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TDR Tutorial - Introduction to Time Domain Reflectometry

An Introduction to Time Domain Reflectometers

Time Domain Reflectometers have been around for many years and remain the
fastest, most accurate way to pinpoint cabling problems.

Historically, the TDR has been reserved for only large companies and high level
engineers. This was due to the complexity of operation and high cost of the
instruments. The TDR has been greatly under utilized.

Riser-Bond Instruments recognized these shortcomings and developed the first

"little TDR" in the early 1980s. The simplified digital TDR has now become a
standard tool for the first level technician. Riser-Bond Instruments' complete
product line has been permeated by the concept that test equipment should be
simple, accurate, user-friendly, rugged, and high value for the cost.

Due to advances in today's technology, the operation and interpretation of a TDR

have been greatly simplified. Because of its ability to identify cable problems, the
TDR is now rapidly regaining popularity throughout communications industries.

If a cable is metal and it has at least two conductors, it can be tested by a TDR.
TDRs will troubleshoot and measure all types of twisted pair and coaxial cables,
both aerial and underground.

TDRs are used to locate and identify faults in all types of metallic paired cable.
TDRs can locate major or minor cabling problems including; sheath faults,
broken conductors, water damage, loose connectors, crimps, cuts, smashed
cables, shorted conductors, system components, and a variety of other fault
conditions. In addition, TDRs can be used to test reels of cable for shipping
damage, cable shortages, cable usage, and inventory management.

The speed and accuracy of the time domain reflectometer makes it today's
preferred method of cable fault location. Although today's instruments are more
user friendly, a good understanding of the basic principles and applications of a
TDR is essential to successful troubleshooting. Like all new equipment, getting to
know the instrument and its operation makes the TDR a more valuable tool.

Principles of Operation
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The TDR works on the same principle as radar. A pulse of energy is transmitted
down a cable. When that pulse reaches the end of the cable, or a fault along the
cable, part or all of the pulse energy is reflected back to the instrument.

The TDR measures the time it takes for the signal to travel down the cable, see
the problem, and reflect back. The TDR then converts this time to distance and
displays the information as a waveform and/or distance reading.

TYPES OF TDRs

There are two ways a TDR can display the information it receives. The first and
more traditional method is to display the actual waveform or "signature" of the
cable. The display, which is either a CRT or an LCD, will display the outgoing
(transmitted) pulse generated by the TDR and any reflections which are caused
by impedance discontinuities along the length of the cable.

The second type of display is simply a numeric readout which supplies the
distance indication in feet or meters to the first major reflection caused by an
impedance change or discontinuity. Some instruments also display if the fault is
an OPEN or SHORT indicating a HIGH IMPEDANCE change or a LOW
IMPEDANCE change respectively.

Traditional Waveform TDRs supply more information than do the digital numeric
versions. However, the simplified digital models are less expensive and easier to
operate. Costing only a fraction of a traditional TDR, many simplified digital TDRs
are just as accurate and can locate most major cable faults.

IMPEDANCE

Any time two metallic conductors are placed close together, they form a cable
impedance. A TDR looks for a change in impedance which can be caused by a
variety of circumstances, including cable damage, water ingress, change in cable
type, improper installation, and even manufacturing flaws.

The insulating material that keeps the conductors separated is called the cable
dielectric. The impedance of the cable is determined by the spacing of the
conductors from each other and the type of dielectric used.
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If the conductors are manufactured with exact spacing and the dielectric is
exactly constant, then the cable will be constant. If the conductors are randomly
spaced or the dielectric changes along the cable, then the impedance will also
vary along the cable.

A TDR sends electrical pulses down the cable and samples the reflected energy.
Any impedance change will cause some energy to reflect back toward the TDR
and will be displayed. How much the impedance changes determines the
amplitude of the reflection.

