if the binary operation * is associative i.e. a ( b c ) =(a b) c
∀ a , b , cϵ G.

5. Monoid

A semigroup (G, *) with an identity element is called a monoid.

6. Group

A monoid (G, *) is said to be a group if there exists inverse a−1 for each aϵ G.

Thus a non-empty set G is said to be a group with respect to the binary operation * if the following
four criteria are satisfied:

 G is closed under the operation * i.e., if a b ϵ G ∀ a , bϵ G.

 * is associative i.e., a ( b c ) =(a b)c ∀ a , b , cϵ G.
 ∃ an identity element e in G such that a e=a ∀ aϵ G.
 For each aϵ G, ∃ an inverse a−1 in G such that a a−1=e .

Graphically we can depict this as follows:

(G, *) is closed Groupoid

is associative
Semigroup Identity Monoid Inverse Group

7. Abelian or Commutative Group

A group (G, *) is said to be abelian if * is commutative i.e. if a b=b a ∀ a , bϵ G.

8. Properties of Group

Property 1: If a , b , c are any elements of a group (G, *) then

a b=a c ⇒ b=c (left cancellation law)

b a=c a ⇒ b=c (right cancellation law)

Proof: Since (G, *) is a group so for any aϵ G, ∃ an inverse a−1 in G such that a a−1=a−1 a=e .

∴ a b=a c ⇒ a−1 ( a b )=a−1 ( a c ) ⇒ ( a−1 a ) b=( a−1 a ) c ⇒ e b=e c ⇒ b=c

Similarly, b a=c a ⇒ b=c .

Property 2: The identity element and inverse of a element in a group (G, *) are unique.[WBUT 2008]

Proof: Let the identity element is not unique and (G, *) have two identity elements e and e ' .

When e is an identity element, we get e e' =e' e=e '

When e ' is an identity element, we get e ' e=e e ' =e

Hence e=e' which shows that identity element is unique.

Similarly, let the inverse of an element is not unique and (G, *) have two inverses a ' and a ' ' of an
element aϵ G.

When a ' is the inverse of a , we get a a ' =a' a=e

When a ' ' is the inverse of a , we get a '' a=a a' ' =e

∴ a a ' =a a' ' ⇒ a' =a' ' , by left cancellation law.

Hence the inverse of an element is unique.

−1
Property 3: In a group (G, *), ( a−1 ) =a ∀ aϵ G.

Proof: We have a−1 a=a a−1=e , since a−1 is the inverse of a .

−1 −1 −1
Similarly, ( a−1 ) a−1=a−1 ( a−1) =e , since ( a−1 ) is the inverse of a−1.

∴ a−1 a=a−1 ( a−1 ) ⇒ a=( a−1 ) , by left cancellation law.

−1 −1

Property 4: In a group (G, *), ( a b )−1=b−1 a−1 ∀ a , bϵ G. [WBUT 2008]

Proof: We have ( a b ) ( b−1 a−1 )=a ( b b−1) a−1=( a e ) a−1=a a−1 =e

Similarly, ( b−1 a−1 ) ( a b )=b−1 ( a−1 a ) b=( b−1 e ) b=b−1 b=e

Hence b−1 a−1 is the inverse of a b and so the result holds.

Property 5: In a group (G, *), ∀ a , bϵ G the equations a x=b and y a=b have unique solutions
which are given by x=a−1 b and y=b a−1. [WBUT 2005]

Proof: Since a , bϵ G so a−1 ϵ G and so a−1 bϵ G

Now a ( a−1 b )=( a a−1 ) b=e b=b which shows that a−1 b is a solution of a x=b in G.
To prove the uniqueness let x=x 1 and x=x 2 be two solutions of a x=b .

Then a x 1=b and a x 2=b

∴ a x 1=a x 2 ⇒ x1=x 2, by left cancellation law.

Thus the solution is unique.

Similarly, we can prove that y=b a−1 is a unique solution of y a=b in G.

Property 6: Let (G, *) be a semi-group and for all a , bϵ G the equations a x=b and y a=b have
unique solutions in G. Then (G, *) is a group.

Proof: Since (G, *) is a semi-group so G is closed under * and * is associative. So, in order to prove
that (G, *) is a group, we have to show that the identity element exists in G and each element of G has
inverse element in G.

Since a x=b has a solution ∀ a , bϵ G so the equation a x=a has a solution say e . Then a e=e. On
the other hand, let c be the solution of y a=b. Then

c a=b ⇒ b e= ( c a ) e=c ( a e )=c a=b

∴ b e=b ∀ bϵ G.

Therefore, e is the right identity and hence e is the identity element of G.

Again, since a x=b has a solution ∀ a , bϵ G, so let a ' be the solution of the equation a x=e where e
is the identity element of G. Then a a ' =e which shows that a ' is the right inverse of a . Since a is
arbitrary so right inverse of each element exists and hence each element of G has inverse in G.

Property 7: Let (G, *) be a finite semi-group in which both the cancellation laws hold. Then (G, *) is
a group.

Proof: Let the set G contains n elements a 1 , a2 , … , an and a be any arbitrary element of G. Then the
elements a a 1 , a a2 , … , a an belong to G as G is closed and they are distinct because if they are not
distinct then a a i=a a j ,i ≠ j which gives a i=a j by left cancellation law. Thus we have a a i=a k (
i , k=1,2 , … , n) which shows that the equation a x=b has a solution in G ∀ a , bϵ G.