PULSE WIDTHS

Many TDRs have selectable pulse width settings. The larger the pulse width, the
more energy is transmitted and therefore the further the signal will travel down
the cable. Pulse widths may include 2 nsec, 10 nsec, 100 nsec, 1000 nsec, 2000
nsec, and 4000 nsec. A TDR may contain only one or all of the pulse width
settings.

NOTE: Even when testing very long lengths of cable, always start the fault
finding procedure in the shortest pulse width available, as the fault may be only a
short distance away. If the fault is not located, switch to the next larger pulse
width and retest. Keep switching to the next larger pulse until the fault is located.

Sometimes larger pulse widths are helpful even for locating faults that are
relatively dose. If the fault is very small, the signal strength of a small pulse may
not be enough to travel down the cable, " see" the fault, and travel back. The
attenuation of the cable combined with the small reflection of the partial fault can
make it difficult to detect. A larger pulse width would transmit more energy down
the cable, making it easier to see the small fault.

BLIND SPOTS
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The pulse generated by the TDR takes a certain amount of time and thus
distance to launch. This distance is known as the blind spot. The length of the
blind spot varies with the pulse width. The larger the pulse width, the larger the
blind spot.

It is more difficult to locate a fault contained within the blind spot. If a fault is
suspected within the first few feet of cable, it is advisable to add a length of cable
between the TDR and the cable being tested. Any faults that may have been
hidden in the blind spot can now easily be located. When adding a length of
cable to eliminate the blind spot, remember the TDR is also reading the length of
this jumper cable. The length of the jumper must be subtracted from the cable
when measuring from the point of connection.

It is best if the jumper cable is the same impedance as the cable under test. The
quality of the connection is an important factor regardless of the type of
connection or jumper being used.

VELOCITY OF PROPAGATION (VOP)

The TDR is an extremely accurate instrument. However, variables in the cable

itself sometimes cause errors in distance measurements. One way to minimize
error is to use the correct Velocity of Propagation (VOP) of the cable under test.
The VOP is a specification of the cable indicating the speed at which a signal
travels down the cable. Different cables have different VOPs. In order to assure
the most accurate distance measurements, the cable VOP must be determined.

VOP Defined: The speed of light in a vacuum is 186,400 miles per second. This
speed is represented by the number 1 (100%). All other signals are slower. A
cable with a VOP of .85 would transmit a signal at 85% of the speed of light. A
twisted pair cable, which typically has a lower VOP (such as .65), can transmit a
signal at 65% of the speed of light.

The VOP number of a cable is determined by the dielectric material that

separates the two conductors . In a coaxial cable, the foam separating the center
conductor and the outer sheath is the material determining the VOP. In twisted
pair, the VOP number is determined by the spacing between the plastic.

Knowing the VOP of a cable is the most important factor when using a TDR for
fault finding. By entering the correct VOP, the instrument is calibrated to the
particular cable. Typically, the VOP of the cable under test will be listed in the
cable manufacturer's catalog or specification sheet. If not, simply measure a
length of good cable (no faults) and change the TDR's VOP setting until the
display shows the same distance reading as the measured length. The VOP of a
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cable can change with temperature and age. It can also vary from one
manufacturing run to another. Even new cable can vary as much as +/- 3%.

One might think the variations in VOP would make it almost impossible to locate
a fault accurately. Fortunately, there are ways to minimize the error in the VOP
when testing a faulted cable, resulting in very accurate distance measurements.
These techniques do not work when testing or measuring good (no fault) cable.

The most common technique used to reduce VOP error is to test the faulty cable
from both ends. The procedure is as follows:

Determine the path of the cable. With a Measuring wheel or tape, measure the
exact length of the cable being tested. Set the VOP according to the
manufacturers specifications, test the cable from one end, and record the
distance reading. Next, using the same VOP setting, test from the opposite end
of the cable and record. If the sum of the readings is the exact length of the cable
that was measured, the VOP is correct and the fault has been located.

If the sum of the two readings is more than the measured distance, reduce the
VOP setting and re-test. If the sum of the two readings is less than the measured
distance, increase the VOP setting. In this case, the operator must also consider
the possibility of two faults.

The same result can be obtained mathematically. Take the actual cable length
and divide by the sum of the two TDR readings obtained by the tests from each
end . This gives the adjustment factor. Then multiply each of the TDR readings
by the adjustment factor. This result will be the corrected length readings.

A partial listing of cable types and their Velocity of Propagation.

CABLE TYPE TYPE VOP

TELEPHONE
19 AWG Gel-Filled 68
22 AWG Gel-Filled 66
24 AWG Gel-Filled 62
26 AWG Gel-Filled 60

19 AWG AIR 72
22 AWG AIR 67
24 AWG AIR 66
26 AWG AIR 64
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Polyethylene 66
Polypropylene 66
Teflon 69
PIC 67
Pulp 72

CATV
Belden Foam 78S-82
Solid 66

Comm/Scope (F) 82
PARA I 82
PARA III 87
QR 88

Times Fiber RG-59 93

T4,6,10,TR+ 87
TX, TX10 89
Dynafoam 90
Trilogy (F) 83
7 SERIES 88

CapScan FOAM S2
CC SS 88

CZ Labs FOAM 82

General Cable RG-59 82

MC2 93

Scientific Atlanta RG-59 81

Trunk 87

LAN
UTP 26 64
Thinnet 66-70
Ethernet 77
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Token Ring 78
Arcnet 84
Twinaxial AIR 80
Twinaxial 71
Appletalk 68

IBM
Type 1 64
Type 2 66
Type 3 70
Type 4 72
Type 5 76
Type 6 78
Type 7 82
Type 8 84
Type 9 82

LAND/MOBILE
ANDREW
RADIAX All 79

HELIAX
FHJI-50 1/4" 79
FSJI-50 1/4" 78
FSJ4-50B 1/2" 81
LDF2-50 3/8" 88
LDF4-50A 1/2" 80
LDF4-75 1/2" 88
LDF5-50A 7/8" 89
LDF7-50 1 5/8" 88
FT4-50 1/2" 85
FT5-50 7/8" 89
HJ4-50 1/2" 91
HJ5-50 7/8" 92
HJ5-75 7/8" 90
HJ7-50A 1 5/8" 92
HJS-50B 3" 93
HJ11-50 4" 92
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HJ9-50 5" 93

CABLEWAVE
FLC12-50J 1/2" 88
FLC78-50J 7/8" 88

CABLEFLEX FOAMFCC + FLC

FCC 38-50J 3/8" 81
FLC 12-50J 1/2" 88
FLC 78-50J 7/8" 88
FLC 158-50J 1 5/8" 88

CABLEWAVE ALL 88

COAX TRANSMISSION LINE

920213 7/8" 99
920214 1 5/8" 99

FLEXWELL HCC
HCC12-50J 1/2" 91
HCC7S-50J 7/8" 91
HCC15S-50J 1 5/8" 95
HCC300-50J 3" 96
HCC312-50J 3 1/2" 96
HF41/2CU24 4 1/2" 97

TDR Tutorial and Riser Bond TDR Product Review

LOCATING MULTIPLE FAULTS

Sometimes a cable contains more than one fault. Multiple faults in a cable can be
caused by rodent damage, improper or faulty installation, construction, ground
shift, or even structural flaws from the manufacturing process.

If a fault is a complete open or a dead short, the TDR will read only to that point
and not beyond. If the fault is not an open or short, the TDR may indicate the
fault and that of other faults further down the cable.

In the case of a waveform TDR, the waveform signature of the cable will show all
of the discontinuities, both large and small, along the length of the cable.
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In the case of a digital numeric TDR, only the distance to the first major fault will
be indicated, and not the smaller faults beyond. You may need to test from the
opposite end for signs of other possible faults.

TERMINATION

When testing cables it is best if the cable is not terminated. A termination can
absorb the pulse and no signal will return to the instrument. The TDR's
transmitted pulse must be reflected back to the instrument by a fault or the end of
the cable. It if is not, the distance calculation cannot be made. In order to
minimize confusion and eliminate guesswork, it is best if all other equipment or
hardware is disconnected from the cable under test.