Similarly, considering the elements a 1 a , a2 a , … , an a and using the right cancellation law we can
show that the equation y a=b has a solution in G ∀ a , bϵ G.

Thus (G, *) is a semi-group in which each of the equations a x=b and y a=b has a solution in G.
Hence (G, *) is a group.

Example 1: Show that all roots of the equation x 4 =1 forms an abelian group under the operation
multiplication. [WBUT 2005, 2007]

Solution: The roots of the equation x 4 =1 are ± 1 and ± i. So we have to show that the set G=
{ 1 ,−1 , i,−i } forms a group under multiplication.
Let us form the following composition table:

. i
1 −i −1
1 1 i −i −1
−1 −1 1 −i i
i i −i −1 1
−i −i i 1 −1

(i) From the above table we see that G is closed under multiplication.
(ii) Multiplication is always associative. (Check it)
(iii) Clearly 1 is the identity element of G. (Check it)
(iv) It is clear that 1 ,−1 , i,−i are the inverses of 1 ,−1 ,−i , i respectively. (Check it)
(v) Clearly multiplication is commutative for this case. (Check it)

Hence G is an abelian group under multiplication.

Example 2: Show that the set G of all ordered pairs (a , b) with a ≠ 0 of real numbers a , b forms a
group with operation defined by ( a , b )( c , d )=(ac , bc +d ). [WBUT 2007]

Solution:

(i) Let ( a , b ) , ( c , d ) ϵ G. Then a ≠ 0 and c ≠ 0 and so ac ≠0 .

∴ ( a , b )( c , d )=( ac , bc +d ) ϵG as ac ≠0 and ac , bc+ d are real numbers.
∴ G is closed under .
(ii) Let ( a , b ) , ( c , d ) ,(e , f )ϵ G. Then
( a , b ) { ( c , d )( e , f ) } =( a , b ) ( ce ,de + f )=(ace , bce+ de+ f ) and
{( a ,b )( c , d ) }( e , f )=( ac , bc+ d )( e , f )=(ace , bce+de + f )
Thus is associative.
(iii) Let ( x , y ) be the identity element in G. Then
( x , y ) ( a , b ) =( a , b ) ∀ (a , b) ϵ G ⇒ ( xa , ya+b )=( a , b)
∴ xa=a and ya+ b=b which give x=1 and y=0 as a ≠ 0.
Thus (1,0) is the identity element in G.
(iv) Let (a ' , b' ) be the inverse of ( a , b ) ϵ G. Then
( a ' , b' ) ( a , b )= (1,0 ) ⇒ ( a' a ,b ' a+ b ) =(1,0)
' 1 ' −b
∴ a ' a=1 and b ' a+b=0 which give a = and b = .
a a
1 b
Thus ( )
,− is the inverse of ( a , b ) which proves that there exists an inverse of any element in
a a
G.

Thus G is a group.

Example 3: Prove that a group (G, *) is abelian iff ( a b ) =a b

−1 −1 −1
∀ a , bϵ G.

Solution:
Part-I: Let ( a b )−1=a−1 b−1 ∀ a , bϵ G. Then

−1 −1
( ( a b )−1 ) =( a−1 b−1 )

⇒ a b=( b−1 ) ( a−1 ) =b a ∀ a , bϵ G.

−1 −1

Hence G is abelian.

Part-II: Let G be an abelian group. Then

a b=b a ∀ a , bϵ G.

⇒ ( a b )−1=( b a )−1=a−1 b−1 (Proved)

Example 4: Show that a group (G, *) is abelian iff ( a b )2=a2 b2 ∀ a , bϵ G. [WBUT 2006]

Solution:

Part-I: Let ( a b )2=a2 b2 ∀ a , bϵ G. Then

( a b )( a b )=a a b b

⇒ a (b a)b=a(a b) b

⇒ b a=a b ∀ a , bϵ G [by left and right cancellation law]

Hence G is abelian.

Part-II: Let G be an abelian group i.e. a b=b a ∀ a , bϵ G. Then

( a b )2=( a b ) ( a b )=a ( b a ) b=a ( a b ) b=( a a )( b b )=a 2 b2 ∀ a , bϵ G.

9. Order of an element of a Group

Let (G, *) be a group and aϵ G. Then the order of a is the least positive integer n such that a n=e
where e is the identity element of G and is denoted by O(a).

Theorem: Let O ( a )=n of an element a in a group G. Then a m=e if n is a divisor of m .

Example 5: Let x be an element of a group G and O ( x ) =20. Find the order of x 8.

Solution: We are given that O ( x ) =20 i.e., x 20=e .

m
Let O ( x 8 )=m . Then ( x 8 ) =e ⇒ x 8 m=e.

Then 20 is the divisor of 8 m where m is the least positive integer. Clearly this least value of m is 5.
Hence the order of x 8 is 5.
 Assignment

1. Show that the set G of all non-zero real numbers forms a commutative group under the operation
ab
* defined by a b= ∀ a , bϵ G. [WBUT 2003, 2008]
2
2. Prove that the set G of all odd integers forms a commutative group under the operation * defined
by a b=a+ b−1 ∀ a , bϵ G. [WBUT 2008]
3. Show that the non-zero rational numbers form an abelian group under multiplication. What is the
identity element and what are its inverses? [WBUT 2003]
2
4. Prove that if a =e ∀ a , ϵ G then G is an abelian group.
5. Let G be a group. If a 4=e and a b=b a 2 ∀ a , bϵ G then prove that a=e . [WBUT 2007]