Sometimes it is not always practical to disconnect the far end of the cable.
However, it is still possible to test. If the cable is damaged, the signal will reflect
at the damaged point prior to being absorbed.

CABLE LOSS

As signal energy travels down a cable, some of the signal energy is lost due to
the resistance of the cable. This is known as cable loss. Cable loss is measured
in decibels (dB). If the transmitted signal energy reaches an impedance
discontinuity, some or all of the energy is reflected back up the cable. The ratio of
energy transmitted to reflected is known as return loss. Return loss is also
measured in decibels (dBRL).

Return loss is a way of measuring impedance changes in a cable. Understanding

dBRL is sometimes confusing. This is due to the fact that a large dBRL number
means the reflection or fault is small and vise versa.

A large return loss means that most of the transmitted pulse was lost instead of
being returned as a reflection. The signal simply continued down the cable or
was absorbed by a termination or load on the cable. A small return loss means
that most of the transmitted pulse was reflected or returned due to an impedance
change caused by a fault or the end of the cable. A complete open or a dead
short would reflect all of the signal energy. Therefore, the return loss would be
zero.

Mathematically, the formula for finding return loss is:

dBRL = 20 LOG10 V0/VR

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Where dBRL is the decibels of return loss, V0 is the voltage of the output signal
and VR is the voltage of the reflected signal.

Although return loss can be mathematically calculated on most TDRs, Riser-

Bond Instruments' waveform TDRs provide automatic dBRL calculations.

TEST FROM BOTH ENDS

It is always best to test a cable from both ends. It can help reduce error in VOP
and uncover hidden faults.

A reduction in the TDR pulse strength, caused by attenuation, can make a small
fault difficult to see if the fault is a long distance away. By going to the end of the
cable and testing in the opposite direction, you place yourself and the TDR much
closer to the fault, making it easier for the TDR to locate.

As mentioned previously, a digital TDR cannot "see" a small fault beyond a larger
fault. Again, by testing from the opposite end, a second fault may be located
which might otherwise remain hidden.

Testing a cable from both ends also assures that no faults are being hidden by a
blind spot or dead zone caused by the pulse width.

It is also a good idea to re-test a cable after making a repair. You may be able to
locate another problem beyond the first. resting from the opposite direction
assures that the entire cable is good.

QUALITY CONNECTION....A MUST!

The importance of a good quality connection cannot be overstated. Riser-Bond

Instruments' TDRs are supplied with alligator clip connectors for convenience,
but it is best if the cable is adapted to connect directly to the instrument front
panel . If testing 50 ohm cable, try to maintain a good 50 ohm environment; if
testing 75 ohm cable, try to maintain a 75 ohm environment, etc.

A poor connection can result in a distorted waveform which can mask a fault.

USE COMMON SENSE

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Although a thorough understanding of the TDR and its operation is vital to
successful troubleshooting, there is never a substitute for good common sense.

If your TDR indicates a distance of 500 feet to a fault, but you notice that a new
fence post happens to be at 490 feet, there is a pretty good chance that the fault
was caused by the fence post.

If your TDR indicates a minor fault far away, make some adjustments. Adjusting
the vertical gain control to enhance the fault, testing using a larger pulse width,
testing from the other end of the cable, or moving to a breakout point closer to
the cable will all help.

When using a digital numeric TDR, it is even more important to use common
sense. Although it is not necessary to interpret all of the waveform information, it
is more difficult to know what the digital TDR is "seeing". Many digital TDRs can
be interfaced with an oscilloscope which makes the instrument more versatile.

Familiarity develops versatility. The more you use a TDR, the more confident and
comfortable you will become, and the more applications you will find for it.

Whether using a digital or waveform type, you soon discover that the TDR is one
of the best tools available for locating cable faults fast and accurately.

Waveform Analysis

A great variety of waveforms may be encountered. This is due to the various

applications, and electrical and environmental characteristic differences found in
the wide variety of cables that exist today. Following are examples of some
waveforms which may be encountered when viewing a traditional waveform
TDR.

A reflection with the same polarity indicates a fault with OPEN (high impedance)
tendencies. The reflection shown at the second cursor is a COMPLETE OPEN.
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A reflection with the opposite polarity indicates a fault with short (low impedance)
tendencies. The reflection shown at the second cursor is a DEAD SHORT.

The middle reflection at the second cursor is a PARTIAL OPEN followed by a

COMPLETE OPEN (end of the cable). The more severe the fault, the larger the
reflection will be.

The middle reflection at the second cursor is a PARTIAL SHORT followed by a

COMPLETE OPEN (end of the cable). The more severe the fault, the larger the
reflection will be.
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Due to attenuation (cable loss), the reflections caused by each of these equally
spaced yet identical taps are progressively smaller. A larger reflection (second
cursor) beyond a smaller reflection may indicate an undetermined or faulty tap.

Two sections of coaxial cable with a barrel connector shown at the second
cursor. The amount of reflection caused by the connector is directly proportional
to the quality of the connector and connection.
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An unpowered line extender amplifier will cause a major reflection a the amplifier.
The TDR signal will stop at the amplifier, but other reflections (ghost images)
may appear beyond the amplifier.

Coaxial taps (both indoor and outdoor) will cause reflections along the waveform.
The quality and value of each tap determines the amount of reflection.

A splitter or directional coupler can be identified although accurate

measurements are difficult due to multiple reflections. The second cursor
identifies the splitter. The two reflections following are the ends of each of the two
segments.
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A high resistance joint or splice will produce an "S" shaped reflection. A high
impedance upward reflection will be followed by a lower impedance downward
reflection.

A properly terminated cable will absorb the TDR signal resulting in no reflection.
Faults prior to the termination may show up as reflections along the waveform. If
a terminator causes a reflection, the termination may be bad.

Testing through to an antenna usually results in an "S" shaped reflection,

although reflections can vary greatly depending on the antenna.
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Testing tower cables with antennas can be challenging due to energy induction
from high RF areas shown on this waveform. Stepping through various noise
filter settings will result in a "cleaner" waveform.

A water soaked cable will display a waveform with a downward slope indicating
the beginning of the water and an upward rise at the end of the water . Generally,
the area in between the two reflections will appear "noisy".

A wet section of cable is clearly seen on this waveform.

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A bridge tap will appear as a negative or downward reflection followed by a

positive reflection (caused by the end of the tap). Due to the multiple reflections,
it is difficult to analyze results when testing through multiple taps.

Crossed or split pairs: On twisted pair cable, a split may appear as an upward or
downward reflection. The resplit will appear as a reflection of the opposite
polarity.

A telephone load coil will cause a high impedance upward reflection (similar to a
complete open). A TDR signal generally will not test past a load coil.
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A telephone build out capacitor causes a low impedance downward reflection

(similar to a short) followed by a smaller positive reflection.

Mechanical inner-connectors (known as bullets) connecting sections of broadcast

transmission lines sometimes burn open causing power outages. These bullets
as well as other transmission line faults can be detected by a TDR.

All types of twisted pair and coaxial LAN systems can be tested with a TDR. It is
best to test for discontinuities in the cable if there is no traffic or power present.
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This waveform shows a section of unpowered cable with four transceivers
installed.

Pulse Waveform 1 - Short Pulse Width

Pulse waveforms 1, 2, and 3 illustrate how only one setting can change the way
a waveform appears. All three waveforms are of the same cable. Only the pulse
width setting of the instrument has been changed.

Pulse Waveform 2 - Medium Pulse Width

The width of the output pulse is also referred to as the blind spot or dead zone. It
is more difficult to "see" a fault when it is contained within the blind spot.
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Pulse Waveform 3 - Long Pulse Width

The larger the pulse width, the longer the blind spot. Note how the output pulse,
and thus the blind spot, is progressively larger in samples 1, 2, and 3.

Applications

POWER

A TDR can be used on any metallic two conductor cable, including power cable.
Power cable presents some unusual challenges for a TDR.

Working with high power cable can be dangerous and even fatal. Exercise
extreme caution when working with high power cable. Make sure all power is
removed from the cable before proceeding.

There are two major problems when finding fault in powered cable: correct VOP
and a quality connection. Power cable is seldom, if ever, required to carry high
frequency signals, therefore VOP is not specified. The VOP between two power
conductors and the VOP between conductor and concentric neutral will be
different . Therefore, determine VOP by the same techniques used to find the
fault.

Test the cable from both ends. Change the VOP setting until the two measured
distances equal the total length of the cable. You now have the correct VOP and
the location of the fault. The second way is to measure the full length of two of
the good conductors and adjust the VOP setting until the right length is shown on
the TDR. Then measure the bad conductors with this same VOP setting and find
the distance to the fault.

Power cable is physically very large and obtaining a good connection can be
difficult. Making a good connection requires the technician to pay close attention
to detail. It is best to keep the conductors as close together as possible to ensure
a quality test.
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Power cable can actually be tested in two different ways; one power conductor
against another power conductor (twisted pair concept) or power conductor as
one conductor and concentric neutral as the other conductor. The latter
technique allows the testing of the quality and integrity of the concentric neutral.

A lot of time and energy is spent testing power cable with high voltage
breakdown testers. This is time consuming, expensive for the equipment, and
can actually damage the cable. Many times, simply testing with a TDR in the first
place will find many power cable faults. The TDR is a simple, fast, and
inexpensive way for finding many faults.

Test Equipments – Examples

Cable Fault Test Equipment - TDR-1150 Digital Time Domain

Reflectometer

Cable Fault Test Equipment - TDR-1150 Digital Time Domain Reflectometer

Macey's Electrical - Features

 Step-by-step on screen instructions.

 Automatic placement of start, end, and fault cursors.
 Automatically tells the operator the cable length and distance to the fault.
 Clear and easy-to-read wave shapes on large color screen.
 “Basic and Advanced” modes.
 Saves up to 16 three phase cable traces and 16 user-defined test profiles.
 Password protection of TDR adjustments.
 Multiple languages.
 RS232 port for downloading traces or upgrading software.

Benefits
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 Operational on a wide variety of “thumpers”.
 Prolongs cable life.
 Ideal for sectionalizing.
 Restores service to customers faster.

Description of Operation

The TDR 1150 can be used on a wide variety of capacitive discharge devices, commonly called “thumpers.”
A high voltage coupler (also available from Hipotronics) is required as an interface between the TDR and the
thumper.

Basic Mode of Operation

Basic mode provides the simplest mode of operation for pre-locating most cable faults. It provides step-by-
step instructions and prompts the operator through the operation of the TDR and thumper.

The auto range feature fits the cable trace on the screen, regardless of the cable length. The TDR
automatically sets the “Start” and “End” cursors, and provides a numeric value for the cable length.

The operator is then prompted to send a single high voltage pulse down the cable. The TDR displays the
high voltage trace and places a fault cursor at the point of the fault, and displays the distance to the fault.
There is no need to interpret traces or move cursors. The entire process can be completed within minutes.
Training time is significantly reduced.

Advanced Mode of Operation

In Advanced Mode, the operator has complete control of the TDR functions and settings. It is password
protected to prevent unauthorized use. This mode provides more experienced operators with the diagnostic
tools they need to find more difficult faults.

TDR functions that can be adjusted include: propagation velocity, pulse width, gain, 3 phase or single phase
display, and trigger delay. They also have the ability to move cursors and adjust screen size (zoom).
Memory functions, measuring units, language choices, the option to reset defaults, and much more are
accessible in this mode.

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1150_Digital_Time_Domain_Reflectometer-35544